Protestantism

Protestantismis a branch ofChristianity^[a]that emphasizesjustificationof sinners by grace throughfaith alone,thepriesthood of all believers,and theBibleas the sole infallible source of authority for Christian faith and practice.^[1]^[2]Thefivesolaesummarize the basic theological beliefs of mainstream Protestantism.

Protestants follow thetheologicaltenets of theProtestant Reformation,a movement that began in the 16th century with the goal of reforming theCatholic Churchfrom perceivederrors, abuses, and discrepancies.^[3]^[b]The Reformation began in theHoly Roman Empire^[c]in 1517, whenMartin Lutherpublished hisNinety-five Thesesas a reaction against abuses in the sale ofindulgencesby the Catholic Church, which purported to offer the remission of thetemporal punishmentof sins to their purchasers.^[4]The term, however, derives from theletter of protestationfrom German Lutheranprincesin 1529 against anedictof theDiet of Speyercondemning theteachings of Martin Lutherasheretical.^[5]In the16th century,Lutheranismspread from Germany^[d]intoDenmark–Norway,Sweden,Finland,Livonia,andIceland.^[6]Calvinistchurches spread in Germany,^[e]Hungary,theNetherlands,Scotland,Switzerland,France,Poland,andLithuaniabyProtestant Reformerssuch asJohn Calvin,Huldrych ZwingliandJohn Knox.^[7]The political separation of theChurch of Englandfrom theRoman Catholic ChurchunderKing Henry VIIIbeganAnglicanism,bringing England and Wales into this broad Reformation movement, under the leadership of reformerThomas Cranmer,whose work forged Anglican doctrine and identity.^[f]

Protestantism is diverse, being divided into various denominations on the basis oftheologyandecclesiology,not forming a single structure as with the Catholic Church,Eastern OrthodoxyorOriental Orthodoxy.^[8]Protestants adhere to the concept of aninvisible church,in contrast to the Catholic, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Oriental Orthodox Churches, theAssyrian Church of the East,and theAncient Church of the East,which all understand themselves as the one and only original church—the "one true church"—founded by Jesus Christ (though certain Protestant denominations, including historic Lutheranism, hold to this position).^[9]^[10]^[11]Somedenominationsdo have a worldwide scope and distribution ofchurch membership,while others are confined to a single country.^[8]A majority of Protestants^[g]are members of a handful of Protestant denominational families;Adventists,Anabaptists,Anglicans/Episcopalians,Baptists,Calvinist/Reformed,^[h]Lutherans,Methodists,Moravians,Plymouth Brethren,Presbyterians,andQuakers.^[13]Nondenominational,charismaticandindependentchurches are also on the rise, having recently expanded rapidly throughout much of the world, and constitute a significant part of Protestantism.^[14]These various movements, collectively labeled "popular Protestantism"^[i]by scholars such asPeter L. Berger,have been called one of the contemporary world's most dynamic religious movements.^[15]

As of today it has a total of 625,606,000 members.^[13]^[16]^[j]

Terminology

Memorial Church,finished and consecrated 1904, inSpeyer,Germany commemorates theProtestation.

The Protesting Speyer,part of theLuther MonumentinWorms, Germany

Protestant

Six princes of theHoly Roman Empireand rulers of fourteenImperial Free Cities,who issueda protest(or dissent) against the edict of theDiet of Speyer (1529),were the first individuals to be called Protestants.^[18]The edict reversed concessions made to theLutheranswith the approval ofHoly Roman Emperor Charles V three years earlier.The termprotestant,though initially purely political in nature, later acquired a broader sense, referring to a member of any Western church which subscribed to the main Protestant principles.^[18]A Protestant is an adherent of any of those Christian bodies that separated from the Church of Rome during the Reformation, or of any group descended from them.^[19]

During the Reformation, the termprotestantwas hardly used outside of German politics. People who were involved in the religious movement used the wordevangelical(German:evangelisch). For further details, see the section below. Gradually,protestantbecame a general term, meaning any adherent of the Reformation in the German-speaking area. It was ultimately somewhat taken up by Lutherans, even thoughMartin Lutherhimself insisted onChristianorevangelicalas the only acceptable names for individuals who professed faith in Christ.FrenchandSwiss Protestantsinstead preferred the wordreformed(French:réformé), which became a popular, neutral, and alternative name for Calvinists.

Evangelical

The wordevangelical(German:evangelisch), which refers tothe gospel,was widely used for those involved in the religious movement in the German-speaking area beginning in 1517.^[20]Evangelicalis still preferred among some of the historical Protestant denominations in the Lutheran, Calvinist, and United (Lutheran and Reformed) Protestant traditions in Europe, and those with strong ties to them. Above all the term is used by Protestant bodies in theGerman-speaking area,such as theProtestant Church in Germany.Thus, theGermanwordevangelischmeans Protestant, while the Germanevangelikal,refers to churches shaped byEvangelicalism.The English wordevangelicalusually refers toevangelical Protestantchurches, and therefore to a certain part of Protestantism rather than to Protestantism as a whole. The English word traces its roots back to thePuritansin England, where Evangelicalism originated, and then was brought to theUnited States.

Martin Luther always disliked the termLutheran,preferring the termevangelical,which was derived fromeuangelion,a Greek word meaning "good news", i.e. "gospel".^[21]The followers ofJohn Calvin,Huldrych Zwingli,and other theologians linked to theReformed traditionalso began to use that term. To distinguish the two evangelical groups, others began to refer to the two groups asEvangelical LutheranandEvangelical Reformed.The word also pertains in the same way to some other mainline groups, for exampleEvangelical Methodist.As time passed by, the wordevangelicalwas dropped. Lutherans themselves began to use the termLutheranin the middle of the 16th century, in order to distinguish themselves from other groups such as thePhilippistsandCalvinists.

Reformational

TheGermanwordreformatorisch,which roughly translates to English as "reformational" or "reforming", is used as an alternative forevangelischin German, and is different from Englishreformed(German:reformiert), which refers to churches shaped by ideas ofJohn Calvin,Huldrych Zwingli,and other Reformed theologians. Derived from the word "Reformation", the term emerged around the same time asEvangelical(1517) andProtestant(1529).

Theology

Main principles

Two central figures of theReformation,Martin LutherandJohn Calvin,depicted on a churchpulpit;both Luther and Calvin emphasized making preaching a centerpiece of worship.

TheBibletranslated intovernacularby Martin Luther. In Protestantism, the Bible is the supreme authority ofscripture.

Various experts on the subject tried to determine what makes a Christian denomination a part of Protestantism. A common consensus approved by most of them is that if a Christian denomination is to be considered Protestant, it must acknowledge the following three fundamental principles of Protestantism.^[22]

Scripture alone

The belief, emphasized by Luther, in the Bible as the highest source of authority for the church. The early churches of the Reformation believed in a critical, yet serious, reading of scripture and holding the Bible as a source of authority higher than that ofchurch tradition.The many abuses that had occurred in the Western Church before the Protestant Reformation led the Reformers to reject much of its tradition. In the early 20th century, a less critical reading of the Bible developed in the United States—leading to a "fundamentalist"reading of Scripture. Christian fundamentalists read the Bible as the" inerrant,infallible"Word of God, as do the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican and Lutheran churches, but interpret it in aliteralistfashion without using thehistorical-critical method.Methodists and Anglicans differ from Lutherans and the Reformed on this doctrine as they teachprima scriptura,which holds that Scripture is the primary source for Christian doctrine, but that "tradition, experience, and reason" can nurture the Christian religion as long as they are in harmony with the Bible (Protestant canon).^[1]^[23]

"Biblical Christianity" focused on a deep study of the Bible is characteristic of most Protestants as opposed to "Church Christianity", focused on performing rituals and good works, represented by Catholic and Orthodox traditions. However,Quakers,PentecostalistsandSpiritual Christiansemphasize theHoly Spiritand personal closeness to God.^[24]

Justification by faith alone

The belief that believers arejustified,or pardoned for sin, solely on condition of faith inChristrather than a combination of faith andgood works.For Protestants, good works are a necessary consequence rather than cause of justification.^[25]However, while justification is by faith alone, there is the position that faith is notnuda fides.^[26]John Calvin explained that "it is therefore faith alone which justifies, and yet the faith which justifies is not alone: just as it is the heat alone of the sun which warms the earth, and yet in the sun it is not alone."^[26]Lutheran and Reformed Christians differ from Methodists in their understanding of this doctrine.^[27]

Universal priesthood of believers

The universalpriesthood of believersimplies the right and duty of the Christian laity not only to read the Bible in thevernacular,but also to take part in the government and all the public affairs of the Church. It is opposed to the hierarchical system which puts the essence and authority of the Church in an exclusive priesthood, and which makes ordained priests the necessary mediators between God and the people.^[25]It is distinguished from the concept of the priesthood of all believers, which did not grant individuals the right to interpret the Bible apart from the Christian community at large because universal priesthood opened the door to such a possibility.^[28]There are scholars who cite that this doctrine tends to subsume all distinctions in the church under a single spiritual entity.^[29]Calvin referred to the universal priesthood as an expression of the relation between the believer and his God, including the freedom of a Christian to come to God through Christ without human mediation.^[30]He also maintained that this principle recognizes Christ asprophet,priest, and king and that his priesthood is shared with his people.^[30]

Trinity

TheTrinityis the belief thatGodis one God in three persons:the Father,the Son(Jesus), and theHoly Spirit

Protestants who adhere to theNicene Creedbelieve in threepersons(God the Father,God the Son,and theGod the Holy Spirit) as one God.

Movements that emerged around the time of the Protestant Reformation, but are not a part of Protestantism (e.g.Unitarianism), reject theTrinity.This often serves as a reason for exclusion of theUnitarian Universalism,Oneness Pentecostalism,and other movements from Protestantism by various observers. Unitarianism continues to have a presence mainly inTransylvania,England, and the United States.^[28]

Five solae

The Fivesolaeare fiveLatinphrases (or slogans) that emerged during theProtestant Reformationand summarize the reformers' basic differences in theological beliefs in opposition to the teaching of theCatholic Churchof the day.^[1]The Latin wordsolameans "alone", "only", or "single".

The use of the phrases as summaries of teaching emerged over time during the Reformation, based on the overarching Lutheran and Reformed principle ofsola scriptura(by scripture alone).^[1]This idea contains the four main doctrines on the Bible: that its teaching is needed for salvation (necessity); that all the doctrine necessary for salvation comes from the Bible alone (sufficiency); that everything taught in the Bible is correct (inerrancy); and that, by the Holy Spirit overcoming sin, believers may read and understand truth from the Bible itself, though understanding is difficult, so the means used to guide individual believers to the true teaching is often mutual discussion within the church (clarity).

The necessity and inerrancy were well-established ideas, garnering little criticism, though they later came under debate from outside during theEnlightenment.The most contentious idea at the time though was the notion that anyone could simply pick up the Bible and learn enough to gain salvation. Though the reformers were concerned withecclesiology(the doctrine of how the church as a body works), they had a different understanding of the process in which truths in scripture were applied to life of believers, compared to the Catholics' idea that certain people within the church, or ideas that were old enough, had a special status in giving understanding of the text.

The second main principle,sola fide(by faith alone), states that faith in Christ is sufficient alone for eternal salvation and justification. Though argued from scripture, and hence logically consequent tosola scriptura,this is the guiding principle of the work of Luther and the later reformers. Becausesola scripturaplaced the Bible as the only source of teaching,sola fideepitomizes the main thrust of the teaching the reformers wanted to get back to, namely the direct, close, personal connection between Christ and the believer, hence the reformers' contention that their work was Christocentric.

The other solas, as statements, emerged later, but the thinking they represent was also part of the early Reformation.

Solus Christus:Christ alone

The Protestants characterize the dogma concerning the Pope as Christ's representative head of the Church on earth, the concept of works made meritorious by Christ, and the Catholic idea of a treasury of the merits of Christ and his saints, as a denial that Christ is theonlymediator betweenGodand man. Catholics, on the other hand, maintained the traditional understanding of Judaism on these questions, and appealed to the universal consensus of Christian tradition.^[31]

Sola Gratia:Grace alone

Protestants perceived Catholic salvation to be dependent upon the grace of God and the merits of one's own works. The reformers posited that salvation is a gift of God (i.e., God's act of free grace), dispensed by the Holy Spirit owing to the redemptive work of Jesus Christ alone. Consequently, they argued that a sinner is not accepted by God on account of the change wrought in the believer by God's grace, and that the believer is accepted without regard for the merit of his works, for no onedeservessalvation.^[32]

Soli Deo Gloria:Glory to God alone

All glory is due to God alone since salvation is accomplished solely through his will and action—not only the gift of the all-sufficientatonementofJesusonthe crossbut also the gift of faith in that atonement, created in the heart of the believer by theHoly Spirit.The reformers believed that human beings—even saintscanonizedby the Catholic Church, the popes, and the ecclesiastical hierarchy—are not worthy of the glory.

Christ's presence in the Eucharist

A 1547Lutherandepiction of theLast SupperbyLucas Cranach the Elder

The Protestant movement began to diverge into several distinct branches in the mid-to-late 16th century. One of the central points of divergence was controversy over theEucharist.Early Protestants rejected the Catholicdogmaoftransubstantiation,which teaches that the bread and wine used in the sacrificial rite of the Mass lose their natural substance by being transformed into the body, blood, soul, and divinity of Christ. They disagreed with one another concerning the presence of Christ and his body and blood in Holy Communion.

Lutherans hold that in theLord's Supper,the Body and Blood of Christ are present "in, with, and under the form" of bread and wine for all those who eat and drink it,^[33]^[34]a doctrine that theFormula of Concordcalls theSacramental union.^[35]God earnestly offers to all who receive the sacrament,^[36]^[37]forgiveness of sins,^[38]^[39]and eternal salvation.^[40]
TheReformed churchesemphasize therealspiritualpresence,orsacramental presence,of Christ, saying that the sacrament is a sanctifying grace through which the elect believer does not actually partake of Christ, but merelywiththe bread and wine rather than in the elements. Calvinists deny the Lutheran assertion that all communicants, both believers and unbelievers, orally receive Christ's body and blood in the elements of thesacramentbut instead affirm that Christ is united to the believer through faith—toward which the supper is an outward and visible aid. Calvin also emphasizes the real presence of Christ by the Holy Spirit during Eucharist. This is often referred to asdynamic presence.
Anglicans and Methodists refuse to define the Presence, preferring to leave it a mystery.^[41]The Prayer Books describe the bread and wine as outward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual grace which is the Body and Blood of Christ. However, the words of their liturgies suggest that one can hold to a belief in the Real Presence and Spiritual and Sacramental Present at the same time. For example, "... and you have fed us with the spiritual food in the Sacrament of his body and Blood;" "...the spiritual food of the most precious Body and Blood of your Son our Saviour Jesus Christ, and for assuring us in these holy mysteries..." American Book of Common Prayer, 1977, pp. 365–366.
Anabaptists hold a popular simplification of theZwinglian view,without concern for theological intricacies as hinted at above, may see the Lord's Supper merely as a symbol of the shared faith of the participants, a commemoration of the facts of the crucifixion, and a reminder of their standing together as the body of Christ (a view referred to asmemorialism).^[42]

Other beliefs

Protestants reject the Catholic doctrine ofpapal supremacy,and have variant views on the number ofsacraments,thereal presenceofChristin theEucharist,and matters ofecclesiastical polityandapostolic succession.^[43]^[44]

History

Pre-Reformation

Spread ofLollardyinMedieval EnglandandMedieval Scotland

The execution ofJan Husin 1415

Girolamo Savonarola

Wessel Gansfort

Many of the individual ideas that were taken up by various reformers had historical pre-cursors; however, calling themproto-reformersis controversial, as often their theology also had components that are not associated with later Protestants, or that were asserted by some Protestants but denied by others, or that were only superficially similar.

