Proto-Norse language

For other uses, seeNorse.

Not to be confused withOld NorseorOld North.

Proto-Norsewas anIndo-Europeanlanguage spoken inScandinaviathat is thought to have evolved as a northern dialect ofProto-Germanicin the first centuries CE. It is the earliest stage of a characteristicallyNorth Germaniclanguage, and the languageattestedin the oldest ScandinavianElder Futharkinscriptions, spoken from around the 2nd to the 8th centuries CE (corresponding to the lateRoman Iron Ageand theGermanic Iron Age). It evolved into the dialects ofOld Norseat the beginning of theViking Agearound 800 CE, which later themselves evolved into the modernNorth Germanic languages(Faroese,Icelandic,theContinental Scandinavian languages,and their dialects).

Proto-Norse
Region	Scandinavia
Era	2nd to 8th centuries
Language family	Indo-European Germanic Proto-Norse
Writing system	Elder Futhark
Language codes
ISO 639-3	–
Linguist List	1be
	qdl"Runic" (perhapsOld Norseis intended)
Glottolog	olde1239Older Runic (perhaps)

Phonology

Proto-Norse phonology probably did not differ substantially from that of Proto-Germanic. Although the phonetic realisation of several phonemes had probably changed over time, the overall system of phonemes and their distribution remained largely unchanged.

Consonants

Proto-Norse consonants

	Bilabial	Dental	Alveolar		Palatal	Velar	Labial–velar
Nasal	m		n			(ŋ)	(ŋʷ)
Stop	pb	td				kɡ	kʷɡʷ
Fricative	ɸ(β)	θ(ð)	s	z		h(ɣ)	hʷ
Trill			r
Approximant					j		w
Lateral			l

1. /n/assimilated to a following velar consonant. It was[ŋ]before a plain velar, and probably[ŋʷ]before a labial-velar consonant.
2. Unlike its Proto-Germanic ancestor/x/,the phoneme/h/probably no longer had a velar place of articulation. It eventually disappeared except word-initially.
3. [β],[ð]and[ɣ]were allophones of/b/,/d/and/ɡ/,and occurred in most word-medial positions. Plosives appeared when the consonants were lengthened (geminated), and also after a nasal consonant. Word-finally,[b],[d]and[ɡ]were devoiced and merged with/p/,/t/,/k/.
4. The exact realisation of the phoneme/z/,traditionally written asʀin transcriptions of runic Norse (not to be confused with the phonetic symbol/ʀ/used in other languages), is unclear. While it was a simple alveolar sibilant in Proto-Germanic (as in Gothic), it eventually underwentrhotacizationand merged with/r/towards the end of the runic period. It may have been pronounced as[ʒ]or[ʐ],tending towards atrillin the later period. The sound was still written with its own letter in runic Old East Norse around the end of the first millennium.

Vowels

The system of vowels differed somewhat more from that of Proto-Germanic than the consonants. Earlier/ɛː/had been lowered to/ɑː/,and unstressed/ɑi/and/ɑu/had developed into/eː/and/ɔː/.Shortening of word-final vowels had eliminated the Proto-Germanic overlong vowels.

Oral vowels Front Back short long short long Close i iː u uː Mid e eː o ɔː Open ɑ ɑː

Nasal vowels Front Back short long short long Close ĩ? ĩː ũ? ũː Mid ɔ̃ ɔ̃ː Open ɑ̃? ɑ̃ː

1. /o/had developed from/u/througha-mutation.It also occurred word-finally as a result of the shortening of Proto-Germanic/ɔː/.
2. The long nasal vowels/ɑ̃ː/,/ĩː/and/ũː/occurred only before/h/.Their presence was noted in the 12th-centuryFirst Grammatical Treatise,and they survive in modernElfdalian.
3. All other nasal vowels occurred only word-finally, although it is unclear whether they had retained their nasality in Proto-Norse or had already merged with the oral vowels. The vowels/o/and/ɔ̃/were contrastive, however, as the former eventually developed into/u/(triggeringu-mutation) while the latter was lowered to/ɑ/.
4. The back vowels probably had central or front allophones when/i/or/j/followed, as a result ofi-mutation:
   • /ɑ/>[æ],/ɑː/>[æː]
   • /u/>[ʉ],/uː/>[ʉː](later/y/,/yː/)
   • /ɔː/>[ɞː](later[œː]or[øː])
   • /o/did not originally occur before/i/or/j/,but it was later introduced by analogy (as can be seen on the Gallehus horns). Its allophone was probably[ɵ],later[ø].
5. Towards the end of the Proto-Norse period, stressed/e/underwentbreaking,becoming a rising diphthong/jɑ/.
6. Also towards the end of the Proto-Norse period,u-mutationbegan to take effect, which created rounded allophones of unrounded vowels.

