Presidency of George W. Bush

Not to be confused with that of his father, thePresidency of George H. W. Bush.

For a chronological guide, seeTimeline of the George W. Bush presidency.

George W. Bush's tenure as the43rdpresident of the United Statesbegan withhis first inaugurationon January 20, 2001, and ended on January 20, 2009. Bush, aRepublicanfromTexas,took office following his narrowElectoral Collegevictory overDemocraticincumbent vice presidentAl Gorein the2000 presidential election,in which he lost the popular vote to Gore by 543,895 votes. Four years later, in the2004 presidential election,he narrowly defeated Democrat nomineeJohn Kerry,to win re-election. Bush served two terms and was succeeded by DemocratBarack Obama,who won the2008 presidential election.Bush is the eldest son of the 41st president,George H. W. Bush.

Presidency of George W. Bush January 20, 2001 – January 20, 2009
Cabinet	See list
Party	Republican
Election	2000 2004
Seat	White House
Seal of the president
Archived website Library website

A decisive event reshaping Bush's administration was theterrorist attacks on September 11, 2001.In its aftermath,Congresscreated theUnited States Department of Homeland Securityand Bush declared aglobal war on terrorism.He ordered aninvasion of Afghanistanin an effort to overthrow theTaliban,destroyal-Qaeda,and captureOsama bin Laden.He also signed the controversialPatriot Actin order to authorize surveillance of suspected terrorists. In 2003, Bush ordered aninvasion of Iraq,alleging that theSaddam Husseinregime possessedweapons of mass destruction.Intense criticism came when neither WMD stockpiles nor evidence of anoperational relationship with al-Qaedawere found. Before 9/11, Bush had pushed through a $1.3 trilliontax cut programand theNo Child Left Behind Act,a major education bill. He also pushed forsocially conservativeefforts, such as thePartial-Birth Abortion Ban Actandfaith-based welfare initiatives.Also in 2003, he signed theMedicare Prescription Drug, Improvement, and Modernization Act,which createdMedicare Part D.

During his second term, Bush reached multiplefree trade agreementsand successfully nominatedJohn RobertsandSamuel Alitoto theSupreme Court.He sought major changes toSocial Securityand immigration laws, but both efforts failed. The wars in Afghanistan and Iraq continued, and in 2007 he launched asurge of troops in Iraq.The Bush administration's response toHurricane Katrinaand thedismissal of U.S. attorneys controversycame under attack, with a drop in his approval ratings. Aglobal meltdown in financial marketsdominated his last days in office as policymakers looked to avert a major economic disaster, and he established theTroubled Asset Relief Program(TARP) to buy toxic assets from financial institutions.

At various points in his presidency, Bush was among both the most popular and unpopular presidents in U.S. history. He received the highest recorded approval ratings in the wake of the September 11 attacks, but also one of the lowest such ratings during the Iraq War and2007–2008 financial crisis.Although public sentiment of Bush has improved since he left office, his presidency has generally beenrated as below-averageby scholars.

2000 election

Main articles:George W. Bush 2000 presidential campaignand2000 United States presidential election

Further information:2000 United States elections,2000 Republican Party presidential primaries,and2000 Republican National Convention

2000 Electoral College vote results

Outgoing PresidentBill Clintonand President-elect George W. Bush in theOval Officeon December 19, 2000

The oldest son ofGeorge H. W. Bush,the 41st president of the United States,George W. Bushemerged as a presidential contender in his own right with his victory in the1994 Texas gubernatorial election.After winning re-election by a decisive margin in the1998 Texas gubernatorial election,Bush became the widely acknowledged front-runner in the race for theRepublicannomination in the2000 presidential election.In the years preceding the 2000 election, Bush established a stable of advisers, includingsupply-side economicsadvocateLawrence B. Lindseyand foreign policy expertCondoleezza Rice.With a financial team led byKarl RoveandKen Mehlman,Bush built up a commanding financial advantage over other prospective Republican candidates.Though several prominent Republicans declined to challenge Bush, Arizona senatorJohn McCainlaunched a spirited challenge that was supported by many moderates andforeign policy hawks.McCain's loss in the South Carolina primary effectively ended the2000 Republican primaries,and Bush was officially nominated for president at the2000 Republican National Convention.Bushselectedformer secretary of defenseDick Cheneyas his running mate; though Cheney offered little electoral appeal and had health problems, Bush believed that Cheney's extensive experience would make him a valuable governing partner.

With PresidentBill Clintonterm-limited, theDemocratsnominated Vice PresidentAl Gorefor president. Bush's campaign emphasized their own candidate's character in contrast with that of Clinton, who had been embroiled in theLewinsky scandal.Bush held a substantial lead in several polls taken after the final debate in October, but the unearthing of Bush's 1976 DUI arrest appeared to sap his campaign's momentum. By the end of election night, Florida emerged as the key state in the election, as whichever candidate won the state would win the presidency. Bush held an extremely narrow lead in the vote by the end of election night, triggering an automaticrecount.The Florida Supreme Court ordered a partial manual recount, but theSupreme Court of the United Stateseffectively ordered an end to this process, on equal protection grounds, in the case ofBush v. Gore,leaving Bush with a victory in both the state and the election. Though Gore narrowly won a plurality of the nationwide popular vote, Bush won the presidential election with 271electoral votescompared to Gore's 266. In the concurrentcongressional elections,Republicans retained a narrow majority in the House, but lost five seats in the Senate, leaving the partisan balance in the Senate at fifty Republicans and fifty Democrats.

Administration

See also:Presidential transition of George W. Bush

President George W. Bush and his cabinet in 2008

The Bush cabinet
Office	Name	Term
President	George W. Bush	2001–2009
Vice President	Dick Cheney	2001–2009
Secretary of State	Colin Powell	2001–2005
Condoleezza Rice	2005–2009
Secretary of the Treasury	Paul H. O'Neill	2001–2002
	John W. Snow	2003–2006
Henry Paulson	2006–2009
Secretary of Defense	Donald Rumsfeld	2001–2006
Robert Gates	2006–2009
Attorney General	John Ashcroft	2001–2005
	Alberto Gonzales	2005–2007
Michael Mukasey	2007–2009
Secretary of the Interior	Gale Norton	2001–2006
Dirk Kempthorne	2006–2009
Secretary of Agriculture	Ann Veneman	2001–2005
	Mike Johanns	2005–2007
Ed Schafer	2008–2009
Secretary of Commerce	Donald Evans	2001–2005
Carlos Gutierrez	2005–2009
Secretary of Labor	Elaine Chao	2001–2009
Secretary of Health and Human Services	Tommy Thompson	2001–2005
Mike Leavitt	2005–2009
Secretary of Housing and Urban Development	Mel Martínez	2001–2004
	Alphonso Jackson	2004–2008
Steve Preston	2008–2009
Secretary of Transportation	Norman Mineta	2001–2006
Mary Peters	2006–2009
Secretary of Energy	Spencer Abraham	2001–2005
Samuel Bodman	2005–2009
Secretary of Education	Rod Paige	2001–2005
Margaret Spellings	2005–2009
Secretary of Veterans Affairs	Anthony Principi	2001–2005
	Jim Nicholson	2005–2007
James Peake	2007–2009
Secretary of Homeland Security	Tom Ridge	2003–2005
Michael Chertoff	2005–2009
Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency	Christine Todd Whitman	2001–2003
	Mike Leavitt	2003–2005
Stephen Johnson	2005–2009
Director of the Office of Management and Budget	Mitch Daniels	2001–2003
	Joshua Bolten	2003–2006
Rob Portman	2006–2007
Jim Nussle	2007–2009
United States Trade Representative	Robert Zoellick	2001–2005
	Rob Portman	2005–2006
Susan Schwab	2006–2009
Director of the Office of National Drug Control Policy	John Walters	2001–2009
Chief of Staff	Andrew Card	2001–2006
Joshua Bolten	2006–2009

Rejecting the idea of a powerfulWhite House chief of staff,Bush had high-level officials report directly to him rather than Chief of StaffAndrew Card.Vice President Cheney emerged as the most powerful individual in the White House aside from Bush himself. Bush brought to the White House several individuals who had worked under him in Texas, including Senior CounselorKaren Hughes,Senior Adviser Karl Rove, legal counselAlberto Gonzales,andStaff SecretaryHarriet Miers.Other important White House staff appointees includedMargaret Spellingsas a domestic policy adviser,Michael Gersonas chief speechwriter, andJoshua BoltenandJoe Haginas White House deputy chiefs of staff.Paul H. O'Neill,who had served as deputy director of theOMBunderGerald Ford,was appointed secretary of the treasury, while former Missouri senatorJohn Ashcroftwas appointed attorney general.

As Bush had little foreign policy experience, his appointments would serve an important role in shapingU.S. foreign policyduring his tenure. Several of his initial top foreign policy appointees had served in hisfather's administration;Vice President Cheney had been secretary of defense, National Security Adviser Condoleezza Rice had served on the National Security Council, and deputy secretariesPaul WolfowitzandRichard Armitagehad also served in important roles. Secretary of StateColin Powellhad served as chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff under the first president Bush.Bush had long admired Powell, and the former general was Bush's first choice for the position. Secretary of DefenseDonald Rumsfeld,who had served in the same position during theFord administration,rounded out the key figures in the national security team.Rumsfeld and Cheney, who had served together in the Ford administration, emerged as the leading foreign policy figures during Bush's first term.