One of the earliest persons to be praised as a Protestant forerunner isJovinian,who lived in the fourth century AD. He attackedmonasticism,ascetismand believed that a saved believer can never be overcome by Satan.^[45]

In the 9th century, the theologianGottschalk of Orbaiswas condemned for heresy by the Catholic Church. Gottschalk believed that the salvation of Jesus was limited and that his redemption was only for the elect.^[46]The theology of Gottschalk anticipated the Protestant reformation.^[47]^[48]^{[self-published source?]}Ratramnusalso defended the theology of Gottschalk and denied the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist; his writings also influenced the later Protestant reformation.^[49]Claudius of Turinin the 9th century also held Protestant ideas, such asfaith aloneand rejection of the supremacy of Peter.^[50]

In the late 1130s,Arnold of Brescia,an Italiancanon regularbecame one of the first theologians to attempt to reform the Catholic Church. After his death, his teachings onapostolic povertygained currency amongArnoldists,and later more widely amongWaldensiansand theSpiritual Franciscans,though no written word of his has survived the official condemnation. In the early 1170s,Peter Waldofounded the Waldensians. He advocated an interpretation of the Gospel that led to conflicts with the Catholic Church. By 1215, the Waldensians were declared heretical and subject to persecution. Despite that, the movement continues to exist to this day in Italy, asa part of the wider Reformed tradition.

In the 1370s, Oxford theologian and priestJohn Wycliffe—later dubbed the "Morning Star of Reformation" —started his activity as an English reformer. He rejected papal authority over secular power (in that any person in mortal sin lost their authority and should be resisted: a priest with possessions, such as a pope, was in such grave sin), may havetranslated the Bibleintovernacular English,and preached anticlerical and biblically centred reforms. His rejection of a real divine presence in the elements of the Eucharist foreshadowed Huldrych Zwingli's similar ideas in the 16th century. Wycliffe's admirers came to be known as "Lollards".^[51]

Beginning in the first decade of the 15th century,Jan Hus—a Catholic priest, Czech reformist and professor—influenced by John Wycliffe's writings, founded theHussitemovement. He strongly advocated his reformistBohemianreligious denomination. He wasexcommunicatedandburned at the stakeinConstance,Bishopric of Constance,in 1415 by secular authorities for unrepentant and persistent heresy. After his execution, a revolt erupted. Hussites defeated five continuous crusades proclaimed against them by thePope.

Later theological disputes caused a split within the Hussite movement.Utraquistsmaintained that both the bread and the wine should be administered to the people during the Eucharist. Another major faction were theTaborites,who opposed the Utraquists in theBattle of Lipanyduring theHussite Wars.There were two separate parties among the Hussites: moderate and radical movements. Other smaller regional Hussite branches inBohemiaincludedAdamites,Orebites,Orphans,and Praguers.

The Hussite Wars concluded with the victory ofHoly Roman Emperor Sigismund,his Catholic allies and moderate Hussites and the defeat of the radical Hussites. Tensions arose as theThirty Years' Warreached Bohemia in 1620. Both moderate and radical Hussitism was increasingly persecuted by Catholics and Holy Roman Emperor's armies.

In the 14th century, a German mysticist group called theGottesfreundecriticized the Catholic church and its corruption. Many of their leaders were executed for attacking the Catholic church and they believed that God's judgement would soon come upon the church. The Gottesfreunde were a democratic lay movement and forerunner of the Reformation and put heavy stress of holiness and piety,^[52]

Starting in 1475, an Italian Dominican friarGirolamo Savonarolawas calling for a Christian renewal. Later on, Martin Luther himself read some of the friar's writings and praised him as a martyr and forerunner whose ideas on faith and grace anticipated Luther's own doctrine of justification by faith alone.^[53]

Some of Hus' followers founded theUnitas Fratrum— "Unity of the Brethren" —which was renewed under the leadership ofCount Nicolaus von ZinzendorfinHerrnhut,Saxony,in 1722 after its almost total destruction in theThirty Years' Warand theCounterreformation ( "Catholic Reformation" ).Today, it is usually referred to in English as theMoravian Churchand in German as theHerrnhuter Brüdergemeine.

In the 15th century, three German theologians anticipated the reformation:Wessel Gansfort,Johann Ruchat von Wesel,andJohannes von Goch.They held ideas such aspredestination,sola scriptura,and thechurch invisible,and denied the Roman Catholic view on justification and the authority of the Pope, also questioningmonasticism.^[54]

Wessel Gansfort also deniedtransubstantiationand anticipated the Lutheran view of justification by faith alone.^[55]

Reformation proper

Distribution of Protestantism andCatholicismin Central Europe on the eve of theThirty Years' Warin 1618

Henry VIII of England,known for his role in theseparationof theChurch of Englandfrom theCatholic Church

John Knox,who led theReformation in Scotland,foundingPresbyterianism

TheProtestant Reformationbegan as an attempt to reform theCatholic Church.

On 31 October 1517, known asAll Hallows' Eve,Martin Lutherallegedly nailed hisNinety-five Theses,also known as the Disputation on the Power of Indulgences, on the door of theAll Saints' ChurchinWittenberg,Germany, detailing doctrinal and practical abuses of the Catholic Church, especially the selling ofindulgences.The theses debated and criticized many aspects of the Church and the papacy, including the practice ofpurgatory,particular judgment,and the authority of the pope. Luther would later write works against the Catholic devotion toVirgin Mary,the intercession of and devotion to the saints, mandatory clerical celibacy, monasticism, the authority of the pope, the ecclesiastical law, censure andexcommunication,the role of secular rulers in religious matters, the relationship between Christianity and the law, good works, and the sacraments.^[56]

TheReformationwas a triumph of literacy and the newprinting pressinvented byJohannes Gutenberg.^[57]^[k]Luther's translation of the Bible into German was a decisive moment in the spread of literacy, and stimulated as well the printing and distribution of religious books and pamphlets. From 1517 onward, religious pamphlets flooded much of Europe.^[59]^[l]

Following the excommunication of Luther and condemnation of the Reformation by the Pope, the work and writings ofJohn Calvinwere influential in establishing a loose consensus among various groups in Switzerland, Scotland, Hungary, Germany and elsewhere. After the expulsion of its Bishop in 1526, and the unsuccessful attempts of theBernreformerWilliam Farel,Calvin was asked to use the organizational skill he had gathered as a student of law to discipline the city ofGeneva.HisOrdinances of 1541involved a collaboration of Church affairs with the city council and consistory to bring morality to all areas of life. After the establishment of the Geneva academy in 1559, Geneva became the unofficial capital of the Protestant movement, providing refuge for Protestant exiles from all over Europe and educating them as Calvinist missionaries. The faith continued to spread after Calvin's death in 1563.

Protestantism also spread from the German lands into France, where the Protestants were nicknamedHuguenots(a term of somewhat inexplicable origin). Calvin continued to take an interest in the French religious affairs from his base in Geneva. He regularly trained pastors to lead congregations there. Despite heavy persecution, the Reformed tradition made steady progress across large sections of the nation, appealing to people alienated by the obduracy and the complacency of the Catholic establishment. French Protestantism came to acquire a distinctly political character, made all the more obvious by the conversions of nobles during the 1550s. This established the preconditions for a series of conflicts, known as theFrench Wars of Religion.The civil wars gained impetus with the sudden death ofHenry II of Francein 1559. Atrocity and outrage became the defining characteristics of the time, illustrated at their most intense in theSt. Bartholomew's Day massacreof August 1572, when the Catholic party annihilated between 30,000 and 100,000 Huguenots across France. The wars only concluded whenHenry IV of Franceissued theEdict of Nantes,promising official toleration of the Protestant minority, but under highly restricted conditions. Catholicism remained the officialstate religion,and the fortunes of French Protestants gradually declined over the next century, culminating inLouis XIV's Edict of Fontainebleauwhich revoked the Edict of Nantes and made Catholicism the sole legal religion once again. In response to the Edict of Fontainebleau,Frederick William I, Elector of Brandenburgdeclared theEdict of Potsdam,giving free passage to Huguenot refugees. In the late 17th century, many Huguenots fled to England, the Netherlands, Prussia, Switzerland, and the English and Dutch overseas colonies. A significant community in France remained in theCévennesregion.

Parallel to events in Germany, a movement began in Switzerland under the leadership of Huldrych Zwingli. Zwingli was a scholar and preacher, who in 1518 moved to Zurich. Although the two movements agreed on many issues of theology, some unresolved differences kept them separate. A long-standing resentment between the German states and theSwiss Confederationled to heated debate over how much Zwingli owed his ideas to Lutheranism. The German PrincePhilip of Hessesaw potential in creating an alliance between Zwingli and Luther. A meeting was held in his castle in 1529, now known as theColloquy of Marburg,which has become infamous for its failure. The two men could not come to any agreement due to their disputation over one key doctrine.

In 1534,King Henry VIIIput an end to all papal jurisdiction inEngland,after the Pope failed toannulhis marriage toCatherine of Aragon(due to political considerations involving the Holy Roman Emperor);^[61]this opened the door to reformational ideas. Reformers in the Church of England alternated between sympathies for ancient Catholic tradition and more Reformed principles, gradually developing into a tradition considered a middle way (via media) between the Catholic and Protestant traditions. The English Reformation followed a particular course. The different character of theEnglish Reformationcame primarily from the fact that it was driven initially by the political necessities of Henry VIII. King Henry decided to remove the Church of England from the authority of Rome. In 1534, the Act of Supremacy recognized Henry asthe only Supreme Head on earth of the Church of England.Between 1535 and 1540, underThomas Cromwell,the policy known as theDissolution of the Monasterieswas put into effect. Following a brief Catholic restoration during the reign of Mary I, a loose consensus developed during the reign ofElizabeth I.TheElizabethan Religious Settlementlargely formed Anglicanism into a distinctive church tradition. The compromise was uneasy and was capable of veering between extreme Calvinism on the one hand and Catholicism on the other. It was relatively successful until the Puritan Revolution orEnglish Civil Warin the 17th century.

The success of the Counterreformation ( "Catholic Reformation" ) on the Continent and the growth of aPuritan partydedicated to further Protestant reform polarized theElizabethan Age.The early Puritan movement was a movement for reform in the Church of England whose proponents desired for the Church of England to resemble more closely the Protestant churches of Europe, especially that of Geneva. The later Puritan movement, often referred to asdissentersandnonconformists,eventually led to the formation of various Reformed denominations.

TheScottish Reformationof 1560 decisively shaped theChurch of Scotland.^[62]The Reformation in Scotland culminated ecclesiastically in the establishment of a church along Reformed lines, and politically in the triumph of English influence over that of France. John Knox is regarded as the leader of the Scottish Reformation. TheScottish Reformation Parliamentof 1560 repudiated the pope's authority by thePapal Jurisdiction Act 1560,forbade the celebration of the Mass and approved a Protestant Confession of Faith. It was made possible by a revolution against French hegemony under the regime of the regentMary of Guise,who had governed Scotland in the name of her absentdaughter.

Some of the most important activists of the Protestant Reformation includedJacobus Arminius,Theodore Beza,Martin Bucer,Andreas von Carlstadt,Heinrich Bullinger,Balthasar Hubmaier,Thomas Cranmer,William Farel,Thomas Müntzer,Laurentius Petri,Olaus Petri,Philipp Melanchthon,Menno Simons,Louis de Berquin,Primož TrubarandJohn Smyth.

In the course of this religious upheaval, theGerman Peasants' Warof 1524–25 swept through theBavarian,ThuringianandSwabianprincipalities. After theEighty Years' Warin theLow Countriesand theFrench Wars of Religion,the confessional division of the states of the Holy Roman Empire eventually erupted in theThirty Years' Warbetween 1618 and 1648. It devastated much ofGermany,killing between 25% and 40% of its population.^[63]The main tenets of thePeace of Westphalia,which ended the Thirty Years' War, were:

All parties would now recognize thePeace of Augsburgof 1555, by which each prince would have the right to determine the religion of his own state, the options being Catholicism, Lutheranism, and now Calvinism. (the principle ofcuius regio, eius religio)
Christians living in principalities where their denomination wasnotthe established church were guaranteed the right to practice their faith in public during allotted hours and in private at their will.
The treaty also effectively ended the papacy's pan-European political power.Pope Innocent Xdeclared the treaty "null, void, invalid, iniquitous, unjust, damnable, reprobate, inane, empty of meaning and effect for all times" in his bullZelo Domus Dei.European sovereigns, Catholic and Protestant alike, ignored his verdict.^[64]

Peak of theReformationand beginning of the Counterreformation ( "Catholic Reformation" ) (1545–1620)

End of the Reformation and Counterreformation ( "Catholic Reformation" ) (1648)

Religious situation in Europe, late 16th and early to mid-17th century

Post-Reformation

An 1839Methodistcamp meeting during theSecond Great Awakeningin the U.S.

The Great Awakenings were periods of rapid and dramatic religious revival in Anglo-American religious history.

TheFirst Great Awakeningwas an evangelical and revitalization movement that swept through Protestant Europe andBritish America,especially theAmerican coloniesin the 1730s and 1740s, leaving a permanent impact onAmerican Protestantism.It resulted from powerful preaching that gave listeners a sense of deep personal revelation of their need of salvation by Jesus Christ. Pulling away from ritual, ceremony, sacramentalism and hierarchy, it made Christianity intensely personal to the average person by fostering a deep sense of spiritual conviction and redemption, and by encouraging introspection and a commitment to a new standard of personal morality.^[65]

TheSecond Great Awakeningbegan around 1790. It gained momentum by 1800. After 1820, membership rose rapidly amongBaptistandMethodistcongregations, whose preachers led the movement. It was past its peak by the late 1840s. It has been described as a reaction against skepticism,deism,andrationalism,although why those forces became pressing enough at the time to spark revivals is not fully understood.^[66]It enrolled millions of new members in existingevangelicaldenominations and led to the formation of new denominations.

TheThird Great Awakeningrefers to a hypothetical historical period that was marked by religious activism inAmerican historyand spans the late 1850s to the early 20th century.^[67]It affectedpietisticProtestant denominations and had a strong element of social activism.^[68]It gathered strength from thepostmillennialbelief that theSecond Comingof Christ would occur after mankind had reformed the entire earth. It was affiliated with theSocial GospelMovement, which applied Christianity to social issues and gained its force from the Awakening, as did the worldwide missionary movement. New groupings emerged, such as theHoliness,Nazarene,andChristian Sciencemovements.^[69]

TheFourth Great Awakeningwas a Christian religious awakening that some scholars—most notably,Robert Fogel—say took place in the United States in the late 1960s and early 1970s, while others look at the era followingWorld War II.The terminology is controversial. Thus, the idea of a Fourth Great Awakening itself has not been generally accepted.^[70]

In 1814,Le Réveilswept through Calvinist regions in Switzerland and France.

In 1904, aProtestant revival in Waleshad a tremendous impact on the local population. A part of British modernization, it drew many people to churches, especially Methodist and Baptist ones.^[71]

A noteworthy development in 20th-century Protestant Christianity was the rise of the modernPentecostal movement.Sprung from Methodist andWesleyanroots, it arose out of meetings at an urban mission onAzusa Streetin Los Angeles. From there it spread around the world, carried by those who experienced what they believed to be miraculous moves of God there. These Pentecost-like manifestations have steadily been in evidence throughout history, such as seen in the two Great Awakenings. Pentecostalism, which in turn birthed theCharismatic movementwithin already established denominations, continues to be an important force inWestern Christianity.

In the United States and elsewhere in the world, there has been a marked rise in theevangelical wingof Protestant denominations, especially those that are more exclusively evangelical, and a corresponding decline in themainstream liberal churches.In the post–World War Iera,Liberal Christianitywas on the rise, and a considerable number of seminaries held and taught from a liberal perspective as well. In the post–World War IIera, the trend began to swing back towards the conservative camp in America's seminaries and church structures.

In Europe, there has been a general move away from religious observance and belief in Christian teachings and a move towardssecularism.TheEnlightenmentis largely responsible for the spread of secularism. Some scholars debate the link between Protestantism and the rise of secularism, and take as argument the wide-ranging freedom in Protestant-majority countries.^[72]However, the sole example of France demonstrates that even in Catholic-majority countries, the overwhelming impact of the Enlightenment has brought even stronger secularism and freedom of thought five centuries later. It is more reliable to consider that the Reformation influenced the critical thinkers of the subsequent centuries, providing intellectual, religious, and philosophical ground on which future philosophers could extend their criticism of the church, of its theological, philosophical, social assumptions of the time. One should be reminded though that initial philosophers of the Enlightenment were defending a Christian conception of the world, but it was developed together with a fierce and decisive criticism of the Church, its politics, its ethics, its worldview, its scientific and cultural assumptions, leading to the devaluation of all forms of institutionalized Christianity, which extended over the centuries.^[73]

Radical Reformation

Dissatisfaction with the outcome of a disputation in 1525 promptedSwiss Brethrento part ways withHuldrych Zwingli

Unlike mainstreamLutheran,Calvinistand Zwinglian movements, theRadical Reformation,which had no state sponsorship, generally abandoned the idea of the "Church visible" as distinct from the "Church invisible". It was a rational extension of the state-approved Protestant dissent, which took the value of independence from constituted authority a step further, arguing the same for the civic realm. The Radical Reformation was non-mainstream, though in parts of Germany, Switzerland and Austria, a majority would sympathize with the Radical Reformation despite the intense persecution it faced from both Catholics and Magisterial Protestants.^[74]

The earlyAnabaptistsbelieved that their reformation must purify not only theology but also the actual lives of Christians, especially their political and social relationships.^[75]Therefore, the church should not be supported by the state, neither by tithes and taxes, nor by the use of the sword;Christianitywas a matter of individual conviction, which could not be forced on anyone, but rather required a personal decision for it.^[75]Protestant ecclesial leaders such asHubmaierandHofmannpreached the invalidity of infant baptism, advocating baptism as following conversion ("believer's baptism") instead. This was not a doctrine new to the reformers, but was taught by earlier groups, such as theAlbigensesin 1147. Though most of the Radical Reformers were Anabaptist, some did not identify themselves with the mainstream Anabaptist tradition.Thomas Müntzerwas involved in theGerman Peasants' War.Andreas Karlstadtdisagreed theologically with Huldrych Zwingli and Martin Luther, teaching nonviolence and refusing to baptize infants while not rebaptizing adult believers.^[76]Kaspar SchwenkfeldandSebastian Franckwere influenced byGerman mysticismandspiritualism.

In the view of many associated with the Radical Reformation, theMagisterial Reformationhad not gone far enough. Radical Reformer,Andreas von Bodenstein Karlstadt,for example, referred to the Lutheran theologians atWittenbergas the "new papists".^[77]Since the term "magister" also means "teacher", the Magisterial Reformation is also characterized by an emphasis on the authority of a teacher. This is made evident in the prominence of Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli as leaders of the reform movements in their respective areas of ministry. Because of their authority, they were often criticized by Radical Reformers as being too much like the Roman Popes. A more political side of the Radical Reformation can be seen in the thought and practice ofHans Hut,although typically Anabaptism has been associated with pacifism.

Anabaptism in shape of its various diversification such as theAmish,MennonitesandHutteritescame out of the Radical Reformation. Later in history,Schwarzenau Brethren,and theApostolic Christian Churchwould emerge in Anabaptist circles.

Denominations

Protestants refer to specific groupings of congregations or churches that share in common foundational doctrines and the name of their groups asdenominations.^[78]The term denomination (national body) is to be distinguished from branch (denominational family; tradition), communion (international body) and congregation (church). An example (this is no universal way to classify Protestant churches, as these may sometimes vary broadly in their structures) to show the difference:

Branch/denominational family/tradition:Methodism

Communion/international body:World Methodist Council

Denomination/national body:United Methodist Church

Congregation/church:First United Methodist Church (Paintsville, Kentucky)

Protestants reject theCatholic Church's doctrine that it is theone true church,with some teaching belief in theinvisible church,which consists of all who profess faith in Jesus Christ.^[79]TheLutheran Churchtraditionally sees itself as the "main trunk of the historical Christian Tree" founded by Christ and the Apostles, holding that during the Reformation, theChurch of Romefell away.^[10]^[11]Individual denominations also have formed over very subtle theological differences. Other denominations are simply regional or ethnic expressions of the same beliefs. Because the five solas are the main tenets of the Protestant faith,non-denominationalgroups and organizations are also considered Protestant.

Variousecumenical movementshave attempted cooperation or reorganization of the various divided Protestant denominations, according to various models of union, but divisions continue to outpace unions, as there is no overarching authority to which any of the churches owe allegiance, which can authoritatively define the faith. Most denominations share common beliefs in the major aspects of the Christian faith while differing in many secondary doctrines, although what is major and what is secondary is a matter of idiosyncratic belief.

Several countries haveestablishedtheirnational churches,linking the ecclesiastical structure with the state. Jurisdictions where a Protestant denomination has been established as a state religion include severalNordic countries;Denmark (including Greenland),^[80]the Faroe Islands(its churchbeing independent since 2007),^[81]Iceland^[82]and Norway^[83]^[84]^[85]have establishedEvangelical Lutheranchurches.Tuvaluhasthe only established church in Reformed traditionin the world, whileTonga—in the Methodist tradition.^[86]

TheChurch of Englandis the officially established religious institution in England,^[87]^[88]^[89]and also theMother Churchof the worldwideAnglican Communion.

In 1869, Finland was the first Nordic country todisestablish its Evangelical Lutheran churchby introducing the Church Act.^[m]Although the church still maintains a special relationship with the state, it is not described as astate religionin theFinnish Constitutionor other laws passed by theFinnish Parliament.^[90]In 2000, Sweden was the second Nordic country to do so.^[91]

United and uniting churches

Glass window in the town church ofWieslochfeaturingMartin LutherandJohn Calvincommemorating the 1821 union ofLutheranandReformedchurches in theGrand Duchy of Baden

United and uniting churches are churches formed from the merger or other form of union of two or more different Protestant denominations.

Historically, unions of Protestant churches were enforced by the state, usually in order to have a stricter control over the religious sphere of its people, but also for other organizational reasons. As modernChristian ecumenismprogresses, unions between various Protestant traditions are becoming more and more common, resulting in a growing number of united and uniting churches. Some of the recent major examples are theChurch of North India(1970),United Protestant Church of France(2013), and theProtestant Church in the Netherlands(2004). As mainline Protestantism shrinks inEuropeandNorth Americadue to the rise ofsecularismor in areas where Christianity is a minority religion as with theIndian subcontinent,Reformed,Anglican,andLutherandenominations merge, often creating large nationwide denominations. The phenomenon is much less common amongevangelical,nondenominationalandcharismaticchurches as new ones arise and plenty of them remain independent of each other.^{[citation needed]}

What is perhaps the oldest official united church is found inGermany,where theProtestant Church in Germanyis a federation ofLutheran,United (Prussian Union), andReformed churches,a union dating back to 1817. The first of the series of unions was at a synod inIdsteinto form theProtestant Church in Hesse and Nassauin August 1817, commemorated in naming the church of IdsteinUnionskircheone hundred years later.^[92]

Around the world, each united or uniting church comprises a different mix of predecessor Protestant denominations. Trends are visible, however, as most united and uniting churches have one or more predecessors with heritage in theReformed traditionand many are members of theWorld Alliance of Reformed Churches.

Major branches

Protestants can be differentiated according to how they have been influenced by important movements since the Reformation, today regarded as branches. Some of these movements have a common lineage, sometimes directly spawning individual denominations. Due to the earlier stated multitude ofdenominations,this section discusses only the largest denominational families, or branches, widely considered to be a part of Protestantism. These are, in alphabetical order:Adventist,Anglican,Baptist,Calvinist (Reformed),Hussite,Lutheran,Methodist,Pentecostal,Plymouth BrethrenandQuaker.A small but historically significantAnabaptistbranch is also discussed.

The chart below shows the mutual relations and historical origins of the main Protestant denominational families, or their parts. Due to factors such asCounterreformation ( "Catholic Reformation" )and the legal principle ofCuius regio, eius religio,many people lived asNicodemites,where their professed religious affiliations were more or less at odds with the movement they sympathized with. As a result, the boundaries between the denominations do not separate as cleanly as this chart indicates. When a population was suppressed or persecuted into feigning an adherence to the dominant faith, over the generations they continued to influence the church they outwardly adhered to.

Because Calvinism was not specifically recognized in the Holy Roman Empire until the 1648 Peace of Westphalia, many Calvinists lived asCrypto-Calvinists.Due to Counterreformation ( "Catholic Reformation" ) related suppressions in Catholic lands during the 16th through 19th centuries, many Protestants lived asCrypto-Protestants.Meanwhile, in Protestant areas, Catholics sometimes lived ascrypto-papists,although in continental Europe emigration was more feasible so this was less common.

Historical chart of the main branches of Protestantism

Adventism

Adventism began in the 19th century in the context of theSecond Great Awakeningrevival in theUnited States.The name refers to belief in the imminentSecond Coming (or "Second Advent" ) of Jesus Christ.William Millerstarted the Adventist movement in the 1830s. His followers became known asMillerites.^[93]

Although the Adventist churches hold much in common, theirtheologiesdiffer on whether theintermediate stateisunconscious sleepor consciousness, whether the ultimate punishment of the wicked isannihilationor eternal torment, the nature of immortality, whether or not the wicked are resurrected after the millennium, and whether the sanctuary of Daniel 8^[94]refers to the one inheavenor one on earth.^[95]The movement has encouraged the examination of the wholeBible,leading Seventh-day Adventists and some smaller Adventist groups to observe theSabbath.TheGeneral Conference of Seventh-day Adventistshas compiled that church's core beliefs inthe 28 Fundamental Beliefs(1980 and 2005), which use Biblical references as justification.

In 2010, Adventism claimed some 22 million believers scattered in various independent churches.^[96]The largest church within the movement—theSeventh-day Adventist Church—has more than 18 million members.

James Springer Whiteand his wife,Ellen G. Whitefounded theSeventh-day Adventist Church.
AnAdventistpastor baptizes a young man inMozambique
Loma Linda University,a Seventh-day Adventist Church inLoma Linda, California, United States

Anabaptism

Anabaptism traces its origins to theRadical Reformation.Anabaptists believe in delayingbaptismuntil the candidate confesses his or her faith. Although some consider this movement to be an offshoot of Protestantism, others see it as a distinct one.^[97]^[98]TheAmish,Hutterites,andMennonitesare direct descendants of the movement.Schwarzenau Brethren,Bruderhof,and theApostolic Christian Churchare considered later developments among the Anabaptists.

The nameAnabaptist,meaning "one who baptizes again", was given to them by their persecutors in reference to the practice of re-baptizing converts who already had been baptized as infants.^[99]Anabaptists required that baptismal candidates be able to make their own confessions of faith and so rejectedbaptism of infants.The early members of this movement did not accept the nameAnabaptist,claiming that since infant baptism was unscriptural and null and void, the baptizing of believers was not a re-baptism but in fact their first real baptism. As a result of their views on the nature of baptism and other issues, Anabaptists were heavily persecuted during the 16th century and into the 17th by bothMagisterial Protestantsand Catholics. While most Anabaptists adhered to aliteral interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount,which precluded taking oaths, participating in military actions, and participating in civil government, some who practiced re-baptism felt otherwise.^[n]They were thus technically Anabaptists, even though conservativeAmish,Mennonites,andHutteritesand some historians tend to consider them as outside of true Anabaptism. Anabaptist reformers of the Radical Reformation are divided into Radical and the so-called Second Front. Some important Radical Reformation theologians wereJohn of Leiden,Thomas Müntzer,Kaspar Schwenkfeld,Sebastian Franck,Menno Simons.Second Front Reformers includedHans Denck,Conrad Grebel,Balthasar HubmaierandFelix Manz.Many Anabaptists today still use theAusbund,which is the oldest hymnal still in continuous use.

Dirk Willemssaves his pursuer. This act of mercy led to his recapture, after which he was burned at the stake.
AnAmishfamily in a horse-drawn square buggy inLancaster County, Pennsylvania, United States
Alexanderwohl Mennonite Churchin ruralGoessel, Kansas, United States.

Anglicanism

Anglicanismconsists of theChurch of Englandand churches which are historically tied to it or hold similar beliefs, worship practices and church structures.^[100]The wordAnglicanoriginates inecclesia anglicana,amedieval Latinphrase dating to at least 1246 that means theEnglish Church.There is no single "Anglican Church" with universal juridical authority, since each national or regional church has fullautonomy.As the name suggests, the communion is an association of churches infull communionwith thearchbishop of Canterbury.The great majority of Anglicans are members of churches which are part of the internationalAnglican Communion,^[101]which has 85 million adherents.^[102]

TheChurch of Englanddeclared its independence from the Catholic Church at the time of theElizabethan Religious Settlement.^[103]Many of the new Anglican formularies of the mid-16th century corresponded closely to those of contemporary Reformed tradition. These reforms were understood by one of those most responsible for them, the then archbishop of Canterbury,Thomas Cranmer,as navigating a middle way between two of the emerging Protestant traditions, namely Lutheranism and Calvinism.^[104]By the end of the century, the retention in Anglicanism of many traditional liturgical forms and of the episcopate was already seen as unacceptable by those promoting the most developed Protestant principles.

Unique to Anglicanism is theBook of Common Prayer,the collection of services that worshippers in most Anglican churches used for centuries. While it has since undergone many revisions and Anglican churches in different countries have developed other service books, the Book of Common Prayer is still acknowledged as one of the ties that bind the Anglican Communion together.

Thomas Cranmer,one of the most influential figures in shaping Anglican theology and self-identity.
The various editions of theBook of Common Prayercontain the words of structured services of worship in the Anglican Church.
British coronationsare held inWestminster Abbey,aroyal peculiarunder the direct jurisdiction of themonarch.