O'Neill, who opposed the Iraq War and feared that the Bush tax cuts would lead to deficits, was replaced byJohn W. Snowin February 2003.Frustrated by the decisions of the Bush administration, particularly the launching of the Iraq War, Powell resigned following the 2004 elections.He was replaced by Rice, while then-deputy national security adviserStephen Hadleytook Rice's former position.Most of Bush's top staffers stayed on after the 2004 election, although Spellings joined the Cabinet as secretary of education and Gonzales replaced Ashcroft as attorney general.In early 2006, Card left the White House in the wake of theDubai Ports World controversyand several botched White House initiatives, and he was replaced by Joshua Bolten.Bolten stripped Rove of some of his responsibilities and convincedHenry Paulson,the head ofGoldman Sachs,to replace Snow as secretary of the treasury.

After the 2006 elections, Rumsfeld was replaced by former CIA directorRobert Gates.The personnel shake-ups left Rice as one of the most prominent individuals in the administration, and she played a strong role in directing Bush's second term foreign policy.Gonzales and Rove both left in 2007 after controversy regarding the dismissal of U.S. attorneys, and Gonzales was replaced byMichael Mukasey,a former federal judge.

Senior non-cabinet officials and advisers

• Senior Advisor to the President–Karl Rove(2001–2007),Barry Steven Jackson(2007–2009)
• Counselor to the President–Karen Hughes(2001–2002),Dan Bartlett(2002–2007),Ed Gillespie(2007–2009)
• National Security Advisor–Condoleezza Rice(2001–2005),Stephen Hadley(2005–2009)
• White House Deputy Chief of Staff–Joe Hagin(2001–2008),Joshua Bolten(2001–2003),Harriet Miers(2003–2004),Karl Rove(2005–2007),Joel Kaplan(2006–2009),Blake Gottesman(2008–2009)
• White House Communications Director–Karen Hughes(2001),Dan Bartlett(2001–2005),Nicolle Wallace(2005–2006),Kevin Sullivan(2006–2009)
• White House Counsel–Alberto Gonzales(2001–2005),Harriet Miers(2005–2007),Fred Fielding(2007–2009)
• White House Press Secretary–Ari Fleischer(2001–2003),Scott McClellan(2003–2006),Tony Snow(2006–2007),Dana Perino(2007–2009)
• Chair of theCouncil of Economic Advisers–Glenn Hubbard(2001–2003),Greg Mankiw(2003–2005),Harvey S. Rosen(2005),Ben Bernanke(2005–2006),Edward Lazear(2006–2009)
• Ambassador to the United Nations–John Negroponte(2001–2004),John Danforth(2004–2005),John Bolton(2005–2006),Zalmay Khalilzad(2007–2009)
• Director of National Intelligence–John Negroponte(2005–2007),Mike McConnell(2007–2009)
• CIA Director–George Tenet(2001–2004),John E. McLaughlin(acting, 2004),Porter Goss(2004–2006),Michael Hayden(2006–2009)
• FBI Director–Louis Freeh(2001),Thomas J. Pickard(acting, 2001),Robert Mueller(2001–2009)
• FCC Chairman–Michael Powell(2001–2005),Kevin Martin(2005–2009)

Judicial appointments

Supreme Court

Main article:George W. Bush Supreme Court candidates

Bush appointedJohn RobertsasChief Justice of the United States

After the 2004 election, many expected that the aging Chief JusticeWilliam Rehnquistwould step down from theUnited States Supreme Court.Cheney and White House Counsel Harriet Miers selected two widely respected conservatives,D.C. Circuit Court of AppealsjudgeJohn Robertsand Fourth Circuit judgeMichael Luttig,as the two finalists. In June 2005, JusticeSandra Day O'Connorunexpectedly announced that she would retire from the court, and Bushnominated Robertsfor her position the following month. After Rehnquist died in September, Bush briefly considered elevating Associate JusticeAntonin Scaliato the position of chief justice, but instead chose to nominate Roberts for the position. Roberts won confirmation from the Senate in a 78–22 vote, with all Republicans and a narrow majority of Democrats voting to confirm Roberts.

To replace O'Connor, the Bush administration wanted to find a female nominee, but was unsatisfied with the conventional options available.Bush settled on Miers, who had never served as a judge, but who had worked as a corporate lawyer and White House staffer.Her nominationimmediately faced opposition from conservatives (and liberals) who were wary of her unproven ideology and lack of judicial experience. After Senate Majority LeaderBill Fristinformed Bush that Miers did not have the votes necessary to win confirmation, Miers withdrew from consideration. Bush thennominatedSamuel Alito,who received strong support from conservatives but faced opposition from Democrats. Alito won confirmation in a 58–42 vote in January 2006.In the years immediately after Roberts and Alito took office, theRoberts Courtwas generally more conservative than the precedingRehnquist Court,largely because Alito tended to be more conservative than O'Connor had been.

Other courts

Further information:List of federal judges appointed by George W. BushandGeorge W. Bush judicial appointment controversies

Bush alsoappointed62 judges to theUnited States Courts of Appeals,261 judges to theUnited States district courts,and 2 judges to theUnited States Court of International Trade.Among them were two future Supreme Court associate justices:Neil Gorsuchto a seat on theCourt of Appeals for the Tenth Circuitin 2006, andBrett Kavanaughto theCourt of Appeals District of Columbia Circuitin 2006.

Domestic affairs

Main article:Domestic policy of the George W. Bush administration

Bush tax cuts

See also:Economic policy of the George W. Bush administration

Federal finances and GDP during the George W. Bush presidency

Fiscal Year	Receipts	Outlays	Surplus/ Deficit	GDP	Debt as a % of GDP
2001	1,991.1	1,862.8	128.2	10,526.5	31.5
2002	1,853.1	2,010.9	−157.8	10,833.7	32.7
2003	1,782.3	2,159.9	−377.6	11,283.8	34.7
2004	1,880.1	2,292.8	−412.7	12,025.5	35.7
2005	2,153.6	2,472.0	−318.3	12,834.2	35.8
2006	2,406.9	2,655.1	−248.2	13,638.4	35.4
2007	2,568.0	2,728.7	−160.7	14,290.8	35.2
2008	2,524.0	2,982.5	−458.6	14,743.3	39.4
Ref.

Bush's promise to cut taxes was the centerpiece of his 2000 presidential campaign, and upon taking office, he made tax cuts his first major legislative priority. A budget surplus had developed during theBill Clinton administration,and with the Federal Reserve chairmanAlan Greenspan's support, Bush argued that the best use of the surplus was to lower taxes.By the time Bush took office, reduced economic growth had led to less robust federal budgetary projections, but Bush maintained that tax cuts were necessary to boost economic growth.After Treasury secretary Paul O'Neill expressed concerns over the tax cut's size and the possibility of future deficits, Vice President Cheney took charge of writing the bill, which the administration proposed to Congress in March 2001.

Bush initially sought a $1.6 trillion tax cut over a ten-year period, but ultimately settled for a $1.35 trillion tax cut.The administration rejected the idea of "triggers" that would phase out the tax reductions should the government again run deficits. TheEconomic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2001won the support of congressional Republicans and a minority of congressional Democrats, and Bush signed it into law in June 2001. The act lowered the top income tax rate from 39 percent to 35 percent, and it also reduced theestate tax.The narrow Republican majority in the Senate necessitated the use of thereconciliation,which in turn necessitated that the tax cuts would phase out in 2011 barring further legislative action.

After the tax bill was passed, SenatorJim Jeffordsleft the Republican Party and began caucusing with the Democrats, giving them control of the Senate. After Republicans re-took control of the Senate during the 2002 mid-term elections, Bush proposed further tax cuts. With little support among Democrats, Congress passed theJobs and Growth Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2003,which cut taxes by another $350 billion over 10 years. That law also lowered thecapital gains taxandtaxes on dividends.Collectively, theBush tax cutsreduced federal individual tax rates to their lowest level sinceWorld War II,and government revenue as a share ofgross domestic productdeclined from 20.9% in 2000 to 16.3% in 2004.Most of the Bush tax cuts were later made permanent by theAmerican Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012,though that act rolled back the tax cuts on top earners.

Contrary to the rhetoric of the Bush administration and Republicans, the budget deficit increased, leaving many to believe the tax cuts were at fault. Statements by President Bush, Vice PresidentDick Cheney,and Senate Majority LeaderBill Fristthat these tax cuts effectively "paid for themselves" were disputed by the CBPP,the U.S. Treasury Department and the CBO.

Education

PresidentGeorge W. Bushsigns theNo Child Left Behind Act.

Aside from tax cuts, Bush's other major policy initiative upon taking office was education reform. Bush had a strong personal interest in reforming education, especially regarding the education of low-income and minority groups. He often derided the "soft bigotry of low expectations" for allowing low-income and minority groups to fall behind.Although many conservatives were reluctant to increase federal involvement in education, Bush's success in campaigning on education reform in the 2000 election convinced many Republicans, including CongressmanJohn Boehnerof Ohio, to accept an education reform bill that increased federal funding.Seeking to craft a bipartisan bill, Bush courted Democratic senatorTed Kennedy,a leadingliberalsenator who served as the ranking member on theSenate Committee on Health, Education, and Pensions.

Bush favored extensive testing to ensure that schools met uniform standards for skills such as reading and math. Bush hoped that testing would make schools more accountable for their performances and provide parents with more information in choosing which schools to send their children. Kennedy shared Bush's concern for the education of impoverished children, but he strongly opposed the president's proposedschool vouchers,which would allow parents to use federal funding to pay for private schools. Both men cooperated to pass theNo Child Left Behind Act,which dropped the concept of school vouchers but included Bush's idea of nationwide testing. Both houses of Congress registered overwhelming approval for the bill's final version, which Bush signed into law in January 2002.However, Kennedy would later criticize the implementation of the act, arguing that Bush had promised greater federal funding for education.