Baptists

Baptistssubscribe to a doctrine that baptism should be performed only for professing believers (believer's baptism,as opposed toinfant baptism), and that it must be done by completeimmersion(as opposed toaffusionorsprinkling). Othertenetsof Baptist churches includesoul competency(liberty),salvationthroughfaith alone,Scripture aloneas the rule of faith and practice, and the autonomy of the localcongregation.Baptists recognize two ministerial offices,pastorsanddeacons.Baptist churches are widely considered to be Protestant churches, though some Baptists disavow this identity.^[105]

Diverse from their beginning, those identifying as Baptists today differ widely from one another in what they believe, how they worship, their attitudes toward other Christians, and their understanding of what is important in Christian discipleship.^[106]

Historians trace the earliest church labeledBaptistback to 1609 inAmsterdam,withEnglish Separatist John Smythas its pastor.^[107]In accordance with his reading of theNew Testament,he rejected baptism of infants and instituted baptism only of believing adults.^[108]Baptist practice spread to England, where the General Baptists considered Christ's atonement to extend to all people, while the Particular Baptists believed that it extended only tothe elect.In 1638,Roger Williamsestablished thefirst Baptist congregation in the North American colonies.In the mid-18th century, theFirst Great Awakeningincreased Baptist growth in both New England and the South.^[109]TheSecond Great Awakeningin the South in the early 19th century increased church membership, as did the preachers' lessening of support forabolitionandmanumissionofslavery,which had been part of the 18th-century teachings. Baptist missionaries have spread their church to every continent.^[108]

TheBaptist World Alliancereports more than 41 million members in more than 150,000 congregations.^[110]In 2002, there were over 100 million Baptists and Baptistic group members worldwide and over 33 million in North America.^[108]The largest Baptist association is theSouthern Baptist Convention,with the membership of associated churches totaling more than 14 million.^[111]

Roger Williamswas an early proponent ofreligious freedomand theseparation of church and state.
Baptists subscribe to a doctrine that baptism should be performedonly for professing believers.
TheFirst Baptist Church in America.Baptists are roughly one-third ofU.S. Protestants.^[112]

Calvinism

Calvinism,also called the Reformed tradition, was advanced by several theologians such asMartin Bucer,Heinrich Bullinger,Peter Martyr Vermigli,and Huldrych Zwingli, but this branch of Christianity bears the name of the French reformer John Calvin because of his prominent influence on it and because of his role in the confessional and ecclesiastical debates throughout the 16th century.

This term also currently refers to the doctrines and practices of theReformed churchesof which Calvin was an early leader. Less commonly, it can refer to the individual teaching of Calvin himself. The particulars of Calvinist theology may be stated in a number of ways. Perhaps the best known summary is contained in thefive points of Calvinism,though these points identify the Calvinist view onsoteriologyrather than summarizing the system as a whole. Broadly speaking, Calvinism stresses the sovereignty or rule of God in all things—in salvation but also in all of life. This concept is seen clearly in the doctrines ofpredestinationandtotal depravity.

The biggest Reformed association is theWorld Communion of Reformed Churcheswith more than 80 million members in 211 member denominations around the world.^[113]^[114]There are more conservative Reformed federations like theWorld Reformed Fellowshipand theInternational Conference of Reformed Churches,as well asindependent churches.

John Calvin's theological thought influenced a variety ofCongregational,Continental Reformed,United,Presbyterian,and other Reformed churches.
The Ordination of Elders in a Scottish KirkbyJohn Henry Lorimer,1891.
A Congregational church inCheshire, Connecticut, United States

Hussites

Hussitismfollows the teachings of Czech reformer Jan Hus, who became the best-known representative of theBohemian Reformationand one of the forerunners of the Protestant Reformation. An early hymnal was the hand-writtenJistebnice hymn book.This predominantly religious movement was propelled by social issues and strengthenedCzechnational awareness. Among present-day Christians, Hussite traditions are represented in theMoravian Church,Unity of the Brethrenand theCzechoslovak Hussite Church.^[115]

Friedensthal Moravian ChurchChristiansted, St Croix, USVIfounded in 1755.
A Moravian diener serves bread to fellow members of her congregation during the celebration of alovefest(2015).

Lutheranism

Lutheranismidentifies with thetheology of Martin Luther,aGermanmonk and priest,ecclesiasticalreformer, and theologian.

Lutheranism advocates a doctrine of justification "bygrace alonethroughfaith aloneon the basis ofScripture alone",the doctrine that scripture is the final authority on all matters of faith, rejecting the assertion made by Catholic leaders at theCouncil of Trentthat authority comes from both Scriptures andTradition.^[116]In addition, Lutherans accept the teachings of the first fourecumenical councilsof the undivided Christian Church.^[117]^[118]

Unlike the Reformed tradition, Lutherans retain many of theliturgicalpractices andsacramentalteachings of the pre-Reformation Church with an emphasis on theEucharist,or Lord's Supper. Lutheran theology differs from Reformed theology inChristology,the purpose ofGod's Law,divinegrace,the concept ofperseverance of the saints,andpredestination.

Today, Lutheranism is one of the largest branches of Protestantism. With approximately 80 million adherents,^[119]it constitutes the third most common Protestant confession after historicallyPentecostaldenominations andAnglicanism.^[13]TheLutheran World Federation,the largest global communion of Lutheran churches represents over 72 million people.^[120]Both of these figures miscount Lutherans worldwide as many members of more generically Protestant LWF member church bodies do not self-identify as Lutheran or attend congregations that self-identify as Lutheran.^[121]Additionally, there are other international organizations such as theGlobal Confessional and Missional Lutheran Forum,International Lutheran Counciland theConfessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference,as well asLutheran denominationsthat are not necessarily a member of an international organization.

Luther's rose seal,a symbol ofLutheranism
Luther composed hymns still used today, including "A Mighty Fortress Is Our God"
MosesandElijahdirect the sinner looking for salvation to theCrossin this painting illustrating Luther'sTheology of the Cross,as opposed to a Theology of Glory.
Altar of theTurku Cathedral,thematriceof theEvangelical Lutheran Church of Finland

Methodism

Methodismidentifies principally with thetheologyofJohn Wesley—anAnglicanpriest and evangelist. This evangelical movement originated as arevivalwithin the 18th-centuryChurch of Englandand became a separate Church following Wesley's death. Because of vigorous missionary activity, the movement spread throughout theBritish Empire,the United States, and beyond, today claiming approximately 80 million adherents worldwide.^[122]Originally it appealed especially to laborers and slaves.

Soteriologically,most Methodists areArminian,emphasizing that Christ accomplished salvation for every human being, and that humans must exercise an act of the will to receive it (as opposed to the traditional Calvinist doctrine ofmonergism). Methodism is traditionallylow churchin liturgy, although this varies greatly between individual congregations; the Wesleys themselves greatly valued the Anglican liturgy and tradition. Methodism is known for its rich musical tradition; John Wesley's brother,Charles,was instrumental in writing much of thehymnodyof the Methodist Church,^[123]and many other eminent hymn writers come from the Methodist tradition.

John Wesley,founder of Methodism,preaching in the open air
AUnited Methodistelder celebrating theEucharist
Methodist Central HallinWestminster,London
Ahymnalof theFree Methodist Church,a Methodist denomination aligned with theholiness movement
A night shelter ofThe Salvation ArmyinGeneva,Switzerland

The Holiness movement refers to a set of practices surrounding the doctrine of Christian perfection that emerged within 19th-century Methodism, along with a number of evangelical denominations andparachurch organizations(such ascamp meetings).^[124]There are an estimated 12 million adherents in denominations aligned with the Wesleyan-holiness movement.^[125]TheFree Methodist Church,theSalvation Armyand theWesleyan Methodist Churchare notable examples, while other adherents of the Holiness Movement remained within mainline Methodism, e.g. theUnited Methodist Church.^[124]

Pentecostalism

Pentecostalismis a movement that places special emphasis on a direct personal experience ofGodthrough thebaptism with the Holy Spirit.The termPentecostalis derived fromPentecost,theGreekname for the JewishFeast of Weeks.For Christians, this event commemorates the descent of theHoly Spiritupon the followers ofJesus Christ,as described in thesecond chapterof theBook of Acts.

This branch of Protestantism is distinguished by belief in the baptism with the Holy Spirit as an experience separate fromconversionthat enables a Christian to live a life empowered by and filled with the Holy Spirit. This empowerment includes the use ofspiritual giftssuch asspeaking in tonguesanddivine healing—two other defining characteristics of Pentecostalism. Because of their commitment to biblical authority, spiritual gifts, and the miraculous, Pentecostals tend to see their movement as reflecting the same kind of spiritual power and teachings that were found in theApostolic Ageof theearly church.For this reason, some Pentecostals also use the termApostolicorFull Gospelto describe their movement.

Pentecostalism eventually spawned hundreds of new denominations, including large groups such as the Assemblies of God and the Church of God in Christ, both in the United States and elsewhere. There are over 279 million Pentecostals worldwide, and the movement is growing in many parts of the world, especially theglobal South.Since the 1960s, Pentecostalism has increasingly gained acceptance from other Christian traditions, and Pentecostal beliefs concerning Spirit baptism and spiritual gifts have been embraced by non-Pentecostal Christians in Protestant andCatholicchurches through theCharismatic Movement.Together,Pentecostal and Charismatic Christianitynumbers over 500 million adherents.^[126]

Charles Fox Parham,who associatedglossolaliawith the baptism in theHoly Spirit
A contemporary Christian worship at Rock Harbor Church inCosta Mesa, California, United States
APentecostalchurch inRavensburg,Germany

Plymouth Brethren

ThePlymouth Brethrenare aconservative,low church, evangelical denomination, whose history can be traced toDublin,Ireland, in the late 1820s, originating fromAnglicanism.^[127]^[128]Among other beliefs, the group emphasizessola scriptura.Brethren generally see themselves not as a denomination, but as a network, or even as a collection of overlapping networks, of like-minded independent churches. Although the group refused for many years to take any denominational name to itself—a stance that some of them still maintain—the titleThe Brethren,is one that many of their number are comfortable with in that the Bible designates all believers asbrethren.

Quakerism

Quakers,or Friends, are members of a family of religious movements collectively known as the Religious Society of Friends. The central unifying doctrine of these movements is thepriesthood of all believers.^[129]^[130]Many Friends view themselves as members of a Christian denomination. They include those withevangelical,holiness,liberal,and traditionalconservative Quakerunderstandings ofChristianity.Unlike many other groups that emerged within Christianity, the Religious Society of Friends has actively tried to avoidcreedsand hierarchical structures.^[131]

George Foxwas anEnglish dissenterand a founder of theReligious Society of Friends,commonly known as the Quakers or Friends.

Other Protestants

There are many other Protestant denominations that do not fit neatly into the mentioned branches, and are far smaller in membership. Some groups of individuals who hold basic Protestant tenets identify themselves simply as "Christians" or "born-againChristians ". They typically distance themselves from theconfessionalismor creedalism of other Christian communities^[132]by calling themselves "non-denominational"or"evangelical".Often founded by individual pastors, they have little affiliation with historic denominations.^[133]

AlthoughUnitarianismdeveloped from the Protestant Reformation,^[134]it is excluded from Protestantism due to itsNontrinitariantheological nature.^[28]^[135]Unitarianism has been popular in theregion of Transylvaniawithin today'sRomania,England, and the United States.^[28]It originated almost simultaneously in Transylvania and thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

Spiritual Christianityis the group of Russian movements (Doukhoborsand others), so-called folk Protestants. Their origins are varied: some were influenced by western Protestants, others from disgust of the behavior of officialOrthodoxpriests.^[136]^[137]

Messianic Judaismis a movement of the Jews and non-Jews, which arose in the 1960s within Evangelical Protestantism and absorbed elements of themessianictraditions in Judaism.^[138]

Interdenominational movements

AnIndonesian Reformed Evangelical Church megachurch

There are also Christian movements which cross denominational lines and even branches, and cannot be classified on the same level previously mentioned forms.Evangelicalismis a prominent example. Some of those movements are active exclusively within Protestantism, some are Christian-wide. Transdenominational movements are sometimes capable of affecting parts of the Catholic Church, such as does it theCharismatic Movement,which aims to incorporate beliefs and practices similar toPentecostalsinto the various branches of Christianity.Neo-charismatic churchesare sometimes regarded as a subgroup of the Charismatic Movement. Both are put under a common label ofCharismatic Christianity(so-calledRenewalists), along with Pentecostals.Nondenominational churchesand varioushouse churchesoften adopt, or are akin to one of these movements.

Megachurchesare usually influenced by interdenominational movements. Globally, these large congregations are a significant development in Protestant Christianity. In the United States, the phenomenon has more than quadrupled in the past two decades.^[139]It has since spread worldwide.

The chart below shows the mutual relations and historical origins of the main interdenominational movements and other developments within Protestantism.

Links between interdenominational movements and other developments within Protestantism

Evangelicalism

Evangelicalism, or evangelical Protestantism,^[o]is a worldwide, transdenominational movement which maintains that the essence ofthe gospelconsists in the doctrine of salvation bygracethroughfaithinJesus Christ'satonement.^[140]^[141]

Evangelicals areChristianswho believe in the centrality of the conversion or"born again" experiencein receiving salvation, believe in the authority of the Bible as God's revelation to humanity and have a strong commitment to evangelism or sharing the Christian message.

It gained great momentum in the 18th and 19th centuries with the emergence ofMethodismand theGreat Awakeningsin Britain and North America. The origins of Evangelicalism are usually traced back to the EnglishMethodistmovement,Nicolaus Zinzendorf,theMoravian Church,Lutheran pietism,PresbyterianismandPuritanism.^[96]Among leaders and major figures of the Evangelical Protestant movement wereJohn Wesley,George Whitefield,Jonathan Edwards,Billy Graham,Harold John Ockenga,John StottandMartyn Lloyd-Jones.

There are an estimated 285,480,000 Evangelicals, corresponding to 13% of theChristian populationand 4% of thetotal world population.The Americas, Africa and Asia are home to the majority of Evangelicals. The United States has the largest concentration of Evangelicals.^[142]Evangelicalism is gaining popularity both in and outside the English-speaking world, especially in Latin America and thedeveloping world.

William Wilberforce,a British evangelical abolitionist
Billy Graham,a prominent evangelical revivalist, preaching inDuisburg, Germanyin 1954
Worship service atÉglise Nouvelle vie,an evangelicalPentecostalchurch inLongueuil,Canada
An Evangelical Protestant church inHämeenlinna,Finland

Charismatic movement

Hillsong Church, an evangelical charismatic church, inKonstanz,Germany

The Charismatic movement is the international trend of historically mainstream congregations adopting beliefs and practices similar toPentecostals.Fundamental to the movement is the use ofspiritual gifts.Among Protestants, the movement began around 1960.

In the United States, EpiscopalianDennis Bennettis sometimes cited as one of the charismatic movement's seminal influence.^[143]In theUnited Kingdom,Colin Urquhart,Michael Harper,David Watsonand others were in the vanguard of similar developments. TheMasseyconference in New Zealand, 1964 was attended by several Anglicans, including the Rev. Ray Muller, who went on to invite Bennett to New Zealand in 1966, and played a leading role in developing and promoting theLife in the Spiritseminars. Other Charismatic movement leaders in New Zealand includeBill Subritzky.

Larry Christenson, a Lutheran theologian based inSan Pedro, California,did much in the 1960s and 1970s to interpret the charismatic movement for Lutherans. A very large annual conference regarding that matter was held inMinneapolis.Charismatic Lutheran congregations in Minnesota became especially large and influential; especially "Hosanna!" in Lakeville, and North Heights in St. Paul. The next generation of Lutheran charismatics cluster around the Alliance of Renewal Churches. There is considerable charismatic activity among young Lutheran leaders in California centered around an annual gathering at Robinwood Church in Huntington Beach.Richard A. Jensen'sTouched by the Spiritpublished in 1974, played a major role of the Lutheran understanding to the charismatic movement.

In Congregational and Presbyterian churches which profess a traditionallyCalvinistorReformed theologythere are differing views regarding present-daycontinuationorcessationof the gifts (charismata) of the Spirit.^[144]^[145]Generally, however, Reformed charismatics distance themselves from renewal movements with tendencies which could be perceived as overemotional, such asWord of Faith,Toronto Blessing,Brownsville RevivalandLakeland Revival.Prominent Reformed charismatic denominations are theSovereign Grace Churchesand theEvery NationChurches in the US, in Great Britain there is theNewfrontierschurches and movement, which leading figure isTerry Virgo.^[146]

A minority ofSeventh-day Adventiststoday are charismatic. They are strongly associated with those holding more"progressive" Adventist beliefs.In the early decades of the church charismatic or ecstatic phenomena were commonplace.^[147]^[148]

Neo-charismatic churches

Neo-charismatic churches are a category of churches in the ChristianRenewalmovement. Neo-charismatics include theThird Wave,but are broader. Now more numerous than Pentecostals (first wave) and charismatics (second wave) combined, owing to the remarkable growth ofpostdenominationaland independent charismatic groups.^[149]

Neo-charismatics believe in and stress the post-Biblical availability ofgifts of the Holy Spirit,includingglossolalia,healing, and prophecy. They practice laying on of hands and seek the "infilling" of theHoly Spirit.However, a specific experience ofbaptism with the Holy Spiritmay not be requisite for experiencing such gifts. No single form, governmental structure, or style of church service characterizes all neo-charismatic services and churches.

Some nineteen thousand denominations, with approximately 295 million individual adherents, are identified as neo-charismatic.^[150]

Protestant offshoots

Arminianism

Jacobus Arminius,aDutch Reformed Churchtheologian, whose views influenced parts of Protestantism. A smallRemonstrantscommunity remains in theNetherlands.

Arminianismis based ontheologicalideas of theDutch ReformedtheologianJacobus Arminius(1560–1609) and his historic supporters known asRemonstrants.His teachings held to thefive solaeof the Reformation, but they were distinct from particular teachings ofMartin Luther,Huldrych Zwingli,John Calvin,and otherProtestant Reformers.Jacobus Arminius was a student ofTheodore Bezaat the Theological University of Geneva. Arminianism is known to some as asoteriologicaldiversification ofCalvinism.^[151]However, to others, Arminianism is a reclamation of early Church theological consensus.^[152]Dutch Arminianism was originally articulated in the Remonstrance (1610), a theological statement signed by 45 ministers and submitted to theStates General of the Netherlands.Many Christian denominations have been influenced by Arminian views on the will of man being freed by grace prior to regeneration, notably theBaptistsin the 16th century,^[153]theMethodistsin the 18th century and theSeventh-day Adventist Churchin the 19th century.

The original beliefs of Jacobus Arminius himself are commonly defined as Arminianism, but more broadly, the term may embrace the teachings ofHugo Grotius,John Wesley,and others as well.Classical ArminianismandWesleyan Arminianismare the two main schools of thought. Wesleyan Arminianism is often identical with Methodism. The two systems of Calvinism and Arminianism share both history and many doctrines, and thehistory of Christian theology.However, because of their differences over the doctrines of divinepredestinationand election, many people view these schools of thought as opposed to each other. In short, the difference can be seen ultimately by whether God allows His desire to save all to be resisted by an individual's will (in the Arminian doctrine) or if God's grace is irresistible and limited to only some (in Calvinism). Some Calvinists assert that the Arminian perspective presents a synergistic system of Salvation and therefore is not only by grace, while Arminians firmly reject this conclusion. Many consider the theological differences to be crucial differences in doctrine, while others find them to be relatively minor.^[154]

Pietism

Pietismwas an influential movement withinLutheranismthat combined the 17th-century Lutheran principles with theReformedemphasis on individual piety and living a vigorousChristianlife.^[155]

It began in the late 17th century, reached its zenith in the mid-18th century, and declined through the 19th century, and had almost vanished in America by the end of the 20th century. While declining as an identifiable Lutheran group, some of its theological tenets influenced Protestantism generally, inspiring theAnglicanpriestJohn Wesleyto begin theMethodistmovement andAlexander Mackto begin theBrethrenmovement under an influence ofAnabaptists.^[156]

Though Pietism shares an emphasis on personal behavior with thePuritanmovement, and the two are often confused, there are important differences, particularly in the concept of the role of religion in government.^[157]

Philipp Jakob Spener,a German pioneer and founder ofPietism
Pietism has had a strong cultural influence inScandinavia
The Broad and the Narrow Way,an 1866 German Pietist painting

Puritanism, English dissenters and nonconformists

ThePuritanswere a group of English Protestants in the16thand17th centuries,which sought to purify theChurch of Englandof what they considered to be Catholic practices, maintaining that the church was only partially reformed. Puritanism in this sense was founded by some of the returningclergy exiled under Mary Ishortly after the accession ofElizabeth I of Englandin 1558, as an activist movement within theChurch of England.

Puritans were blocked from changing the established church from within, and were severely restricted in England by laws controlling the practice of religion. Their beliefs, however, were transported by the emigration of congregations to the Netherlands (and later to New England), and by evangelical clergy to Ireland (and later into Wales), and were spread into lay society and parts of the educational system, particularly certain colleges of theUniversity of Cambridge.The first Protestant sermon delivered in England was in Cambridge, with the pulpit that this sermon was delivered from surviving to today.^[158]^[159]They took on distinctive beliefs about clerical dress and in opposition to theepiscopalsystem, particularly after the 1619 conclusions of theSynod of Dortthey were resisted by the English bishops. They largely adoptedSabbatarianismin the 17th century, and were influenced bymillennialism.

They formed, and identified with various religious groups advocating greater purity ofworshipanddoctrine,as well as personal and grouppiety.Puritans adopted aReformed theology,but they also took note of radical criticisms of Zwingli in Zurich and Calvin in Geneva. In church polity, some advocated for separation from all other Christians, in favor of autonomousgathered churches.These separatist andindependentstrands of Puritanism became prominent in the 1640s. Although theEnglish Civil War(which expanded into theWars of the Three Kingdoms) began over a contest for political power between theKing of Englandand theHouse of Commons,it divided the country along religious lines asepiscopalianswithin the Church of England sided with the Crown and Presbyterians and Independents supportedParliament(after the defeat of the Royalists, theHouse of Lordsas well as the Monarch were removed from the political structure of the state to create theCommonwealth). The supporters of aPresbyterian polityin theWestminster Assemblywere unable to forge a new English national church, and the ParliamentaryNew Model Army,which was made up primarily of Independents, underOliver Cromwellfirst purged Parliament, then abolished it and establishedThe Protectorate.

England's trans-Atlantic colonies in the warfollowed varying paths depending on their internal demographics. In the older colonies, which includedVirginia(1607) and its offshootBermuda(1612), as well asBarbadosandAntiguain the West Indies (collectively the targets in 1650 ofAn Act for prohibiting Trade with the Barbadoes, Virginia, Bermuda and Antego), Episcopalians remained the dominant church faction and the colonies remained Royalist 'til conquered or compelled to accept the new political order. In Bermuda, with control of the localgovernmentand thearmy(nine infantry companies of Militia pluscoastal artillery), the Royalists forced Parliament-backing religious Independents into exile to settle theBahamasas theEleutheran Adventurers.^[160]^[161]^[162]

Episcopalian was re-established following theRestoration.A century later, non-conforming Protestants, along with the Protestant refugees from continental Europe, were to be among the primary instigators of thewar of secessionthat led to the founding of the United States of America.

John Cotton,who sparked theAntinomian Controversywith hisfree grace theology
Pilgrim Fatherslanding atPlymouth RockinPlymouth, Massachusettsin 1620
Built in 1681, theOld Ship ChurchinHingham, Massachusettsis the oldest church in continuous ecclesiastical use in the United States.^[163]

Neo-orthodoxy and paleo-orthodoxy

Karl Barth,often regarded as the greatest Protestant theologian of the 20th century^[164]^[165]

A non-fundamentalist rejection of liberal Christianity along the lines of theChristian existentialismofSøren Kierkegaard,who attacked theHegelianstate churches of his day for "dead orthodoxy", neo-orthodoxy is associated primarily withKarl Barth,Jürgen Moltmann,andDietrich Bonhoeffer.Neo-orthodoxy sought to counter-act the tendency of liberal theology to make theological accommodations to modern scientific perspectives. Sometimes called "crisis theology", in the existentialist sense of the word crisis, also sometimes calledneo-evangelicalism,which uses the sense of "evangelical" pertaining to continental European Protestants rather than American evangelicalism. "Evangelical" was the originally preferred label used by Lutherans and Calvinists, but it was replaced by the names some Catholics used tolabela heresy with the name of its founder.

Paleo-orthodoxyis a movement similar in some respects to neo-evangelicalism but emphasizing the ancient Christian consensus of the undivided church of the first millennium AD, including in particular the early creeds and church councils as a means of properly understanding the scriptures. This movement is cross-denominational. A prominent theologian in this group isThomas Oden,a Methodist.

Christian fundamentalism

In reaction to liberal Bible critique,fundamentalismarose in the 20th century, primarily in the United States, among those denominations most affected by Evangelicalism. Fundamentalist theology tends to stressBiblical inerrancyandBiblical literalism.^[166]

Toward the end of the 20th century, some have tended to confuse evangelicalism and fundamentalism; however, the labels represent very distinct differences of approach that both groups are diligent to maintain, although because of fundamentalism's dramatically smaller size it often gets classified simply as an ultra-conservative branch of evangelicalism.

Modernism and liberalism

Modernism and liberalism do not constitute rigorous and well-defined schools of theology, but are rather an inclination by some writers and teachers to integrate Christian thought into the spirit of theAge of Enlightenment.New understandings of history and the natural sciences of the day led directly to new approaches to theology. Its opposition to the fundamentalist teaching resulted in religious debates, such as theFundamentalist–Modernist Controversywithin thePresbyterian Church in the United States of Americain the 1920s.

Protestant culture

TheBerlin Cathedral,aUnited Protestantcathedral inBerlin

Max Weber'sThe Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism

Although theReformationwas a religious movement, it also had a strong impact on all other aspects of life, including marriage and family, education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy, and the arts.^[9]Protestant churches reject the idea of a celibate priesthood and thus allow their clergy to marry.^[22]Many of their families contributed to the development of intellectual elites in their countries.^[167]Since about 1950, women have entered the ministry in most Protestant churches, and some have assumed leading positions (e.g.bishops).

Protestantism has promoted economic growth and entrepreneurship, especially in the period after theScientificand theIndustrial Revolution.^[168]^[169]Scholars have identified a positive correlation between the rise of Protestantism andhuman capitalformation,^[170]work ethic,^[171]economic development,^[172]the rise of earlyexperimental science,^[173]^[174]^[175]and the development of thestate system.^[176]

As the Reformers wanted all members of the church to be able to read the Bible, education on all levels was strongly encouraged. By the middle of the eighteenth century, the literacy rate in England was about 60 percent, in Scotland 65 percent, and in Sweden 80 percent.^[177]Colleges and universities were founded. For example, thePuritanswho establishedMassachusetts Bay Colonyin 1628 foundedHarvard Collegeonly eight years later. About a dozen other colleges followed in the 18th century, includingYale(1701).Pennsylvaniaalso became a center of learning.^[178]^[179]

Members ofmainline Protestantdenominations have playedleadership roles in many aspects of American life,including politics, business, science, the arts, and education. They founded most of the country's leading institutes of higher education.^[180]

Thought and work ethic

The Protestant concept of God and man allows believers to use all their God-given faculties, including the power of reason. That means that they are allowed to explore God's creation and, according to Genesis 2:15, make use of it in a responsible and sustainable way. Thus a cultural climate was created that greatly enhanced the development of thehumanitiesand thesciences.^[181]Another consequence of the Protestant understanding of man is that the believers, in gratitude for their election and redemption in Christ, are to follow God's commandments. Industry, frugality, calling, discipline, and a strong sense of responsibility are at the heart of their moral code.^[182]^[183]In particular, Calvin rejected luxury. Therefore, craftsmen, industrialists, and other businessmen were able to reinvest the greater part of their profits in the most efficient machinery and the most modern production methods that were based on progress in the sciences and technology. As a result, productivity grew, which led to increased profits and enabled employers to pay higher wages. In this way, the economy, the sciences, and technology reinforced each other. The chance to participate in the economic success of technological inventions was a strong incentive to both inventors and investors.^[184]^[185]^[186]^[187]TheProtestant work ethicwas an important force behind the unplanned and uncoordinatedmass actionthat influenced the development ofcapitalismand theIndustrial Revolution.This idea is also known as the "Protestant ethic thesis".^[188]

However, eminent historianFernand Braudel(d. 1985), a leader of the importantAnnales Schoolwrote, "all historians have opposed this tenuous theory [the Protestant Ethic], although they have not managed to be rid of it once and for all. Yet it is clearly false. The northern countries took over the place that earlier had been so long and brilliantly been occupied by the old capitalist centers of the Mediterranean. They invented nothing, either in technology or business management."^[189]Social scientistRodney Starkmoreover comments that "during their critical period of economic development, these northern centers of capitalism were Catholic, not Protestant—the Reformation still lay well into the future",^[190]while British historian Hugh Trevor-Roper (d. 2003) said, "The idea that large-scale industrial capitalism was ideologically impossible before the Reformation is exploded by the simple fact that it existed."^[191]

In afactor analysisof the latest wave ofWorld Values Surveydata,Arno Tausch(Corvinus University of Budapest) found that Protestantism emerges to be very close to combining religion and the traditions ofliberalism.The Global Value Development Index, calculated by Tausch, relies on the World Values Survey dimensions such as trust in the state of law, no support for shadow economy, postmaterial activism, support for democracy, a non-acceptance of violence, xenophobia and racism, trust in transnational capital and Universities, confidence in the market economy, supporting gender justice, and engaging in environmental activism, etc.^[192]

EpiscopaliansandPresbyterians,as well as otherWASPs,tend to be considerably wealthier^[193]and better educated (havinggraduateandpost-graduatedegrees per capita) than most other religious groups inUnited States,^[194]and are disproportionately represented in the upper reaches of Americanbusiness,^[195]lawandpolitics,especially theRepublican Party.^[196]Numbers of the mostwealthy and affluent American familiesas theVanderbilts,theAstors,Rockefellers,Du Ponts,Roosevelts,Forbes,Fords,Whitneys,Mellons,theMorgansand Harrimans areMainline Protestantfamilies.^[193]^[197]

Science

Columbia University,anIvy Leagueuniversity inNew York City,was initially established by theChurch of England.

Protestantism has had an important influence on science. According to theMerton Thesis,there was a positivecorrelationbetween the rise of EnglishPuritanismand GermanPietismon the one hand and earlyexperimental scienceon the other.^[198]The Merton Thesis has two separate parts: Firstly, it presents a theory that science changes due to an accumulation of observations and improvement in experimental technique andmethodology;secondly, it puts forward the argument that the popularity of science in 17th-century England and the religiousdemographyof theRoyal Society(English scientists of that time were predominantly Puritans or other Protestants) can be explained by acorrelationbetween Protestantism and the scientific values.^[199]Merton focused on English Puritanism and German Pietism as having been responsible for the development of thescientific revolutionof the 17th and 18th centuries. He explained that the connection betweenreligious affiliationand interest in science was the result of a significant synergy between theasceticProtestant values and those of modern science.^[200]Protestant values encouraged scientific research by allowing science to identify God's influence on the world—his creation—and thus providing a religious justification for scientific research.^[198]

According toScientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United StatesbyHarriet Zuckerman,a review of AmericanNobel Prizesawarded between 1901 and 1972, 72% of AmericanNobel Prizelaureates identified a Protestant background.^[201]Overall, 84% of all the Nobel Prizes awarded to Americans inChemistry,^[201]60% inMedicine,^[201]and 59% inPhysics^[201]between 1901 and 1972 were won by Protestants.