Surveillance and homeland security

Shortly after theSeptember 11 attacks,Bush announced the creation of theOffice of Homeland Securityand appointed formergovernor of PennsylvaniaTom Ridgeits director.After Congress passed theHomeland Security Actto create theDepartment of Homeland Security(DHS), Ridge became the first director of the newly created department. The department was charged with overseeing immigration, border control, customs, and the newly establishedTransportation Security Administration(TSA), which focused onairport security.Though the FBI and CIA remained independent agencies, the DHS was assigned jurisdiction over theCoast Guard,theImmigration and Naturalization Service(which was divided into three agencies), theUnited States Customs Service(which was also divided into separate agencies), and theFederal Emergency Management Agency.The Homeland Security Act represented the most significant departmental reorganization since theNational Security Act of 1947.

On October 26, 2001, Bush signed into law thePatriot Act.Passed on the president's request, the act permitted increased sharing of intelligence among theU.S. Intelligence Communityand expanded the government's domestic authority to conduct surveillance of suspected terrorists.The Patriot Act also authorized the use ofroving wiretapson suspected terrorists and expanded the government's authority to conduct surveillance of suspected "lone wolf"terrorists.Bush also secretly authorized theNational Security Agencytoconduct warrantless surveillanceof communications in and out of the United States.

Campaign finance reform

McCain's2000 presidential campaignbrought the issue ofcampaign finance reformto the fore of public consciousness in 2001.McCain andRuss Feingoldpushed a bipartisan campaign finance bill in the Senate, whileChris Shays(R-CT) andMarty Meehan(D-MA) led the effort of passing it in the House.In just the second successful use of thedischarge petitionsince the 1980s, a mixture of Democrats and Republicans defied SpeakerDennis Hastertand passed a campaign finance reform bill.The House approved the bill with a 240–189 vote,while the bill passed the Senate in a 60–40 vote, the bare minimum required to overcome the filibuster.Throughout the congressional battle on the bill, Bush declined to take a strong position.However, in March 2002, Bush signed into law theBipartisan Campaign Reform Act,stating that he thought the law would improve the financing system for elections but was "far from perfect."The law placed several limits on political donations and expenditures, and closed loopholes on contribution limits on donations to political candidates by banning the use of so-called "soft money."Portions of the law restrictingindependent expenditureswould later be struck down by the Supreme Court in the 2010 case ofCitizens United v. FEC.

Healthcare

After the passage of the Bush tax cuts and the No Child Left Behind Act, Bush turned his domestic focus to healthcare. He sought to expandMedicareso it would also cover the cost ofprescription drugs,a program that became known asMedicare Part D.Many congressional Democrats opposed the bill because it did not allow Medicare to negotiate the prices of drugs, while many conservative Republicans opposed the expansion of the government's involvement in healthcare. Assisted by Speaker of the House Dennis Hastert and Senate majority leaderBill Frist,Bush overcame strong opposition and won passage of his Medicare bill.In December 2003, Bush signed theMedicare Prescription Drug, Improvement, and Modernization Act,the largest expansion of Medicare since the program's creation in 1965.

Attempted Social Security reform

See also:Social Security debate in the United States

PresidentGeorge W. BushdiscussingSocial Securityin 2005

After winning re-election in 2004, Bush made the partial privatization ofSocial Securityhis top domestic priority.He proposed restructuring the program so that citizens could invest some of the money they paid inpayroll taxes,which fund the Social Security program.The president argued that Social Security faced an imminent funding crisis and that reform was necessary to ensure its continuing solvency.Bush expected a difficult congressional battle over his proposal, but, as he put it, "I've got political capital, and I intend to spend it."Groups like theAARPstrongly opposed the plan, as did moderate Democrats likeMax Baucus,who had supported the Bush tax cuts. Ultimately, Bush failed to win the backing of a single congressional Democrat for his plan, and even moderate Republicans likeOlympia SnoweandLincoln Chafeerefused to back privatization. In the face of unified opposition, Republicans abandoned Bush's Social Security proposal in mid-2005.

Response to Hurricane Katrina

New OrleansMayorRay Nagin,LouisianaGovernorKathleen Blanco,President Bush and Louisiana SenatorDavid Vittermeet September 2, 2005 in the aftermath ofHurricane Katrina.

Hurricane Katrina,one of the largest and most powerful hurricanes ever to strike the United States, ravaged several states along theGulf of Mexicoin August 2005. On a working vacation at his ranch in Texas, Bush initially allowed state and local authorities to respond to the natural disaster. The hurricane made landfall on August 29, devastating the city ofNew Orleansafter thefailure of that city's levees.Over eighteen hundred people died in the hurricane, and Bush was widely criticized for his slow response to the disaster.Stung by the public response, Bush removedFederal Emergency Management AgencydirectorMichael D. Brownfrom office and stated publicly that "Katrina exposed serious problems in our response capability at all levels of government."After Hurricane Katrina, Bush's approval rating fell below 40 percent, where it would remain for the rest of his tenure in office.

Proposed immigration reform

PresidentGeorge W. Bushoutlining his comprehensive immigration reform proposal in a television address.

Although he concentrated on other domestic policies during his first term, Bush supportedimmigration reformthroughout his administration. In May 2006, he proposed a five-point plan that would increaseborder security,establish aguest worker program,and create apath to citizenshipfor the twelve millionillegal immigrantsliving in the United States. The Senate passed theComprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2006,which included many of the president's proposals, but the bill did not pass the House of Representatives. After Democrats took control of Congress in the 2006 mid-term elections, Bush worked with Ted Kennedy to re-introduce the bill as theComprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007.The bill received intense criticism from many conservatives, who had become more skeptical of immigration reform, and it failed to pass the Senate.

Great Recession

See also:2007–2008 financial crisis

After years of financial deregulation accelerating under the Bush administration, banks lentsubprime mortgagesto more and more home buyers, causing ahousing bubble.Many of these banks also invested incredit default swapsandderivativesthat were essentially bets on the soundness of these loans. In response to declining housing prices and fears of an impending recession, the Bush administration arranged passage of theEconomic Stimulus Act of 2008.Falling home prices started threatening the financial viability of many institutions, leavingBear Stearns,a prominent U.S.-based investment bank, on the brink offailurein March 2008. Recognizing the growing threat of a financial crisis, Bush allowed Treasury secretary Paulson to arrange for another bank,JPMorgan Chase,to take over most Bear Stearn's assets. Out of concern thatFannie MaeandFreddie Macmight also fail, the Bush administration put both institutions intoconservatorship.Shortly afterwards, the administration learned thatLehman Brotherswas on the verge of bankruptcy, but the administration ultimately declined to intervene on behalf of Lehman Brothers.

Paulson hoped that the financial industry had shored itself up after the failure of Bear Stearns and that the failure of Lehman Brothers would not strongly impact the economy, but news of the failure caused stock prices to tumble and froze credit. Fearing a total financial collapse, Paulson and the Federal Reserve took control ofAmerican International Group(AIG), another major financial institution that teetered on the brink of failure. Hoping to shore up the other banks, Bush and Paulson proposed theEmergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008,which would create the $700 billionTroubled Asset Relief Program(TARP) to buytoxic assets.The House rejected TARP in a 228–205 vote; although support and opposition crossed party lines, only about one-third of the Republican caucus supported the bill. After theDow Jones Industrial Averagedropped 778 points on the day of the House vote, the House and Senate both passed TARP. Bush later extended TARP loans to U.S. automobile companies, which facedtheir own crisisdue to the weak economy. Though TARP helped end the financial crisis, it did not prevent the onset of theGreat Recession,which would continue after Bush left office.

Social issues

Vice PresidentDick Cheney

On his first day in office, President Bush reinstated theMexico City policy,thereby blocking federal aid to foreign groups that offered assistance to women in obtainingabortions.Days later, he announced his commitment to channeling more federal aid to faith-based service organizations, despite the fears of critics that this would dissolve the traditionalseparation of church and state in the United States.To further this commitment, he created theWhite House Office of Faith-Based and Community Initiativesto assist faith-based service organizations.In 2003, Bush signed thePartial-Birth Abortion Ban Act,which bannedintact dilation and extraction,an abortion procedure.

Early in his administration, President Bush became personally interested in the issue ofstem cellresearch.The Clinton administration had issued guidelines allowing the federal funding of research utilizing stem cells, and Bush decided to study the situation's ethics before issuing his own executive order on the issue. Evangelical religious groups argued that the research was immoral as it destroyed humanembryos,while various advocacy groups touted the potential scientific advances afforded by stem cell research.In August 2001, Bush issued an executive order banning federal funding for research on new stem cell lines; the order allowed research on existing stem cell lines to continue.In July 2006, Bush used his firstpresidential vetoon theStem Cell Research Enhancement Act,which would have expandedfederalfunding of embryonic stem cell research. A similar bill was passed in both the House of Representatives and the Senate early in mid-2007 as part of House SpeakerNancy Pelosi's100-Hour Plan,but was vetoed by Bush.

After the Supreme Court struck down a statesodomy lawin the 2003 case ofLawrence v. Texas,conservatives began pushing for theFederal Marriage Amendment,which would define marriage as a union between a man and a woman. Bush endorsed this proposal and made it part of his campaign during the 2004 and 2006 election cycles.However, President Bush did break from his party in his tolerance of civil unions for homosexual couples.