According to100 Years of Nobel Prize (2005),a review of Nobel Prizes awarded between 1901 and 2000, 65% ofNobel PrizeLaureates,have identified Christianityin its various forms as their religious preference (423 prizes).^[202]While 32% have identified with Protestantism in its various forms (208 prizes),^[202]although Protestants are 12% to 13% of the world's population.

Government

Church flags, as used by German Protestants.

During theMiddle Ages,the Church and the worldly authorities were closely related. Martin Luther separated the religious and the worldly realms in principle (doctrine of the two kingdoms).^[203]The believers were obliged to use reason to govern the worldly sphere in an orderly and peaceful way. Luther's doctrine of thepriesthood of all believersupgraded the role of laymen in the church considerably. The members of a congregation had the right to elect a minister and, if necessary, to vote for his dismissal (TreatiseOn the right and authority of a Christian assembly or congregation to judge all doctrines and to call, install and dismiss teachers, as testified in Scripture;1523).^[204]Calvin strengthened this basically democratic approach by including elected laymen (church elders,presbyters) in his representative church government.^[205]TheHuguenotsadded regionalsynodsand a national synod, whose members were elected by the congregations, to Calvin's system of church self-government. This system was taken over by the other reformed churches^[206]and was adopted by some Lutherans beginning with those inJülich-Cleves-Bergduring the 17th century.

Politically, Calvin favored a mixture of aristocracy and democracy. He appreciated the advantages ofdemocracy:"It is an invaluable gift, if God allows a people to freely elect its own authorities and overlords."^[207]Calvin also thought that earthly rulers lose their divine right and must be put down when they rise up against God. To further protect the rights of ordinary people, Calvin suggested separating political powers in a system of checks and balances (separation of powers). Thus he and his followers resisted politicalabsolutismand paved the way for the rise of modern democracy.^[208]Besides England, the Netherlands were, under Calvinist leadership, the freest country in Europe in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It granted asylum to philosophers likeBaruch SpinozaandPierre Bayle.Hugo Grotiuswas able to teach his natural-law theory and a relatively liberal interpretation of the Bible.^[209]

Consistent with Calvin's political ideas, Protestants created both the English and the American democracies. In seventeenth-century England, the most important persons and events in this process were theEnglish Civil War,Oliver Cromwell,John Milton,John Locke,theGlorious Revolution,theEnglish Bill of Rights,and theAct of Settlement.^[210]Later, the British took their democratic ideals to their colonies, e.g. Australia, New Zealand, and India. In North America,Plymouth Colony(Pilgrim Fathers;1620) andMassachusetts Bay Colony(1628) practised democratic self-rule andseparation of powers.^[211]^[212]^[213]^[214]TheseCongregationalistswere convinced that the democratic form of government was the will of God.^[215]TheMayflower Compactwas asocial contract.^[216]^[217]

Rights and liberty

EnlightenmentphilosopherJohn Lockeargued for individual conscience, free from state control and helped influence the political ideology ofThomas Jeffersonand otherFounding Fathers of the United States

Protestants also took the initiative in advocating forreligious freedom.Freedom of conscience had a high priority on the theological, philosophical, and political agendas since Luther refused to recant his beliefs before the Diet of theHoly Roman Empireat Worms (1521). In his view, faith was a free work of the Holy Spirit and could, therefore, not be forced on a person.^[218]The persecuted Anabaptists and Huguenots demanded freedom of conscience, and they practicedseparation of church and state.^[219]In the early seventeenth century, Baptists likeJohn SmythandThomas Helwyspublished tracts in defense of religious freedom.^[220]Their thinking influencedJohn MiltonandJohn Locke's stance on tolerance.^[221]^[222]Under the leadership of BaptistRoger Williams,CongregationalistThomas Hooker,and QuakerWilliam Penn,respectively,Rhode Island,Connecticut,andPennsylvaniacombined democratic constitutions with freedom of religion. These colonies became safe havens for persecuted religious minorities, includingJews.^[223]^[224]^[225]

TheUnited States Declaration of Independence,theUnited States Constitution,and the AmericanBill of Rightswith its fundamental human rights made this tradition permanent by giving it a legal and political framework.^[226]The great majority of American Protestants, both clergy and laity, strongly supported the independence movement. All major Protestant churches were represented in the First and Second Continental Congresses.^[227]In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the American democracy became a model for numerous other countries and regions throughout the world (e.g., Latin America, Japan, and Germany). The strongest link between the American andFrench RevolutionswasMarquis de Lafayette,an ardent supporter of the American constitutional principles. The FrenchDeclaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizenwas mainly based on Lafayette's draft of this document.^[228]TheDeclaration by United NationsandUniversal Declaration of Human Rightsalso echo the American constitutional tradition.^[229]^[230]^[231]

Democracy, social-contract theory, separation of powers, religious freedom, separation of church and state—these achievements of the Reformation and early Protestantism were elaborated on and popularized byAge of Enlightenmentthinkers. Some of the philosophers of the English, Scottish, German, and Swiss Enlightenment—Thomas Hobbes,John Locke,John Toland,David Hume,Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz,Christian Wolff,Immanuel Kant,andJean-Jacques Rousseau—had Protestant backgrounds.^[232]For example, John Locke, whose political thought was based on "a set of Protestant Christian assumptions",^[233]derived the equality of all humans, including the equality of the genders ( "Adam and Eve" ), from Genesis 1, 26–28. As all persons were created equally free, all governments needed "theconsent of the governed".^[234]

Also, other human rights were advocated for by some Protestants. For example,torturewas abolished inPrussiain 1740,slaveryin Britain in 1834 and in the United States in 1865 (William Wilberforce,Harriet Beecher Stowe,Abraham Lincoln—against Southern Protestants).^[235]^[236]Hugo GrotiusandSamuel Pufendorfwere among the first thinkers who made significant contributions tointernational law.^[237]^[238]TheGeneva Convention,an important part of humanitarianinternational law,was largely the work ofHenry Dunant,a reformedpietist.He also founded theRed Cross.^[239]

Social teaching

Protestants have founded hospitals, homes for disabled or elderly people, educational institutions, organizations that give aid to developing countries, and other social welfare agencies.^[240]^[241]^[242]In the nineteenth century, throughout the Anglo-American world, numerous dedicated members of all Protestant denominations were active in social reform movements such as the abolition of slavery, prison reforms, andwoman suffrage.^[243]^[244]^[245]As an answer to the "social question" of the nineteenth century, Germany under ChancellorOtto von Bismarckintroduced insurance programs that led the way to thewelfare state(health insurance,accident insurance,disability insurance,old-age pensions). To Bismarck this was "practical Christianity".^[246]^[247]These programs, too, were copied by many other nations, particularly in the Western world.

TheYoung Men's Christian Associationwas founded by CongregationalistGeorge Williams,aimed at empowering young people.

Liturgy

Arts

The arts have been strongly inspired by Protestant beliefs.

Martin Luther,Paul Gerhardt,George Wither,Isaac Watts,Charles Wesley,William Cowper,and other authors and composers created well-known church hymns.

Musicians likeHeinrich Schütz,Johann Sebastian Bach,George Frideric Handel,Henry Purcell,Johannes Brahms,Philipp NicolaiandFelix Mendelssohncomposed great works of music.

Prominent painters with Protestant background were, for example,Albrecht Dürer,Hans Holbein the Younger,Lucas Cranach the Elder,Lucas Cranach the Younger,Rembrandt,andVincent van Gogh.

World literature was enriched by the works ofEdmund Spenser,John Milton,John Bunyan,John Donne,John Dryden,Daniel Defoe,William Wordsworth,Jonathan Swift,Johann Wolfgang Goethe,Friedrich Schiller,Samuel Taylor Coleridge,Edgar Allan Poe,Matthew Arnold,Conrad Ferdinand Meyer,Theodor Fontane,Washington Irving,Robert Browning,Emily Dickinson,Emily Brontë,Charles Dickens,Nathaniel Hawthorne,Thomas Stearns Eliot,John Galsworthy,Thomas Mann,William Faulkner,John Updike,and many others.

Luther Monument in Worms,which features some of theReformation's crucial figures
TheInternational Monument to the ReformationinGeneva,Switzerland.
TheAdoration of the TrinitybyAlbrecht Dürer
TheCrucifixion of ChristbyLucas Cranach the Elder
Adam and EvebyLucas Cranach the Younger
A Huguenot, on St. Bartholomew's Day, Refusing to Shield Himself from Danger by Wearing the Roman Catholic BadgebyJohn Everett Millais.
The Return of the Prodigal Son,a 1669 portrait byRembrandt
The Church at Auvers,1890. Musée d'Orsay, Paris, byVincent van Gogh.

Catholic responses

Matanzas Inlet,Florida, where Protestant shipwrecksurvivors were executedbyMenéndez"because they had built it there without Your Majesty's permission, and were disseminating the Lutheran religion"

St. Bartholomew's Day massacreof French Protestants, 1572.

The view of theCatholic Churchis that Protestant denominations cannot be considered churches but rather that they areecclesial communitiesorspecific faith-believing communitiesbecause their ordinances and doctrines are not historically the same as the Catholic sacraments and dogmas, and the Protestant communities have no sacramental ministerial priesthood^[p]and therefore lack trueapostolic succession.^[248]^[249]According to BishopHilarion (Alfeyev)theEastern Orthodox Churchshares the same view on the subject.^[250]

Contrary to how the Protestant Reformers were often characterized, the concept of acatholicor universal Church was not brushed aside during the Protestant Reformation. On the contrary, the visible unity of thecatholicoruniversal churchwas seen by the Protestant reformers as an important and essential doctrine of the Reformation. The Magisterial reformers, such as Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Huldrych Zwingli, believed that they were reforming the Catholic Church, which they viewed as having become corrupted.^[q]Each of them took very seriously the charges of schism and innovation, denying these charges and maintaining that it was the Catholic Church that had left them. The Protestant Reformers formed a new and radically different theological opinion on ecclesiology, that the visible Church is "catholic" (lower-case "c" ) rather than "Catholic" (upper-case "C" ). Accordingly, there is not an indefinite number of parochial, congregational or national churches, constituting, as it were, so many ecclesiastical individualities, but one great spiritual republic of which these various organizations form a part,^[r]although they each have very different opinions. This was markedly far-removed from the traditional and historic Catholic understanding that the Roman Catholic Church was the one true Church of Christ.^[s]

Yet in the Protestant understanding, thevisible churchis not a genus, so to speak, with so many species under it.^[t]In order to justify their departure^[u]from the Catholic Church, Protestants often posited a new argument,^[v]saying that there was no real visible Church with divine authority, only aspiritual, invisible, and hidden church—this notion began in the early days of the Protestant Reformation.

Wherever the Magisterial Reformation, which received support from the ruling authorities, took place, the result was a reformed national Protestant church envisioned to be a part of the wholeinvisible church,but disagreeing, in certain important points of doctrine and doctrine-linked practice, with what had until then been considered the normative reference point on such matters,^[w]namely the Papacy and central authority of the Catholic Church. The Reformed churches thus believed in some form of Catholicity, founded on their doctrines of the five solas and a visibleecclesiasticalorganization based on the 14th- and 15th-centuryConciliar movement,rejecting thepapacyandpapal infallibilityin favor ofecumenical councils,but rejecting the latest ecumenical council, theCouncil of Trent.^[x]Religious unity therefore became not one of doctrine and identity but one of invisible character, wherein the unity was one of faith in Jesus Christ, not common identity, doctrine, belief, and collaborative action.

There are Protestants,^[y]especially of theReformed tradition,that either reject or down-play the designationProtestantbecause of the negative idea that the word invokes in addition to its primary meaning, preferring the designationReformed,Evangelicalor evenReformed Catholicexpressive of what they call aReformed Catholicityand defending their arguments from the traditional Protestant confessions.^[251]

Ecumenism

TheMarburg Colloquy(1529) was an early attempt at unitingLutherandZwingli.It failed as both reformers and their delegations could not agree on the sacrament of theEucharist.Similar discussions were held in 1586 during theColloquy of Montbéliardand from 1661 to 1663 during theSyncretistic controversy.Anonymous woodcut, 1557.

The Edinburgh Missionary Conference is considered the symbolic starting point of the contemporary ecumenical movement.^[252]

The ecumenical movement has had an influence onmainlinechurches, beginning at least in 1910 with theEdinburgh Missionary Conference.Its origins lay in the recognition of the need for cooperation on the mission field in Africa, Asia and Oceania. Since 1948, theWorld Council of Churcheshas been influential, but ineffective in creating a united church. There are also ecumenical bodies at regional, national and local levels across the globe; but schisms still far outnumber unifications. One, but not the only expression of the ecumenical movement, has been the move to form united churches, such as theChurch of South India,theChurch of North India,the US-basedUnited Church of Christ,theUnited Church of Canada,theUniting Church in Australiaand theUnited Church of Christ in the Philippineswhich have rapidly declining memberships. There has been a strong engagement ofOrthodoxchurches in the ecumenical movement, though the reaction of individual Orthodox theologians has ranged from tentative approval of the aim of Christian unity to outright condemnation of the perceived effect of watering down Orthodox doctrine.^[253]

A Protestantbaptismis held to be valid by the Catholic Church if given with the trinitarian formula and with the intent to baptize. However, as the ordination of Protestant ministers is not recognized due to the lack ofapostolic successionand the disunity from Catholic Church, all other sacraments (except marriage) performed by Protestant denominations and ministers are not recognized as valid. Therefore, Protestants desiring full communion with the Catholic Church are not re-baptized (although they are confirmed) and Protestant ministers who become Catholics may be ordained to thepriesthoodafter a period of study.

In 1999, the representatives ofLutheran World Federationand Catholic Church signed theJoint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification,apparently resolving the conflict over the nature ofjustificationwhich was at the root of the Protestant Reformation, althoughConfessional Lutheransreject this statement.^[254]This is understandable, since there is no compelling authority within them. On 18 July 2006, delegates to the World Methodist Conference voted unanimously to adopt the Joint Declaration.^[255]^[256]

Spread and demographics

St. Peter's ChurchinBermuda,built in 1612, is the oldest surviving Protestant church in the "New World", including theAmericasand certain Atlantic Ocean islands. It was the first of nineParish churchesestablished in Bermuda by theChurch of England.Bermuda also has the oldestPresbyterianchurch outside the British Isles, theChurch of Scotland'sChrist Church(1719).

There are more than 900 million Protestants worldwide,^[13]^[16]^[8]^[257]^[258]^[259]^[260]^[z]among approximately 2.4 billion Christians.^[16]^[261]^[262]^[aa]In 2010, a total of more than 800 million included 300 million in Sub-Saharan Africa, 260 million in the Americas, 140 million in Asia-Pacific region, 100 million in Europe and 2 million in Middle East-North Africa.^[13]Protestants account for nearly forty percent of Christians worldwide, and are more than one tenth of the total human population.^[13]Various estimates put the percentage of Protestants in relation to the total number of world's Christians at 33%,^[257]36%,^[263]36.7%,^[13]and 40%,^[8]while in relation to the world's population at 11.6%^[13]and 13%.^[260]

In European countries which were most profoundly influenced by the Reformation, Protestantism still remains the most practiced religion.^[257]These include theNordic countriesand theUnited Kingdom.^[257]^[264]In other historical Protestant strongholds such as Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Latvia, and Estonia, it remains one of the most popular religions.^[265]Although Czech Republic was the site ofone of the most significant pre-reformation movements,^[266]there are only few Protestant adherents;^[267]^[268]mainly due to historical reasons like persecution of Protestants by theCatholic Habsburgs,^[269]restrictions during theCommunist rule,and also the ongoingsecularization.^[266]Over the last several decades, religious practice has been declining assecularizationhas increased.^[257]^[270]According to a 2019 study about Religiosity in the European Union in 2019 byEurobarometer,Protestants made up 9% of theEUpopulation.^[271]According toPew Research Center,Protestants constituted nearly one fifth (or 18%) of thecontinent's Christian populationin 2010.^[13]Clarke and Beyer estimate that Protestants constituted 15% of all Europeans in 2009, while Noll claims that less than 12% of them lived in Europe in 2010.^[257]^[259]

Changes in worldwide Protestantism over the last century have been significant.^[8]^[259]^[272]Since 1900, Protestantism has spread rapidly in Africa, Asia, Oceania and Latin America.^[22]^[260]^[272]That caused Protestantism to be called a primarily non-Western religion.^[259]^[272]Much of the growth has occurred afterWorld War II,whendecolonization of Africaand abolition ofvarious restrictions against ProtestantsinLatin Americancountries occurred.^[260]According to one source, Protestants constituted respectively 2.5%, 2%, 0.5% of Latin Americans, Africans and Asians.^[260]In 2000, percentage of Protestants on mentioned continents was 17%, more than 27% and 6%, respectively.^[260]According to Mark A. Noll, 79% ofAnglicanslived in the United Kingdom in 1910, while most of the remainder was found in the United States and across theBritish Commonwealth.^[259]By 2010, 59% of Anglicans were found in Africa.^[259]In 2010, more Protestants lived in India than in the UK or Germany, while Protestants in Brazil accounted for as many people as Protestants in the UK and Germany combined.^[259]Almost as many lived in each ofNigeriaand China as in all of Europe.^[259]China is home to world's largest Protestant minority.^[13]^[ab]

Protestantism is growing in Africa,^[22]^[273]^[274]Asia,^[22]^[274]^[275]Latin America,^[274]^[276]and Oceania,^[22]^[272]while declining inAnglo America^[272]^[277]and Europe,^[257]^[278]with some exceptions such as France,^[279]where it was eradicated after the abolition of theEdict of Nantesby theEdict of Fontainebleauand the following persecution ofHuguenots,but now is claimed to be stable in number or even growing slightly.^[279]According to some,Russiais another country to see a Protestant revival.^[280]^[281]^[282]

In 2010, the largest Protestant denominational families were historically Pentecostal denominations (11%), Anglican (11%), Lutheran (10%), Baptist (9%),United and uniting churches(unions of different denominations) (7%), Presbyterian or Reformed (7%), Methodist (3%), Adventist (3%), Congregationalist (1%),Brethren(1%),The Salvation Army(<1%) andMoravian(<1%). Other denominations accounted for 38% of Protestants.^[13]

The United States is home to approximately 20% of Protestants.^[13]According to a 2012 study, Protestant share of U.S. population dropped to 48%, thus ending its status as religion of the majority for the first time.^[283]^[284]The decline is attributed mainly to the dropping membership of theMainline Protestantchurches,^[283]^[285]whileEvangelical ProtestantandBlack churchesare stable or continue to grow.^[283]

By 2050, Protestantism is projected to rise to slightly more than half of the world's total Christian population.^[286]^[ac]According to other experts such as Hans J. Hillerbrand, Protestants will be as numerous as Catholics.^[287]

According toPeter L. Berger,popular Protestantism^[ad]is the most dynamic religious movement in the contemporary world, alongsideresurgent Islam.^[15]

Protestant majority countries in 2010.
Countries by percentage of Protestants, 2010.

Explanatory notes

^Generally regarded as a division ofWestern Christianity,thoughEastern Protestantdenominations have developed outside of the West.
^Some movements such as theHussitesor theLollardsare also considered Protestant today, although their origins date back to centuries before the launch of the Reformation. Others, such as theWaldensians,were later incorporated into another branch of Protestantism; in this case, the Reformed branch.
^Specifically, inWittenberg,Electoral Saxony.Even today, especially in German contexts,Saxonyis often described as the "motherland of the Reformation" (German:Mutterland der Reformation).
^At the time Germany and the surrounding region was fragmented intonumerous statesof theHoly Roman Empire.Areas which turned Protestant were primarily located in northern, central and eastern areas of the Empire.
^Several states of the Holy Roman Empire adopted Calvinism, including theCounty Palatine of the Rhine.
^For further information, seeEnglish Reformation.In this article, Anglicanism is considered a branch of Protestantism as a part of movements derived directly from the 16th century Reformation. While today theChurch of Englandoften considers itself to be avia mediabetween Protestantism and the Catholic Church, until the rise of theOxford Movementin the 1830s the church generally considered itself to be Protestant. (Neill, Stephen.AnglicanismPelican 1960, pp. 170, 259–260)
^According to Pew 2011 report on Christianity about 60% (defined strictly, as some denominations given individual percentages in the report could be considered a part of one of the seven main distinguishable Protestant branches, e.g.The Salvation Armycould be considered a part of Methodism). The majority figures given in such reports or in other sources may vary considerably.
^This branch was first calledCalvinismby Lutherans who opposed it, but many find the wordReformedto be more descriptive.^[12]It includesPresbyterianism,Congregationalism,many ofunited and uniting churches,as well as historicContinental Reformed churchesin France, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Germany, Hungary, and elsewhere.
^A flexible term; defined as all forms of Protestantism with the notable exception of the historical denominations deriving from the Protestant Reformation.
^Most current estimates place the world's Protestant population in the range of 800 million to 1.05 billion. For example, author Hans Hillerbrand estimated a total Protestant population of 833,457,000 in 2004,^[17]while a report by Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary – 1,047,295,000 (with inclusion of independents as defined in this article) in mid-2024.^[16]
^In the end, while the Reformation emphasis on Protestants reading the Scriptures was one factor in the development of literacy, the impact of printing itself, the wider availability of printed works at a cheaper price, and the increasing focus on education and learning as key factors in obtaining a lucrative post, were also significant contributory factors.^[58]
^In the first decade of the Reformation, Luther's message became a movement, and the output of religious pamphlets in Germany was at its height.^[60]
^Finland's State Church was theChurch of Swedenuntil 1809. As an autonomous Grand Duchy under Russia 1809–1917, Finland retained the Lutheran State Church system, and a state church separate from Sweden, later named theEvangelical Lutheran Church of Finland,was established. It was detached from the state as a separate judicial entity when the new church law came to force in 1869. After Finland had gained independence in 1917, religious freedom was declared in the constitution of 1919 and a separate law on religious freedom in 1922. Through this arrangement, the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland lost its position as a state church but gained a constitutional status as a national church alongside theFinnish Orthodox Church,whose position, however, is not codified in the constitution.
^For example, thefollowers of Thomas MüntzerandBalthasar Hubmaier.
^Primarily in the United States, where Protestants are usually placed in one of two categories—Mainlineor Evangelical.
^this varies among Protestants today. In Sweden, the bishops switched to Lutheranism during the Reformation and there was no break in ordinations. SeeApostolic succession in Swedenfor more on this. Today, as a result of shared ordinations, the entirePorvoo Communioncan trace an unbroken chain of Archbishop-level ordinations going back to before the Reformation through the Swedish line. However, today Rome does not accept these ordinations as valid not because there was a break in the chain, but rather because the occurred apart from papal permission.
^For more on this, seecrypto-paganismand theGreat Apostasy.In some areas, pagan Europeans were forced to adopt Christianity at least outwardly, such as after being defeated in battle by Christians. However, outlawing their paganism did not just make it go away. Rather, it persisted as crypto-paganism. For example,Philip Melanchthon,in his 1537Apology of the Augsburg Confessionidentified the mechanical character ofex opere operatosacraments as being a form of pagandeterministic philosophy.
^This is the position of the Protestants who believe the church is visible. For those who think the church is invisible, organizations are irrelevant, as only individual sinners can be saved.
^SeeEcclesiology of Augustine of Hippofor an example of a church father who discussed the invisible church.
^This is a reference to theMarks of the Churchin Reformed theology. It is thus you may think of the State, but the visible church is atotum integrale,it is an empire, with an ethereal emperor, rather than a visible one. The churches of the various nationalities constitute the provinces of this empire; and though they are so far independent of each other, yet they are so one, that membership in one is membership in all, and separation from one is separation from all.... This conception of the church, of which, in at least some aspects, we have practically so much lost sight, had a firm hold of the Scottish theologians of the seventeenth century. James Walker inThe Theology of Theologians of Scotland.(Edinburgh: Rpt. Knox Press, 1982) Lecture iv. pp. 95–96.
^At least at first, Protestants did not depart per se. Rather, they were excommunicated such as in the 1520Exsurge Domineand the 1521Edict of Worms.Some Protestants avoided excommunication by living ascrypto-Protestants.
^Some Protestants claim the church is visible today, this is a matter of dispute.
^The assertion of papal supremacy varied through history. For example, in 381 theFirst Council of Constantinoplerecognized the sees of Rome and Constantinople as being equal in authority. Papal supremacy continued to evolve after the Reformation with theFirst Vatican Council.
^Lutherans did not completely reject Trent. In fact, some attended it, although they were not given a vote. Instead,Martin Chemnitzon the basis that all councils are subject to examination, wrote theExamination of the Council of Trentin which some parts of Trent were accepted and others dissented from.
^In history, Catholic sympathizing Protestants were termedcrypto-papistsand lived as such because Catholicism was illegal in some areas under the legal principle ofcuius regio, eius religio.However, outlawing Catholics did not always force them to emigrate. Instead, they remained continued to influence the dominant church in their area.
^Estimates vary considerably, from 400 up to more than a billion. One of the reasons is the lack of a common agreement among scholars which denominations constitute Protestantism. Nevertheless, 800 million is the most accepted figure among various authors and scholars. For example, author Hans Hillerbrand estimated a total 2004 Protestant population of 833,457,000,^[17]while a report by Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary—961,961,000 (with inclusion of independents as defined in this article) in mid-2015.^[16]
^Current sources are in general agreement that Christians make up about 33% of the world's population—slightly over 2.4 billion adherents in mid-2015.
^Estimates for China vary in dozens of millions. Nevertheless, in comparison to the other countries, there is no disagreement that China has the most numerous Protestant minority.
^Magisterial Protestant, Independent, Anabaptist and Anglican parties are understood as Protestant as stated previously in the article, as well as in the book:Statistics for the P, I and A megablocs are often combined because they overlap so much-hence the order followed here.
^A flexible term; defined as all forms of Protestantism with the notable exception of the historical denominations deriving from the Protestant Reformation.

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^^a ^bBaruch A. Shalev,100 Years of Nobel Prizes Archived23 May 2020 at theWayback Machine(2003), Atlantic Publishers & Distributors, p. 57: between 1901 and 2000 reveals that 654 Laureates belong to 28 different religion Most 65% have identified Christianity in its various forms as their religious preference. While separating Catholics from Protestants among Christians proved difficult in some cases, available information suggests that more Protestants were involved in the scientific categories and more Catholics were involved in the Literature and Peace categories. Atheists, agnostics, and freethinkers constitute 11% of total Nobel Prize winners; but in the category of Literature, these preferences rise sharply to about 35%. A striking fact involving religion is the high number of Laureates of the Jewish faith—over 20% of total Nobel Prizes (138); including: 17% in Chemistry, 26% in Medicine and Physics, 40% in Economics and 11% in Peace and Literature each. The numbers are especially startling in light of the fact that only some 14 million people (0.02% of the world's population) are Jewish. By contrast, only 5 Nobel Laureates have been of the Muslim faith—1% of total number of Nobel prizes awarded—from a population base of about 1.2 billion (20% of the world's population)
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Works cited

Ammerman, Nancy T.(1991)."North American Protestant Fundamentalism".InMarty, Martin E.;Appleby, R. Scott(eds.).Fundamentalisms Observed.The Fundamentalism Project,1. Chicago, Il; London: University of Chicago Press. pp. 1–65.ISBN 0-226-50878-1.
Becker, Sascha O.; Pfaff, Steven; Rubin, Jared (2016)."Causes and Consequences of the Protestant Reformation".ESI Working Paper 16–13.ISSN 2572-1496.

External links

"Personal Christian Statement of Faith (Protestant)".wikiHow.29 July 2015.
Protestantism(Encyclopedia.com)
"Protestantism"from the 1917Catholic Encyclopedia
The Historyscoper
World Council of Churches– World body for mainline Protestant churches

[1] Generally regarded as a division ofWestern Christianity,thoughEastern Protestantdenominations have developed outside of the West.

[5] Some movements such as theHussitesor theLollardsare also considered Protestant today, although their origins date back to centuries before the launch of the Reformation. Others, such as theWaldensians,were later incorporated into another branch of Protestantism; in this case, the Reformed branch.

[6] Specifically, inWittenberg,Electoral Saxony.Even today, especially in German contexts,Saxonyis often described as the "motherland of the Reformation" (German:Mutterland der Reformation).

[9] At the time Germany and the surrounding region was fragmented intonumerous statesof theHoly Roman Empire.Areas which turned Protestant were primarily located in northern, central and eastern areas of the Empire.

[11] Several states of the Holy Roman Empire adopted Calvinism, including theCounty Palatine of the Rhine.

[13] For further information, seeEnglish Reformation.In this article, Anglicanism is considered a branch of Protestantism as a part of movements derived directly from the 16th century Reformation. While today theChurch of Englandoften considers itself to be avia mediabetween Protestantism and the Catholic Church, until the rise of theOxford Movementin the 1830s the church generally considered itself to be Protestant. (Neill, Stephen.AnglicanismPelican 1960, pp. 170, 259–260)

[18] According to Pew 2011 report on Christianity about 60% (defined strictly, as some denominations given individual percentages in the report could be considered a part of one of the seven main distinguishable Protestant branches, e.g.The Salvation Armycould be considered a part of Methodism). The majority figures given in such reports or in other sources may vary considerably.

[20] This branch was first calledCalvinismby Lutherans who opposed it, but many find the wordReformedto be more descriptive.^[12]It includesPresbyterianism,Congregationalism,many ofunited and uniting churches,as well as historicContinental Reformed churchesin France, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Germany, Hungary, and elsewhere.

[23] A flexible term; defined as all forms of Protestantism with the notable exception of the historical denominations deriving from the Protestant Reformation.

[27] Most current estimates place the world's Protestant population in the range of 800 million to 1.05 billion. For example, author Hans Hillerbrand estimated a total Protestant population of 833,457,000 in 2004,^[17]while a report by Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary – 1,047,295,000 (with inclusion of independents as defined in this article) in mid-2024.^[16]

[69] In the end, while the Reformation emphasis on Protestants reading the Scriptures was one factor in the development of literacy, the impact of printing itself, the wider availability of printed works at a cheaper price, and the increasing focus on education and learning as key factors in obtaining a lucrative post, were also significant contributory factors.^[58]

[72] In the first decade of the Reformation, Luther's message became a movement, and the output of religious pamphlets in Germany was at its height.^[60]

[102] Finland's State Church was theChurch of Swedenuntil 1809. As an autonomous Grand Duchy under Russia 1809–1917, Finland retained the Lutheran State Church system, and a state church separate from Sweden, later named theEvangelical Lutheran Church of Finland,was established. It was detached from the state as a separate judicial entity when the new church law came to force in 1869. After Finland had gained independence in 1917, religious freedom was declared in the constitution of 1919 and a separate law on religious freedom in 1922. Through this arrangement, the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland lost its position as a state church but gained a constitutional status as a national church alongside theFinnish Orthodox Church,whose position, however, is not codified in the constitution.

[113] For example, thefollowers of Thomas MüntzerandBalthasar Hubmaier.