Bush was staunchly opposed toeuthanasiaand supported Attorney General John Ashcroft's ultimately unsuccessful suit against theOregon Death with Dignity Act.However, while he was governor ofTexas,Bush had signed a law giving hospitals the authority to removelife supportfrom terminally ill patients against the wishes of spouses or parents, if the doctors deemed it as medically appropriate.This perceived inconsistency in policy became an issue in 2005, when Bush signed controversial legislation to initiate federal intervention in the court battle ofTerri Schiavo,a comatoseFloridawoman who ultimately died.

Environmental policies

See also:Climate change policy of the George W. Bush administration

Cabinet meeting

In March 2001, the Bush administration announced that it would not implement theKyoto Protocol,an international treaty signed in 1997 that required nations to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. The administration argued that ratifying the treaty would unduly restrict U.S. growth while failing to adequately limit emissions from developing nations.The administration questioned thescientific consensus on climate change.Bush stated that he believedglobal warmingis realand a serious problem, although he asserted that there existed a "debate over whether it's man-made or naturally caused".The Bush administration's stance on global warming remained controversial in the scientific and environmental communities. Critics alleged that the administrationmisinformed the public and did not do enough to reduce carbon emissions and deter global warming.

On January 6, 2009, President Bush designated the world's largest protected marine area. The Pacific Ocean habitat includes theMariana Trenchand the waters and corals surrounding three uninhabited islands in theNorthern Mariana Islands,Rose Atollin American Samoa, and seven islands along the equator.

Other legislation

In July 2002, following severalaccounting scandalssuch as theEnronscandal, Bush signed theSarbanes–Oxley Actinto law. The act expanded reporting requirements for public companiesShortly after the start of his second term, Bush signed theClass Action Fairness Act of 2005,which had been a priority of his administration and part of his broader goal of institutingtort reform.The act was designed to remove mostclass actionlawsuits from state courts to federal courts, which were regarded as less sympathetic to plaintiffs in class action suits.

Minorities, civil rights and affirmative action

Bush endorsed civil rights and appointed blacks, women and gays to high positions. The premier cabinet position, Secretary of State, went toColin Powell(2001–2005), the first Black appointee at that high a level. He was followed byCondoleezza Rice(2005–2009), the first Black woman. Attorney GeneralAlberto Gonzales(2005–2007) was and remains in 2024 the highest appointed Hispanic in the history of American government. In addition Bush appointed the first senior officials who were publicly gay. However he campaigned against quotas, and warned that affirmative action that involved quotas were unacceptable. He deliberately selected minorities known as opponents of affirmative action for key civil rights positions. Thus in 2001 Bush nominatedLinda Chavezto be the first Latina in the cabinet as Secretary of Labor. She had to withdraw when it was reported that a decade earlier she had hired an illegal immigrant.

Foreign affairs

Main article:Foreign policy of the George W. Bush administration

Bush made 49 international tripsto 72 different countries during his presidency.

Taking office

Upon taking office, Bush had little experience with foreign policy, and his decisions were guided by his advisers. Bush embraced the views of Cheney and otherneoconservatives,who de-emphasized the importance ofmultilateralism;neoconservatives believed that because the United States was the world's lonesuperpower,it could act unilaterally if necessary.At the same time, Bush sought to enact the lessinterventionistforeign policy he had promised during the 2000 campaign.Though the first several months of his presidency focused on domestic issues, the Bush administration pulled the U.S. out of several existing or proposed multilateral agreements, including theKyoto Protocol,theAnti-Ballistic Missile Treaty,and theInternational Criminal Court.

September 11 attacks

See also:Motives for the September 11 attacksand9/11 Commission

President Bush speaks with Vice PresidentDick CheneyaboardAir Force One,September 11, 2001

Bush making remarks fromGround Zeroon September 14, 2001

Terrorism had emerged as an important national security issue in the Clinton administration, and it became one of the dominant issues of the Bush administration.In the late 1980s,Osama bin Ladenhad establishedal-Qaeda,a militantSunniIslamistmulti-national organization that sought to overthrow Western-backed governments inSaudi Arabia,Jordan,Egypt,andPakistan.In response to Saudi Arabia's decision to begin hosting U.S. soldiers in 1991, al-Qaeda had begun a terrorist campaign against U.S. targets, orchestrating attacks such as the1998 United States embassy bombingsand the 2000USS Cole bombing.During Bush's first months in office, U.S. intelligence organizationsintercepted communications indicating that al-Qaeda was planning another attackon the United States, but foreign policy officials were unprepared for a major attack on the United States.Bush was briefed on al-Qaeda's activities, but focused on other foreign policy issues during his first months in office.

On September 11, 2001,al-Qaedaterroristshijackedfour airliners and flew two of them into the twin towers of theWorld Trade CenterinNew York City,destroying both 110-story skyscrapers. Anotherplanecrashed intoPentagon,and afourth planewas brought down in Pennsylvania following a struggle between the terrorists and the aircraft's passengers.The attacks had a profound effect on many Americans, who felt vulnerable to international attacks for the first time since the end of theCold War.Appearing on national television on the night of the attacks, Bush promised to punish those who had aided the attacks, stating, "we will make no distinction between the terrorists who committed these acts and those who harbor them." In the following days, Bush urged the public to renounce hate crimes and discrimination againstMuslim-AmericansandArab-Americans.He also declared a "War on Terror",instituting new domestic and foreign policies in an effort to prevent future terrorist attacks.

War in Afghanistan

Further information:War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)

Bush with Afghanistan PresidentHamid Karzai

As Bush's top foreign policy advisers were in agreement that merely launching strikes against al-Qaeda bases would not stop future attacks, the administration decided to overthrowAfghanistan's conservativeTalibangovernment, which harbored the leaders of al-Qaeda.Powell took the lead in assembling allied nations in a coalition that would launch attacks on multiple fronts.The Bush administration focused especially on courtingPakistanileaderPervez Musharraf,who agreed to join the coalition.On September 14, Congress passed a resolution called theAuthorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists,authorizing the president to use the military against those responsible for the attacks. On October 7, 2001, Bush ordered theinvasion of Afghanistan.

GeneralTommy Franks,the commander of theUnited States Central Command(CENTCOM), drew up a four-phase invasion plan. In the first phase, the U.S. built up forces in the surrounding area and inserted CIA and special forces operatives who linked up with theNorthern Alliance,an Afghan resistance group opposed to the Taliban. The second phase consisted of a major air campaign against Taliban and al-Qaeda targets, while the third phase involved the defeat of the remaining Taliban and al-Qaeda forces. The fourth and final phase consisted of the stabilization of Afghanistan, which Franks projected would take three to five years. The war in Afghanistan began on October 7 with several air and missile strikes, and the Northern Alliance began its offensive on October 19. The capital ofKabulwas captured on November 13, andHamid Karzaiwas inaugurated as the new president of Afghanistan. However, the senior leadership of the Taliban and al-Qaeda, including bin Laden, avoided capture. Karzai would remain in power for the duration of Bush's presidency, but his effective control was limited to the area around Kabul, as various warlords took control of much of the rest of the country.While the Karzai's government struggled to control the countryside, the Taliban regrouped in neighboring Pakistan. As Bush left office, he considered sending additional troops to bolster Afghanistan against the Taliban, but decided to leave the issue for the next administration.

Bush Doctrine

After the September 11 attacks, Bush's approval ratings increased tremendously. Inspired in part by theTruman administration,Bush decided to use his newfound political capital to fundamentally change U.S. foreign policy. He became increasingly focused on the possibility of a hostile country providingweapons of mass destruction(WMDs) to terrorist organizations.During his early 2002State of the Union Address,Bush set forth what has become known as theBush Doctrine,which held that the United States would implement a policy ofpreemptive military strikesagainst nations known to be harboring or aiding a terrorist organization hostile to the United States.Bush outlined what he called the "Axis of Evil,"consisting of three nations that, he argued, posed the greatest threat to world peace due to their pursuit of weapons of mass destruction and potential to aid terrorists. The axis consisted ofIraq,North KoreaandIran.Bush also began emphasizing the importance of spreading democracy worldwide, stating in 2005 that "the survival of liberty in our land depends on the success of liberty in other land." Pursuant to this newly-interventionist policy, the Bush administration boosted foreign aid and increased defense expenditures.Defense spending rose from $304 billion in fiscal year 2001 to $616 billion in fiscal year 2008.

Iraq

Prelude to the war

Further information:Rationale for the Iraq WarandUnited Nations Security Council and the Iraq War

Map of theMiddle East,includingIraq.

During thepresidency of his father,the United States had launched theGulf WaragainstIraqafter the latter invadedKuwait.Though the U.S. forced Iraq's withdrawal from Kuwait, it leftSaddam Hussein's administration in place, partly to serve as a counterweight toIran.After the war, theProject for the New American Century,consisting of influential neoconservatives like Paul Wolfowitz and Cheney, advocated for the overthrow of Hussein.Iraq haddeveloped biological and chemical weaponsprior to the Gulf War; after the war, it had submitted to WMD inspections conducted by theUnited Nations Special Commissionuntil 1998, when Hussein demanded that all UN inspectors leave Iraq.The administration believed that, by 2001, Iraq was developing weapons of mass destruction, and could possibly provide those weapons to terrorists.Some within the administration also believed that Iraq shared some responsibility for the September 11 attacks,and hoped that the fall of Hussein's regime would help spread democracy in the Middle East, deter the recruitment of terrorists, and increase the security ofIsrael.

In the days following the September 11 attacks, hawks in the Bush administration such as Wolfowitz argued for immediate military action against Iraq, but the issue was temporarily set aside in favor of planning the invasion of Afghanistan.Beginning in September 2002, the Bush administration mounted a campaign designed to win popular and congressional support for the invasion of Iraq.In October 2002, Congress approved theIraq Resolution,authorizing the use of force against Iraq. While congressional Republicans almost unanimously supported the measure, congressional Democrats were split in roughly equal numbers between support and opposition to the resolution.Bowing to domestic and foreign pressure, Bush sought to win the approval of theUnited Nationsbefore launching an attack on Iraq.Led by Powell, the administration won the November 2002 passage ofUnited Nations Security Council Resolution 1441,which called on Iraq to dismantle its WMD program.Meanwhile, senior administration officials became increasingly convinced that Iraq did indeed possess WMDs and was likely to furnish those WMDs to al-Qaeda; CIA DirectorGeorge Tenetassured Bush that it was a "slam dunk" that Iraq possessed a stockpile of WMDs.

After aU.N. weapons inspectionsteam led byHans Blix,as well as another team led byMohamed ElBaradei,failed to find evidence of an ongoing Iraqi WMD program, Bush's proposed regime change in Iraq faced mounting international opposition. Germany, China, France, and Russia all expressed skepticism about the need for regime change, and the latter three countries each possessedveto poweron theUnited Nations Security Council.At the behest of British prime ministerTony Blair,who supported Bush but hoped for more international cooperation, Bush dispatched Powell to the U.N. to make the case to the Security Council that Iraq maintained an active WMD program.Though Powell's presentation preceded a shift in U.S. public opinion towards support of the war, it failed to convince the French, Russians, or Germans.Contrary to the findings of Blix and ElBaradei, Bush asserted in a March 17 public address that there was "no doubt" that the Iraqi regime possessed weapons of mass destruction. Two days later, Bush authorized OperationIraqi Freedom,and theIraq Warbegan on March 20, 2003.

Invasion of Iraq

Further information:2003 invasion of Iraq

President Bush announces the beginning ofOperation Iraqi Freedom,March 2003

U.S.-led coalition forces, led by General Franks, launched asimultaneous air and land attack on Iraqon March 20, 2003, in what the American media called "shock and awe."With 145,000 soldiers, the ground force quickly overcame most Iraqi resistance, and thousands of Iraqi soldiers deserted. The U.S.capturedthe Iraqi capital ofBaghdadon April 9, but Hussein escaped and went into hiding. While the U.S. and its allies quickly achieved military success, the invasion wasstrongly criticized by many countries;UN secretary-generalKofi Annanargued that the invasion was aviolation of international lawand theU.N. Charter.

On May 1, 2003, Bush delivered the "Mission Accomplished speech,"in which he declared the end of" major combat operations "in Iraq.Despite thefailure to find evidence of an ongoing WMD programor anoperational relationship between Hussein and al-Qaeda,Bush declared that the toppling of Hussein "removed an ally of al-Qaeda" and ended the threat that Iraq would supply weapons of mass destruction to terrorist organizations. Believing that only a minimal residual American force would be required after the success of the invasion, Bush and Franks planned for a drawdown to 30,000 U.S. troops in Iraq by August 2003. Meanwhile, Iraqis began looting their own capital, presenting one of the first of many challenges the U.S. would face in keeping the peace in Iraq.

Bush appointedPaul Bremerto lead theCoalition Provisional Authority(CPA), which was charged with overseeing the transition to self-government in Iraq. In his first major order, Bremer announced a policy ofde-Ba'athification,which denied government and military jobs to members of Hussein'sBa'ath Party.This policy angered many of Iraq'sSunnis,many of whom had joined the Ba'ath Party merely as a career move. Bremer'ssecond major orderdisbanded the Iraqi military and police services, leaving over 600,000 Iraqi soldiers and government employees without jobs. Bremer also insisted that the CPA remain in control of Iraq until the country held elections, reversing an earlier plan to set up a transition government led by Iraqis. These decisions contributed to the beginning of theIraqi insurgencyopposed to the continuing U.S. presence. Fearing the further deterioration of Iraq's security situation, GeneralJohn Abizaidordered the end of the planned drawdown of soldiers, leaving over 130,000 U.S. soldiers in Iraq. The U.S.captured Husseinon December 13, 2003, but the occupation force continued to suffer casualties. Between the start of the invasion and the end of 2003, 580 U.S. soldiers died, with two thirds of those casualties occurring after Bush's "Mission Accomplished" speech.

Continuing occupation

Further information:Iraq War,Occupation of Iraq (2003–2011),andFinancial cost of the Iraq War

Troop levels in Iraq and Afghanistan

Year	Iraq	Afghanistan
2001	0	0
2002	0	4,067
2003	0	9,600
2004	108,900	13,600
2005	159,000	17,200
2006	137,000	19,700
2007	137,000	26,000
2008	154,000	27,500
2009	139,500	34,400

After 2003, more and more Iraqis began to see the U.S. as an occupying force. The fierce fighting of theFirst Battle of Fallujahalienated many in Iraq, while clericMuqtada al-SadrencouragedShiaMuslims to oppose the CPA.Sunni and Shia insurgents engaged in a campaign ofguerrilla warfareagainst the United States, blunting the technological and organizational advantages of the U.S. military.While fighting in Iraq continued, Americans increasingly came to disapprove of Bush's handling of the Iraq War, contributing to a decline in Bush's approval ratings.

Bremer left Iraq in June 2004, transferring power to theIraqi Interim Government,which was led byAyad Allawi.In January 2005, the Iraqi peoplevoted onrepresentatives for theIraqi National Assembly,and the ShiaUnited Iraqi Allianceformed a governing coalition led byIbrahim al-Jaafari.In October 2005, the Iraqisratified a new constitutionthat created a decentralized governmental structure dividing Iraq into communities of Sunni Arabs, Shia Arabs, andKurds.After aDecember 2005 election,Jafari was succeeded as prime minister by another Shia,Nouri al-Maliki.The elections failed to quell the insurgency, and hundreds of U.S. soldiers stationed in Iraq died during 2005 and 2006.Sectarian violencebetween Sunnis and Shias also intensified following the2006 al-Askari mosque bombing.In a December 2006 report, the bipartisanIraq Study Groupdescribed the situation in Iraq as "grave and deteriorating," and the report called for the U.S. to gradually withdraw soldiers from Iraq.

As the violence mounted in 2006, Rumsfeld and military leaders such as Abizaid andGeorge Casey,the commander of thecoalition forces in Iraq,called for a drawdown of forces in Iraq, but many within the administration argued that the U.S. should maintain its troop levels.Still intent on establishing a democratic government in Iraq, the Bush administration rejected a drawdown and began planning for a change in strategy and leadership following the 2006 elections.After the elections, Bush replaced Rumsfeld with Gates, whileDavid Petraeusreplaced Casey andWilliam J. Fallonreplaced Abizaid.Bush and his National Security Council formed a plan to "double down" in Iraq, increasing the number of U.S. soldiers in hopes of establishing a stable democracy.After Maliki indicated his support for an increase of U.S. soldiers, Bush announced in January 2007 that the U.S. would send an additional 20,000 soldiers to Iraq as part of a "surge"of forces.Though Senator McCain and a few other hawks supported Bush's new strategy, many other members of Congress from both parties expressed doubt or outright opposition to it.

President Bush and IraqiPrime MinisterNouri al-Malikishake hands in July 2006

In April 2007, Congress, now controlled by Democrats, passed a bill that called for a total withdrawal of all U.S. troops by April 2008, but Bush vetoed the bill.Without the votes to override the veto, Congress passed a bill that continued to fund the war but also included theFair Minimum Wage Act of 2007,which increased the federalminimum wage.U.S. and Iraqi casualties continuously declined after May 2007, and Bush declared that the surge had been a success in September 2007.He subsequently ordered a drawdown of troops, and the number of U.S. soldiers in Iraq declined from 168,000 in September 2007 to 145,000 when Bush left office.The decline in casualties following the surge coincided with several other favorable trends, including theAnbar Awakeningand Muqtada al-Sadr's decision to order his followers to cooperate with the Iraqi government.In 2008, at the insistence of Maliki, Bush signed theU.S.–Iraq Status of Forces Agreement,which promised complete withdrawal of U.S. troops by the end of 2011.The U.S. wouldwithdrawits forces from Iraq in December 2011,though it later re-deployed soldiers to Iraq to assist government forces in theIraqi Civil War.

Guantanamo Bay and enemy combatants

Further information:Guantanamo Bay detention camp

Detainees upon arrival atCamp X-Ray,January 2002

During and after the invasion of Afghanistan, the U.S. captured numerous members of al-Qaeda and the Taliban. Rather than bringing the prisoners before domestic or international courts, Bush decided to set up a new system ofmilitary tribunalsto try the prisoners. In order to avoid the restrictions of the United States Constitution, Bush held the prisoners at secretCIA prisonsin various countries as well as at theGuantanamo Bay detention camp.Because the Guantanamo Bay camp is on territory that the U.S. technically leases fromCuba,individuals within the camp are not accorded the same constitutional protections that they would have on U.S. territory. Bush also decided that these "enemy combatants"were not entitled to all of the protections of theGeneva Conventionsas they were not affiliated with sovereign states. In hopes of obtaining information from the prisoners, Bush allowed the use of "enhanced interrogation techniques"such aswaterboarding.Thetreatment of prisoners at Abu Ghraib,a U.S. prison in Iraq, elicited widespread outrage after photos of prisoner abuse were made public.