[154] Primarily in the United States, where Protestants are usually placed in one of two categories—Mainlineor Evangelical.

[263] this varies among Protestants today. In Sweden, the bishops switched to Lutheranism during the Reformation and there was no break in ordinations. SeeApostolic succession in Swedenfor more on this. Today, as a result of shared ordinations, the entirePorvoo Communioncan trace an unbroken chain of Archbishop-level ordinations going back to before the Reformation through the Swedish line. However, today Rome does not accept these ordinations as valid not because there was a break in the chain, but rather because the occurred apart from papal permission.

[267] For more on this, seecrypto-paganismand theGreat Apostasy.In some areas, pagan Europeans were forced to adopt Christianity at least outwardly, such as after being defeated in battle by Christians. However, outlawing their paganism did not just make it go away. Rather, it persisted as crypto-paganism. For example,Philip Melanchthon,in his 1537Apology of the Augsburg Confessionidentified the mechanical character ofex opere operatosacraments as being a form of pagandeterministic philosophy.

[268] This is the position of the Protestants who believe the church is visible. For those who think the church is invisible, organizations are irrelevant, as only individual sinners can be saved.

[269] SeeEcclesiology of Augustine of Hippofor an example of a church father who discussed the invisible church.

[270] This is a reference to theMarks of the Churchin Reformed theology. It is thus you may think of the State, but the visible church is atotum integrale,it is an empire, with an ethereal emperor, rather than a visible one. The churches of the various nationalities constitute the provinces of this empire; and though they are so far independent of each other, yet they are so one, that membership in one is membership in all, and separation from one is separation from all.... This conception of the church, of which, in at least some aspects, we have practically so much lost sight, had a firm hold of the Scottish theologians of the seventeenth century. James Walker inThe Theology of Theologians of Scotland.(Edinburgh: Rpt. Knox Press, 1982) Lecture iv. pp. 95–96.

[271] At least at first, Protestants did not depart per se. Rather, they were excommunicated such as in the 1520Exsurge Domineand the 1521Edict of Worms.Some Protestants avoided excommunication by living ascrypto-Protestants.

[272] Some Protestants claim the church is visible today, this is a matter of dispute.

[273] The assertion of papal supremacy varied through history. For example, in 381 theFirst Council of Constantinoplerecognized the sees of Rome and Constantinople as being equal in authority. Papal supremacy continued to evolve after the Reformation with theFirst Vatican Council.

[274] Lutherans did not completely reject Trent. In fact, some attended it, although they were not given a vote. Instead,Martin Chemnitzon the basis that all councils are subject to examination, wrote theExamination of the Council of Trentin which some parts of Trent were accepted and others dissented from.

[275] In history, Catholic sympathizing Protestants were termedcrypto-papistsand lived as such because Catholicism was illegal in some areas under the legal principle ofcuius regio, eius religio.However, outlawing Catholics did not always force them to emigrate. Instead, they remained continued to influence the dominant church in their area.

[286] Estimates vary considerably, from 400 up to more than a billion. One of the reasons is the lack of a common agreement among scholars which denominations constitute Protestantism. Nevertheless, 800 million is the most accepted figure among various authors and scholars. For example, author Hans Hillerbrand estimated a total 2004 Protestant population of 833,457,000,^[17]while a report by Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary—961,961,000 (with inclusion of independents as defined in this article) in mid-2015.^[16]

[289] Current sources are in general agreement that Christians make up about 33% of the world's population—slightly over 2.4 billion adherents in mid-2015.

[300] Estimates for China vary in dozens of millions. Nevertheless, in comparison to the other countries, there is no disagreement that China has the most numerous Protestant minority.

[315] Magisterial Protestant, Independent, Anabaptist and Anglican parties are understood as Protestant as stated previously in the article, as well as in the book:Statistics for the P, I and A megablocs are often combined because they overlap so much-hence the order followed here.

[317] A flexible term; defined as all forms of Protestantism with the notable exception of the historical denominations deriving from the Protestant Reformation.

[WELS2014-2] "Methodist Beliefs: In what ways are Lutherans different from United Methodists?".Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. 2014.Archivedfrom the original on 22 May 2014.Retrieved22 May2014.The United Methodists see Scripture as the primary source and criterion for Christian doctrine, emphasizing the importance of tradition, experience, and reason for Christian doctrine. Lutherans teach that the Bible is the sole source for Christian doctrine. The truths of Scripture do not need to be authenticated by tradition, human experience, or reason. Scripture is self authenticating and is true in and of itself.

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[Frey1918-17] Frey, H. (1918).Is One Church as Good as Another?.Vol. 37.The Lutheran Witness.pp. 82–83.There can only be onetruevisible Church....Only that one is the true visible Church which teaches and confesses the entire doctrine of the Word of God in all its purity, and in whose midst the Sacraments are duly administered according to Christ's institution. Of all Churches, this can only be said of our Lutheran Church.

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[Humphrey2013-33] Humphrey, Edith M. (2013).Scripture and Tradition.Baker Books. p. 16.ISBN 978-1-4412-4048-4.historically Anglicans have adopted what could be called a prima Scriptura position.

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[SchaffHerzog-35] Herzog, Johann Jakob; Philip Schaff, Albert (1911).The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge.p. 419.Archivedfrom the original on 6 September 2015.Retrieved27 June2015.

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[41] Matt. 16:18,1 Cor. 3:11,Eph. 2:20,1 Pet. 2:5–6,Rev. 21:14

[42] Matt. 7:21

[43] 1Cor 10:16,11:20, 27

[44] Engelder, T.E.W.,Popular Symbolics.St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 95, Part XXIV. "The Lord's Supper", paragraph 131.

[45] "The Solid Declaration of the Formula of Concord, Article 8, The Holy Supper".Bookofconcord.com. Archived fromthe originalon 21 November 2008.Retrieved19 November2010.

[46] Lk 22:19–20

[47] Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910).Outlines of Doctrinal Theology.Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 162. Archived fromthe originalon 15 April 2009.

[48] Mt 26:28

[49] Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910).Outlines of Doctrinal Theology.Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 163. Archived fromthe originalon 28 May 2011.

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[Neal2014-51] Neal, Gregory S. (2014).Sacramental Theology and the Christian Life.WestBow Press. p. 111.ISBN 978-1490860077.For Anglicans and Methodists the reality of the presence of Jesus as received through the sacramental elements is not in question. Real presence is simply accepted as being true, its mysterious nature being affirmed and even lauded in official statements likeThis Holy Mystery: A United Methodist Understanding of Holy Communion.

[Balmer2002-52] Balmer, Randall Herbert; Winner, Lauren F. (2002).Protestantism in America.New York:Columbia University Press.p.26.ISBN 978-0231111300.

[Haffner1999-53] Haffner, Paul (1999).The Sacramental Mystery.Gracewing Publishing. p. 11.ISBN 978-0852444764.TheAugsburg Confessiondrawn up by Melanchton, one of Luther's disciples admitted only three sacraments, Baptist, the Lord's Supper and Penance. Melanchton left the way open for the other five sacred signs to be considered as "secondary sacraments". However, Zwingli, Calvin and most of the later Reformed tradition accepted only Baptism and the Lord's Supper as sacraments, but in a highly symbolic sense.

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[Schofield122-66] SchofieldMartin Lutherp. 122

[Cameron-67] CameronEuropean Reformation^{[page needed]}

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[Edwards-70] EdwardsPrinting, Propaganda, and Martin Luther^{[page needed]}

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[170] In places, such as parts of England and America, where Pietism was frequently juxtaposed with Catholicism, Catholics also became naturally influenced by Pietism, helping to foster a stronger tradition of congregational hymn-singing, including among Pietists who converted to Catholicism and brought their pietistic inclination with them, such asFrederick William Faber.

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[172] Calvinist Puritans believed that government was ordained by God to enforce Christian behavior upon the world; pietists see the government as a part of the world, and believers were called to voluntarily live faithful lives independent of government.

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[FOOTNOTEAmmerman1991-181] Ammerman 1991.

[182] Karl Heussi,Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte,p. 319

[183] Cantoni, Davide (2015)."The Economic Effects of the Protestant Reformation: Testing the Weber Hypothesis in the German Lands".Journal of the European Economic Association.13(4): 561–598.doi:10.1111/jeea.12117.hdl:10230/11729.ISSN 1542-4766.JSTOR 24539263.S2CID 7528944.Archivedfrom the original on 18 May 2023.Retrieved5 July2023.

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[188] Cohen, I. Bernard (1990).Puritanism and the rise of modern science: the Merton thesis.New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press.ISBN 978-0-8135-1530-4.

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[FOOTNOTEBeckerPfaffRubin2016-191] Becker, Pfaff & Rubin 2016.

[192] Heinrich August Winkler (2012),Geschichte des Westens. Von den Anfängen in der Antike bis zum 20. Jahrhundert,Third, Revised Edition, Munich (Germany), p. 233

[193] Clifton E. Olmstead (1960),History of Religion in the United States,Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, pp. 69–80, 88–89, 114–117, 186–188

[194] M. Schmidt,Kongregationalismus,inDie Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart,3. Auflage, Band III (1959), Tübingen (Germany), col. 1770

[mainline2000-195] McKinney, William. "Mainline Protestantism 2000."Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,Vol. 558, Americans and Religions in the Twenty-First Century (July 1998), pp. 57–66.

[196] Gerhard Lenski(1963),The Religious Factor: A Sociological Study of Religion's Impact on Politics, Economics, and Family Life,Revised Edition, A Doubleday Anchor Book, Garden City, New York, pp. 348–351

[197] Cf.Robert Middlekauff(2005),The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763–1789,Revised and Expanded Edition, Oxford University Press,ISBN 978-0-19-516247-9,p. 52

[198] Jan Weerda,Soziallehre des Calvinismus,inEvangelisches Soziallexikon,3. Auflage (1958), Stuttgart (Germany), col. 934

[199] Eduard Heimann,Kapitalismus,inDie Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart,3. Auflage, Band III (1959), Tübingen (Germany), col. 1136–1141

[200] Hans Fritz Schwenkhagen,Technik,inEvangelisches Soziallexikon,3. Auflage, col. 1029–1033

[201] Georg Süßmann,Naturwissenschaft und Christentum,inDie Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart,3. Auflage, Band IV, col. 1377–1382

[202] C. Graf von Klinckowstroem,Technik. Geschichtlich,inDie Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart,3. Auflage, Band VI, col. 664–667

[SEP-203] Kim, Sung Ho (Fall 2008)."Max Weber".The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford University.Archivedfrom the original on 27 May 2020.Retrieved21 August2011.

[204] Braudel, Fernand. 1977. Afterthoughts on Material Civilization and Capitalism. Baltimore: Johns Hopskins University Press.

[205] Manager."Protestant Modernity".Archivedfrom the original on 20 November 2018.Retrieved17 September2017.

[206] Trevor-Roper. 2001. The Crisis of the Seventeenth Century. Liberty Fund

[207] Tausch, Arno (31 March 2015)."Towards new maps of global human values, based on World Values Survey (6) data".Mpra Paper.Archivedfrom the original on 14 February 2019.Retrieved27 May2015– via ideas.repec.org.

[THE_EPISCOPALIANS-208] B. Drummond Ayers Jr. (19 December 2011)."The Episcopalians: An American Elite with Roots Going Back To Jamestown".The New York Times.Archivedfrom the original on 12 June 2018.Retrieved17 August2012.

[209] Irving Lewis Allen, "WASP – From Sociological Concept to Epithet",Ethnicity,1975 154+

[210] Hacker, Andrew (1957). "Liberal Democracy and Social Control".American Political Science Review.51(4): 1009–1026 [p. 1011].doi:10.2307/1952449.JSTOR 1952449.S2CID 146933599.

[211] Baltzell (1964).The Protestant Establishment.New York, Random House. p.9.

[212] W. Williams, Peter (2016).Religion, Art, and Money: Episcopalians and American Culture from the Civil War to the Great Depression.University of North Carolina Press. p. 176.ISBN 978-1469626987.The names of fashionable families who were already Episcopalian, like the Morgans, or those, like the Fricks, who now became so, goes on interminably: Aldrich, Astor, Biddle, Booth, Brown, Du Pont, Firestone, Ford, Gardner, Mellon, Morgan, Procter, the Vanderbilt, Whitney. Episcopalians branches of the Baptist Rockefellers and Jewish Guggenheims even appeared on these family trees.

[sztompka2003-213] Sztompka, P.(2003)."Chapter 1. Robert K. Merton".[Extract from] the Blackwell... Social Theorists.Wiley. pp. 12–33.doi:10.1002/9780470999912.ch2.ISBN 978-0470999912.Archivedfrom the original on 16 January 2018.Retrieved5 July2023– via blackwellreference.com.

[gregory1998-214] Gregory, Andrew (1998)."Lecture 14"(course handout). 215 – The Scientific Revolution. Archived fromthe originalon 13 May 2006.

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[Scientific_Elite:_Nobel_Laureates_in_the_United_Statesh-216] Harriet Zuckerman,Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United States Archived23 May 2020 at theWayback MachineNew York, The Free Press, 1977, p. 68: Protestants turn up among the American-reared laureates in slightly greater proportion to their numbers in the general population. Thus 72 percent of the seventy-one laureates but about two-thirds of the American population were reared in one or another Protestant denomination-)

[Nobel_prize-217] Baruch A. Shalev,100 Years of Nobel Prizes Archived23 May 2020 at theWayback Machine(2003), Atlantic Publishers & Distributors, p. 57: between 1901 and 2000 reveals that 654 Laureates belong to 28 different religion Most 65% have identified Christianity in its various forms as their religious preference. While separating Catholics from Protestants among Christians proved difficult in some cases, available information suggests that more Protestants were involved in the scientific categories and more Catholics were involved in the Literature and Peace categories. Atheists, agnostics, and freethinkers constitute 11% of total Nobel Prize winners; but in the category of Literature, these preferences rise sharply to about 35%. A striking fact involving religion is the high number of Laureates of the Jewish faith—over 20% of total Nobel Prizes (138); including: 17% in Chemistry, 26% in Medicine and Physics, 40% in Economics and 11% in Peace and Literature each. The numbers are especially startling in light of the fact that only some 14 million people (0.02% of the world's population) are Jewish. By contrast, only 5 Nobel Laureates have been of the Muslim faith—1% of total number of Nobel prizes awarded—from a population base of about 1.2 billion (20% of the world's population)

[218] Heinrich Bornkamm,Toleranz. In der Geschichte des ChristentumsinDie Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart,3. Auflage, Band VI (1962), col. 937

[219] Original German title:Dass eine christliche Versammlung oder Gemeine Recht und Macht habe, alle Lehre zu beurteilen und Lehrer zu berufen, ein- und abzusetzen: Grund und Ursach aus der Schrift

[220] Clifton E. Olmstead,History of Religion in the United States,pp. 4–10

[221] Karl Heussi,Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte,11. Auflage, p. 325

[222] Quoted in Jan Weerda,Calvin,inEvangelisches Soziallexikon,3. Auflage (1958), Stuttgart (Germany), col. 210

[223] Clifton E. Olmstead,History of Religion in the United States,p. 10

[224] Karl Heussi,Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte,pp. 396–397

[225] Cf. M. Schmidt,England. Kirchengeschichte,inDie Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart,3. Auflage, Band II (1959), Tübingen (Germany), col. 476–478

[226] Nathaniel Philbrick (2006),Mayflower: A Story of Courage, Community, and War,Penguin Group, New York,ISBN 0-670-03760-5

[227] Clifton E. Olmstead,History of Religion in the United States,pp. 65–76

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