In 2005, Congress passed theDetainee Treatment Act,which purported to bantorture,but in hissigning statementBush asserted that his executive power gave him the authority to waive the restrictions put in place by the bill.Bush's policies suffered a major rebuke from the Supreme Court in the 2006 case ofHamdan v. Rumsfeld,in which the court rejected Bush's use of military commissions without congressional approval and held that all detainees were protected by the Geneva Conventions.Following the ruling, Congress passed theMilitary Commissions Act of 2006,which effectively overturnedHamdan.The Supreme Court overturned a portion of that act in the 2008 case ofBoumediene v. Bush,but the Guantanamo detention camp remained open at the end of Bush's presidency.

Israel

See also:Israeli–Palestinian conflict

President of thePalestinian AuthorityMahmoud Abbas,President Bush, andIsraeliPrime MinisterAriel Sharonin June 2003.

TheIsraeli–Palestinian conflict,ongoing since the middle of the 20th century, continued under Bush. After President Clinton's2000 Camp David Summithad ended without an agreement, theSecond Intifadahad begun in September 2000.While previous administrations had tried to act as a neutral authority between the Israelis and Palestinians, the Bush administration placed the blame for the violence on the Palestinians, angeringArabstates such asSaudi Arabia.However, Bush's support for atwo-state solutionhelped smooth over a potential diplomatic split with the Saudis.In hopes of establishing peace between the Israelis and Palestinians, the Bush administration proposed theroad map for peace,but his plan was not implemented and tensions were heightened following the victory ofHamasin the2006 Palestinian elections.

Free trade agreements

See also:United States free-trade agreementsand2002 United States steel tariff

CAFTA-DRestablished a free trade are between the United States and several countries inLatin America

Believing that protectionism hampered economic growth, Bush concludedfree trade agreementswith numerous countries. When Bush took office, the United States had free trade agreements with just three countries: Israel, Canada, and Mexico. Bush signed theChile–United States Free Trade Agreementand theSingapore–United States Free Trade Agreementin 2003, and he concluded theMorocco-United States Free Trade Agreement and theAustralia–United States Free Trade Agreementthe following year. He also concluded theBahrain–United States Free Trade Agreement,theOman–United States Free Trade Agreement,thePeru–United States Trade Promotion Agreement,and theDominican Republic–Central America Free Trade Agreement.Additionally, Bush reached free trade agreements with South Korea, Colombia, and Panama, though agreements with these countries were not ratified until 2011.

NATO and arms control treaties

In 2002 theUS withdrewfrom the U.S.-RussianAnti-Ballistic Missile Treaty.This marked the first time in post-WW2 history that the United States has withdrawn from a major international arms treaty.China expressed displeasure at America's withdrawal.Then newly elected Russian PresidentVladimir Putinstated that American withdrawal from the ABM Treaty was a mistake,and subsequently in a 1 March 2018Presidential Address to the Federal Assemblyannounced the development of a series of technologically new missile systems in response to the Bush withdrawal.InOliver Stone's 2017The Putin Interviews,Putin said that in trying to persuade Russia to accept US withdrawal from the treaty, both Clinton and Bush had tried to convince him of an emerging nuclear threat fromIran.

On 14 July 2007, Russia announced that it would suspend implementation of itsTreaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europeobligations, effective after 150 days. This failure can be said to mark the start of thePutinian Revanchism.

Russia

See also:Russia–United States relations

Bush emphasized creating a better personal relationship withRussianpresidentVladimir Putinin order to ensure harmonious relations between the U.S. and Russia. After meeting with Putin in June 2001, both presidents expressed optimistic views regarding cooperation between the two formerCold Warrivals.After the 9/11 attacks, Putin allowed the U.S. to use Russian airspace, and Putin encouragedCentral Asianstates to grant basing rights to the U.S.In May 2002, the U.S. and Russia signed theStrategic Offensive Reductions Treaty,which sought to dramatically reduce the nuclear stockpiles of both countries.Relations between Bush and Putin cooled during Bush's second term, as Bush became increasingly critical of Putin's suppression of political opponents in Russia, and they fell to new lows after the outbreak of theRusso-Georgian Warin 2008.

Iran

Further information:Nuclear program of Iran

In his 2002 State of the Union Address, Bush grouped Iran with Iraq and North Korea as a member of the "Axis of Evil", accusing Iran of aiding terrorist organizations.In 2006, Iran re-opened three of its nuclear facilities, potentially allowing it to begin the process of building a nuclear bomb.After the resumption of the Iranian nuclear program, many within the U.S. military and foreign policy community speculated that Bush might attempt to impose regime change on Iran.In December 2006, theUnited Nations Security Councilunanimously passedResolution 1737,which imposed sanctions on Iran in order to curb its nuclear program.

North Korea

See also:North Korea–United States relations

North Koreahaddeveloped weapons of mass destructionfor several years prior to Bush's inauguration, and the Clinton administration had sought to trade economic assistance for an end to the North Korean WMD program. Though Secretary of State Powell urged the continuation of the rapprochement, other administration officials, including Vice President Cheney, were more skeptical of the good faith of the North Koreans. Bush instead sought to isolate North Korea in the hope that the regime would eventually collapse.

North Korea launched missile testson July 5, 2006, leading toUnited Nations Security Council Resolution 1695.The country said on October 3, "The U.S. extreme threat of anuclear warandsanctionsand pressure compel theDPRKto conduct anuclear test",which the Bush administration denied and denounced.Days later, North Korea followed through on its promise totest nuclear weapons.On October 14, the Security Council unanimously passedUnited Nations Security Council Resolution 1718,sanctioning North Korea for the test.In the waning days of his presidency, Bush attempted to re-open negotiations with North Korea, but North Korea continued to develop its nuclear programs.

AIDS relief

Shortly after taking office, Bush pledged $200 million toThe Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria.Finding this effort insufficient, Bush assembled a team of experts to find the best way for the U.S. reduce the worldwide damage caused by theAIDSepidemic.The experts, led byAnthony S. Fauci,recommended that the U.S. focus on providing antiretroviral drugs to developing nations in Africa and the Caribbean.In his State of the Union message in January 2003, President Bush outlined a five-year strategy for global emergencyAIDSrelief, thePresident's Emergency Plan For AIDS Relief.With the approval of Congress, Bush committed $15 billion to this effort, which represented a huge increase compared to funding under previous administrations. Near the end of his presidency, Bush signed a re-authorization of the program that doubled its funding. By 2012, the PEPFAR program provided antiretroviral drugs for over 4.5 million people.

Controversies

See also:Political scandals during the George W. Bush Administration

CIA leak scandal

In July 2005, Bush and Vice PresidentDick Cheney's respective chief political advisers, Karl Rove andLewis "Scooter" Libby,came under fire for revealing the identity of covertCentral Intelligence Agency(CIA)agentValerie Plameto reporters in theCIA leak scandal.Plame's husband,Joseph C. Wilson,had challenged Bush's assertion that Hussein had sought to obtain uranium from Africa, and a special prosecutor was tasked with determining whether administration officials had leaked Plame's identity in retribution against Wilson.Libby resigned on October 28, hours after hisindictmentby agrand juryon multiple counts ofperjury,false statements, andobstructionin this case. In March 2007, Libby was convicted on four counts, and Cheney pressed Bush to pardon Libby. Rather than pardoning Libby or allowing him to go to jail, Bush commuted Libby's sentence, creating a split with Cheney, who accused Bush of leaving "a soldier on the battlefield."

Dismissal of United States attorneys

Main article:Dismissal of U.S. attorneys controversy

President Bush announcing his nomination of Alberto Gonzales as the next U.S. Attorney General, November 10, 2004

In December 2006, Bush dismissed eightUnited States attorneys.Though these attorneys serve at the pleasure of the president, the large-scale mid-term dismissal was without precedent, and Bush faced accusations that he had dismissed the attorneys for purely political reasons. During the 2006 elections, several Republican officials complained that the U.S. attorneys had not sufficiently investigatedvoter fraud.With the encouragement of Harriet Miers and Karl Rove, Attorney General Gonzales dismissed eight U.S. attorneys who were considered insufficiently supportive of the administration's policies. Though Gonzales argued that the attorneys had been fired for performance reasons, publicly released documents showed that the attorneys were dismissed for political reasons. As a result of the dismissals and the subsequent congressional investigations, Rove and Gonzales both resigned. A 2008 report by the Justice Department inspector general found that the dismissals had been politically motivated, but no one was ever prosecuted in connection to the dismissals.

Approval ratings

approve

disapprove

unsure

Gallup/USA TodayBush public opinion polling from February 2001 to January 2009.

Bush'sapproval ratingsran the gamut from high to all-time record low. Bush began his presidency with ratings near fifty percent.In the time of national crisis following theSeptember 11 attacks,polls showed approval ratings of greater than 85%, peaking in one October 2001 poll at 92%,and a steady 80–90% approval for about four months after the attacks.Afterward, his ratings steadily declined as the economy suffered and theIraq Warinitiated by his administration continued. By early 2006, his average rating was averaging below 40%, and in July 2008, a poll indicated a near all-time low of 22%. Upon leaving office the final poll recorded his approval rating as 19%, a record low for any U.S. president.

Elections during the Bush presidency

Republican seats in Congress

Congress	Senate	House
107th	50	221
108th	51	229
109th	55	231
110th	49	202
111th	41	178

2002 mid-term elections

Main article:2002 United States elections

In the 2002 mid-term elections, Bush became the first president since the 1930s to see his own party pick up seats in both houses of Congress. Republicans picked up two seats in theSenate elections,allowing them to re-take control of the chamber.Bush delivered speeches in several venues in support of his party, campaigning on his desire to remove the administration of Saddam Hussein. Bush saw the election results as a vindication of his domestic and foreign policies.

2004 re-election campaign

Main articles:George W. Bush 2004 presidential campaignand2004 United States presidential election

Further information:2004 United States elections,2004 Republican Party presidential primaries,and2004 Republican National Convention

Bush and his campaign team seized on the idea of Bush as a "strong wartime leader," though this was undermined by the increasingly-unpopular Iraq War.His conservative policies on tax cuts and several other issues appealed to many on the right, but Bush could also lay claim to some centrist achievements, including No Child Left Behind, Sarbanes-Oxley, and Medicare Part D.Fearing that he might hurt Bush's re-election chances, Cheney offered to step down from the ticket, but Bush refused this offer, and the two were re-nominated without opposition at the2004 Republican National Convention.On the advice of pollsterMatthew Dowd,who perceived a steady decline in the number ofswing voters,the 2004 Bush campaign emphasized turning out conservative voters rather than the persuasion of moderates.

President Bush defeated DemocratJohn Kerryin the 2004 presidential election.

In the2004 Democratic primaries,SenatorJohn Kerryof Massachusetts defeated several other candidates, effectively clinching the nomination on March 2. AVietnam Warveteran, Kerry had voted to authorize the Iraq War but had come to oppose it.The Bush campaign sought to define Kerry as a "flip-flopper" due to his vote on a bill funding the Afghanistan and Iraq wars.Kerry sought to convince Republican senator John McCain to becomehis running mate,but chose SenatorJohn Edwardsof North Carolina for the position after McCain rejected the offer.The election saw a major jump in turnout; while 105 million people had voted in 2000, 123 million people voted in 2004. Bush won 50.7% percent of the popular vote, making him the first individual to win a majority of the popular vote since1988 presidential election, while Kerry took 48.3% of the popular vote. Bush won 286 electoral votes, winning Iowa, New Mexico, and every state he won in 2000 except for New Hampshire.

2006 mid-term elections

Main article:2006 United States elections

Congressional party leaders

		Senate leaders		House leaders
Congress	Year	Majority	Minority	Speaker	Minority
107th	2001	Lott	Daschle	Hastert	Gephardt
	2001–2002	Daschle	Lott	Hastert	Gephardt
108th	2003–2004	Frist	Daschle	Hastert	Pelosi
109th	2005–2006	Frist	Reid	Hastert	Pelosi
110th	2007–2008	Reid	McConnell	Pelosi	Boehner
111th	2009	Reid	McConnell	Pelosi	Boehner

Damaged by the unpopularity of the Iraq War and President Bush, the Republicans lost control of both houses of Congress in the 2006 elections. Republicans were also damaged by various scandals, including theJack Abramoff Indian lobbying scandaland theMark Foley scandal.The elections confirmed Bush's declining popularity, as many of the candidates he had personally campaigned for were defeated. After the elections, Bush announced the resignation of Rumsfeld and promised to work with the new Democratic majority.

2008 elections and transition period

Main article:2008 United States elections

Further information:2008 United States presidential electionandPresidential transition of Barack Obama

DemocratBarack Obamadefeated RepublicanJohn McCainin the 2008 presidential election.

Outgoing President George W. Bush and President-electBarack Obamaon November 10, 2008

Under the terms of thetwenty-second amendment,Bush was ineligible to seek a third term in 2008. Senator John McCain won the2008 Republican presidential primaries,while Democratic senatorBarack Obamaof Illinois defeated SenatorHillary Clintonof New York to win the2008 Democratic presidential primaries.Obama's victory in the Democratic presidential primaries was due in large part to his strong opposition to the Iraq War, as Clinton had voted to authorize the Iraq War in 2002.McCain sought to distance himself from the unpopular policies of Bush, and Bush appeared only by satellite at the2008 Republican National Convention,making him the first sitting president sinceLyndon B. Johnsonto not appear at his own party's convention in1968.

McCain briefly took the lead in polls of the race taken after the Republican convention, but Obama quickly re-emerged as the leader in polls.McCain's campaign was badly damaged by the unpopularity of the Bush administration and the Iraq War, and McCain's response to the outbreak of a full-blown financial crisis in September 2008 was widely viewed as erratic.Obama won 365 electoral votes and 52.9% of the popular vote. The election gave Democrats unified control of the legislative and executive branches for the first time since the1994 elections.After the election, Bush congratulated Obama and invited him to the White House. With the help of the Bush administration, thepresidential transition of Barack Obamawas widely regarded as successful, particularly for a transition between presidents of different parties.During hisinaugurationon January 20, 2009, Obama thanked Bush for his service as president and his support of Obama's transition.

Evaluation and legacy

See also:Historical rankings of presidents of the United States

Graph of Bush's approval ratings inGalluppolls

A 2009C-SPANsurvey of historiansrankedBush in 36th place among the 42 former presidents.A 2017C-SPANpoll of historians ranked Bush as the 33rd greatest president.A 2018 poll of theAmerican Political Science Association's Presidents and Executive Politics section ranked Bush as the 30th greatest president.Historian Melvyn Leffler writes that the Bush administration's achievements in foreign policy "were outweighed by the administration's failure to achieve many of its most important goals."

In summing up evaluations of Bush's presidency, Gary L. Gregg II writes:

The Bush presidency transformed American politics, its economy, and its place in the world, but not in ways that could have been predicted when the governor of Texas declared his candidacy for America's highest office. As president, Bush became a lightning rod for controversy. His controversial election and policies, especially the war in Iraq, deeply divided the American people. Arguably his greatest moment as president was his initial, heartfelt response to the tragedy of the 9/11 attacks. Soon, however, his administration was overshadowed by the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. President Bush's place in U.S. history will be debated and reconsidered for many years to come.

Andrew Rudalevige has compiled a list of the 14 most important achievements under the Bush administration:

• Major revisions of the tax code, with additional cuts in each of his first six years in office.
• Major educational policy changes and reauthorization of major federal education laws.
• Expansion of Medicare by adding drug coverage.
• Name two justices to the Supreme Court, and 350 judges to lower federal courts.
• Promoted the Partial Birth Abortion Ban.
• Large-scale AIDS and anti-malaria programs especially for Africa.
• Quadrupling the number of countries with free trade agreements.
• Huge bailout of banking system after near collapse of the financial system.
• Created the Department of Homeland Security.
• White House control over federal bureaucracy.
• Patriot Acts which broaden federal law enforcement powers.
• Strengthen presidential discretion on surveillance of terror suspects.
• Military Commissions Act, with special application to Guantánamo Bay prison.
• Overthrow of two hostile regimes – Taliban in Afghanistan and Saddam Hussein in Iraq.

See also

• Presidency of George H. W. Bush,his father
• George W. Bush Presidential Center
• Efforts to impeach George W. Bush
• List of people pardoned by George W. Bush
• Political effects of Hurricane Katrina
• Protests against George W. Bush
• Public image of George W. Bush
• List of federal political scandals in the United States (21st century)

References

Works cited

• Draper, Robert (2007).Dead Certain: The Presidency of George W. Bush.Free Press.ISBN978-0743277280.
• Herring, George C. (2008).From Colony to Superpower; U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-507822-0.
• Jacobson, Gary (2010). "George W. Bush, the Iraq War, and the Election of Barack Obama".Presidential Studies Quarterly.40(2): 207–224.doi:10.1111/j.1741-5705.2010.03755.x.JSTOR23044817.
• Leffler, Melvyn P. (2011). "9/11 in Retrospect: George W. Bush's Grand Strategy, Reconsidered".Foreign Affairs.90(5): 33–44.JSTOR23041774.
• Mann, James (2015).George Bush.Times Books.ISBN978-0805093971.
• Smith, Jean Edward (2016).Bush.Simon & Schuster.ISBN978-1476741192.

Further reading

Main article:Bibliography of George W. Bush

Scholarly

• Abramson, Paul R., John H. Aldrich, and David W. Rohde.Change and Continuity in the 2004 and 2006 Elections(2007), 324ppexcerpt and text search
• Allard, Scott W. "The Changing Face of Welfare During the Bush Administration."Publius2007 37(3): 304–332.ISSN0048-5950
• Baker, Peter (2013).Days of Fire: Bush and Cheney in the White House.Doubleday.
• Barilleaux, Ryan, et al.Testing the limits: George W. Bush and the imperial presidency(Rowman & Littlefield, 2009).
• Berggren, D. Jason, and Nicol C. Rae. "Jimmy Carter and George W. Bush: Faith, Foreign Policy, and an Evangelical Presidential Style."Presidential Studies Quarterly.36#4 2006. pp 606+.
• Brands, Hal, and Peter Feaver. "The case for Bush revisionism: Reevaluating the legacy of America’s 43rd president."Journal of Strategic Studies41.1–2 (2018): 234–274.online
• Campbell, Colin, Bert A. Rockman, and Andrew Rudalevige, eds..The George W. Bush LegacyCongressional Quarterly Press, 2007, 352pp; 14 essays by scholarsexcerpts and online search from Amazon.com
• Congressional Quarterly.CQ Almanac Plushighly detailed annual compilation of events in Congress, White House, Supreme Court, summarizing the weekly "Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report". (annual, 2002–2009)
  • Congressional Quarterly.Congress and the Nation: Volume 12: 2005–2008(CQ Press, 2009)online
• Conlan, Tim and John Dinan. "Federalism, the Bush Administration, and the Transformation of American Conservatism."Publius2007 37(3): 279–303.ISSN0048-5950
• Corrado, Anthony, E. J. Dionne Jr., Kathleen A. Frankovic.The Election of 2000: Reports and Interpretations(2001)
• Daynes, Byron W. and Glen Sussman. "Comparing the Environmental Policies of Presidents George H. W. Bush and George W. Bush."White House Studies2007 7(2): 163–179.ISSN1535-4768
• Denton, Robert E., ed.The George W. Bush Presidency: A Rhetorical Perspective(Lexingtron, 2012)
• Desch, Michael C. "Bush and the Generals."Foreign Affairs2007 86(3): 97–108.ISSN0015-7120Fulltext:Ebsco
• Dobel, J. Patrick. "Prudence and presidential ethics: the decisions on Iraq of the two presidents Bush."Presidential Studies Quarterly40.1 (2010): 57–75.online
• Dolan, Chris J., and David B. Cohen. "The War About the War: Iraq and the Politics of National Security Advising in the GW Bush Administration's First Term."Politics & Policy34.1 (2006): 30–64.online
• Eckersley, Robyn. "Ambushed: the Kyoto Protocol, the Bush Administration's Climate Policy and the Erosion of Legitimacy."International Politics2007 44(2–3): 306–324.ISSN1384-5748
• Edwards III, George C. and Philip John Davies, eds.New Challenges for the American PresidencyNew York: Pearson Longman, 2004. 245 pp. articles fromPresidential Studies Quarterly
• Edwards III, George C. and Desmond King, eds.The Polarized Presidency of George W. Bush(2007), 478pp; essays by scholars;excerpt and online search from Amazon.com
• Ferguson, Michaele L. et al. eds.W Stands for Women: How the George W. Bush Presidency Shaped a New Politics of Gender(Duke UP, 2007)
• Fortier, John C. and Norman J. Ornstein, eds.Second-term Blues: How George W. Bush Has Governed(2007), 146ppexcerpt and online search from Amazon.com
• Gormley, Beatrice.Laura Bush: America's First Lady(Simon and Schuster, 2010)online
• Graham John D.Bush on the Home Front: Domestic Policy Triumphs and Setbacks(Indiana University Press, 2010) 425 pages; covers taxation, education, health care, energy, the environment, and regulatory reform.
• Greenstein, Fred I. ed.The George W. Bush Presidency: An Early AssessmentJohns Hopkins University Press, 2003
• Greenstein, Fred I. "The Contemporary Presidency: The Changing Leadership of George W. Bush A Pre- and Post-9/11 Comparison" inPresidential Studies Quarterlyv 32#2 2002 pp 387+.
• Gregg II, Gary L. and Mark J. Rozell, eds.Considering the Bush PresidencyOxford University Press, 2004. 210 pp. British perspectives
• Greene, John Robert.The Presidency of George W. BushLawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2021.ISBN978-0-7006-3268-8
• Hadley, Stephen J., et al. eds.Hand-Off: The Foreign Policy George W. Bush Passed to Barack Obama( Rowman & Littlefield Publishers/Brookings Institution Press. 2023)ISBN978-0-8157-3977-7excerpt
• Hendrickson, Ryan C., and Kristina Spohr Readman, "From the Baltic to the Black Sea: Bush's NATO Enlargement."White House Studies.(2004) 4#3 pp: 319+.
• Hilliard, Bryan, Tom Lansford, and Robert P Watson, eds.George W. Bush: Evaluating the President at MidtermSUNY Press 2004
• Holzer, Harold.The Presidents Vs. the Press: The Endless Battle Between the White House and the Media—from the Founding Fathers to Fake News(Dutton, 2020) pp. 359–376.online
• Jacobson, Gary C. "The Bush Presidency and the American Electorate"Presidential Studies Quarterlyv 33 No.4 2003 pp 701+. * Jacobson, Gary C. "Referendum: the 2006 Midterm Congressional Elections."Political Science Quarterly2007 122(1): 1–24.ISSN0032-3195Fulltext:Ebsco
• Lind, Nancy S., and Bernard I. Tamas, eds.Controversies of the George W. Bush Presidency: Pro and Con documents(Greenwood, 2006); primary sources.
• Liu, Goodwin. "The Bush Administration and Civil Rights: Lessons Learned."Duke Journal of Constitutional Law & Public Policy4 (2009): 77+.online
• Maranto, Robert et al. eds.The Second Term of George W. Bush: Prospects and Perils(2006)
• Milkis, Sidney M. and Jesse H.Rhodes. "George W. Bush, the Party System, and American Federalism."Publius2007 37(3): 478–503.ISSN0048-5950
• Moens, AlexanderThe Foreign Policy of George W. Bush: Values, Strategy, and Loyalty.Ashgate, 2004. 227 pp.
• Morgan, Iwan.The Age of Deficits: Presidents and Unbalanced Budgets from Jimmy Carter to George W. Bush(2009)excerpt
• Morgan, Iwan, ed.Right On?: Political Change and Continuity in George W. Bush's America(2006)
• Morgan, Iwan, and Philip John Davies, eds.Assessing George W. Bush's Legacy–The Right Man?(2010) essays by British experts.
• Murray, Donette, David Brown, and Martin A. Smith, eds.George W. Bush's Foreign Policies: Principles and Pragmatism(Routledge, 2017).
• Nautré, Zoé.U.S. Idealism Meets Reality: Democracy Promotion in the Middle East During the George W. Bush Administration(Berlin: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Auswärtige Politik eV. 2010).
• Rabe, Barry. "Environmental Policy and the Bush Era: the Collision Between the Administrative Presidency and State Experimentation."Publius2007 37(3): 413–431.ISSN0048-5950

• Rozell, Mark.The Press and the Bush Presidency(1996)
• Rozell, Mark, and Gleaves Whitney, eds. "Religion and the Bush presidency(Springer, 2007).
• Sabato, Larry J. ed.The Sixth Year Itch: The Rise and Fall of the George W. Bush Presidency(2007), experts on the 2006 elections in major states
• Siracusa, Joseph M., and Laurens J. Visser.Going to War with Iraq: A Comparative History of the Bush Presidencies(Palgrave Macmillan, 2020).
• Strozeski, Josh, et al. "From Benign Neglect to Strategic Interest: the Role of Africa in the Foreign Policies of Bush 41 and 43."White House Studies2007 7(1): 35–51.ISSN1535-4768
• Updegrove, Mark K. (2017).The Last Republicans: Inside the Extraordinary Relationship between George H.W. Bush and George W. Bush.Harper.ISBN9780062654120.
• Warshaw, Shirley Anne (2010).The Co-Presidency of Bush and Cheney.Stanford Politics and Policy.ISBN978-0804758185.
• Wekkin, Gary D. "George H. W. Bush and George W. Bush: Puzzling Presidencies, or the Puzzle of the Presidency?"White House Studies2007 7(2): 113–124.ISSN1535-4768
• Wong, Kenneth and Gail Sunderman. "Education Accountability as a Presidential Priority: No Child Left Behind and the Bush Presidency."Publius2007 37(3): 333–350.ISSN0048-5950
• Zelizer, Julian E., ed. (2010).The Presidency of George W. Bush: A First Historical Assessment.Princeton University Press.ISBN9780691134857.

Reflections on the Bush presidency

• Barnes, Fred.Rebel-in-Chief: How George W. Bush Is Redefining the Conservative Movement and Transforming America(2006)
• Bartlett, Bruce.Impostor: How George W. Bush Bankrupted America and Betrayed the Reagan Legacy(2006)
• Cheney, Dick.In My Time: A Personal and Political Memoir(2011)
• Ferguson, Michaele L. and Lori Jo Marso.W Stands for Women: How the George W. Bush Presidency Shaped a New Politics of Gender(2007)
• Gerson, Michael J.Heroic Conservatism: Why Republicans Need to Embrace America's Ideals (And Why They Deserve to Fail If They Don't)(2007),excerpt and text search
• Greenspan, Alan.The Age of Turbulence: Adventures in a New World(2007)
• Hayes, Stephen F.Cheney: The Untold Story of America's Most Powerful and Controversial Vice President(2007),excerpts and online search
• Hughes, Karen.George W. Bush: Portrait of a Leader(2005)
• Mabry, Marcus.Twice as Good: Condoleezza Rice and Her Path to Power(2007)
• Moore, James. and Wayne Slater.Bush's Brain: How Karl Rove Made George W. Bush Presidential(2003)
• Rice, Condoleezza.No Higher Honor: A Memoir of My Years in Washington(2011)
• Rumsfeld, Donald.Known and Unknown: A Memoir(2011)
• Suskind, Ron.The Price of Loyalty: George W. Bush, the White House, and the Education of Paul O'Neill(2004),excerpts and online search from Amazon.com
• Woodward, Bob.Plan of Attack(2003),excerpt and text search
• Yamashiro, Daniel K.M. "Religious Influences on Crisis Presidential Decision-Making: A New Belief in the Operational Code Analysis of George W. Bush" (Thesis Harvard U. 2017)online.

Primary sources

• Bush, George W.George W. Bush on God and Country: The President Speaks Out About Faith, Principle, and Patriotism(2004)
• Bush, George W.Decision Points(2010)

External links

• Miller Center on the Presidency at U of Virginia: George W. Bush,brief articles on Bush and his presidency
• George W. Bush White House archives
• The Bush Years: High and Low Points– slideshow byThe First Post
• George W. Bush Presidency– collection of academic articles on the Bush Presidency.