Accent

Old Norse had astress accentwhich fell on the first syllable, like its ancestor,Proto-Germanic.Several scholars have proposed that Proto-Norse also had a separatepitch accent,which was inherited fromProto-Indo-Europeanand has evolved into thetonal accentsof modernSwedishandNorwegian,which in turn have evolved into thestødof modernDanish.Another recently advanced theory is that each Proto-Norse long syllable and every other short syllable received stress, marked by pitch, eventually leading to the development of the Swedish and Norwegian tonal accent distinction.Finally, quite a number of linguists have assumed that even the first phonetic rudiments of the distinction did not appear until theOld Norseperiod.

Attestations

Composite photograph of theEinang stoneinscription (c. 400)

All attestations of Proto-Norse areElder Futharkinscriptions. There are about 260 of these inscriptions in Proto-Norse, the earliest dating to the 2nd century.

Examples

• Øvre Stabu spearhead,Oppland, Norway. Second centuryraunijaz,ONraun"tester", cf.Norwegianrøyne"try, test".Swedishrön"finding" andutröna"find out". The word formation with a suffixijais evidence ofSievers' law.
• Golden Horn of Gallehus2, South Jutland, Denmark 400 CE,ek hlewagastiz holtijaz horna tawido,"I, Hlewagastis of Holt, made the horn." Note again theijasuffix
• Tune stone,Østfold, Norway, 400 CE.ek wiwaz after woduride witadahalaiban worahto. [me]z woduride staina þrijoz dohtriz dalidun arbija sijostez arbijano,I, Wiwaz, after Woduridaz bread-warden wrought. For me Woduridaz, the stone, three daughters prepared, the most noble of heirs.
• TheEinang stone,near Fagernes, Norway, is dated to the 4th century. It contains the message[ek go]dagastiz runo faihido([I, Go]dguest drew the secret), in O–Nek goðgestr rún fáða.The first four letters of the inscription have not survived and are conjectured, and the personal name could well have been Gudagasti or something similar.
• Kragehul spear,Denmark, c. 500 CE.ek erilaz asugisalas muha haite, gagaga ginuga, he...lija... hagala wijubi...possibly, "I, Eril of Asgisl, was named Muha, ga-ga-ga mighty-ga (ga being most likely an abbreviation of indeterminable reference), (incomplete)hailI consecrate. "
• TheBjörketorp Runestone,Blekinge, Sweden, is one of threemenhirs,but is the only one of them where, in the 6th century, someone wrote a curse:haidʀ runo runu falh'k hedra ginnarunaʀargiuhermalausʀ... weladauþe saz þat brytʀ uþarba spa(Here, I have hidden the secret of powerful runes, strong runes. The one who breaks this memorial will be eternally tormented by anger. Treacherous death will hit him. I foresee perdition.)
• TheRö runestone,inBohuslän,Sweden, was raised in the early 5th century and is the longest early inscription:Ek Hrazaz/Hraþaz satido [s]tain[a]... Swabaharjaz s[a]irawidaz.... Stainawarijaz fahido."I, Hrazaz/Hraþaz raised the stone... Swabaharjaz with wide wounds.... Stainawarijaz (Stoneguardian's) carved."

Loanwords

Numerous early Germanic words have survived with relatively little change as borrowings inFinnic languages.Some of these may be of Proto-Germanic origin or older still, but others reflect developments specific to Norse. Some examples (with the reconstructed Proto-Norse form):

• Estonianjuust,Finnishjuusto"cheese" < *justaz(Old Norseostr)
• Estonian/Finnishkuningas< *kuningaz"king" (Old Norsekunungr,konungr)
• Estonian/Finnishlammas"sheep" < *lambaz"lamb" (Old Norselamb)
• Finnishhurskas"pious" < *hurskaz"prudent, wise, quick-minded" (Old Norsehorskr)
• Finnishruhtinas"prince" < *druhtinaz"lord" (Old Norsedróttinn)
• Finnishruno"poem, rune" < *rūno"secret, mystery, rune" (Old Norserún)
• Finnishsairas"sick" < *sairaz"sore" (Old Norsesárr)
• Finnishvaate"garment" < *wādiz(Old Norseváð)
• Finnishviisas"wise" < *wīsaz(Old Norsevíss)

A very extensive Proto-Norse loanword layer also exists in theSámi languages.

Other

Some Proto-Norse names are found in Latin works, like tribal names likeSuiones(*Sweoniz,"Swedes"). Others can be conjectured from manuscripts such asBeowulf.

Evolution

Proto-Germanic to Proto-Norse

The differences between attested Proto-Norse and unattestedProto-Germanicare rather small. Separating Proto-Norse from Northwest Germanic can be said to be a matter of convention, as sufficient evidence from the remaining parts of the Germanic-speaking area (Northern Germany and the Netherlands) is lacking in a degree to provide sufficient comparison. Inscriptions found in Scandinavia are considered to be in Proto-Norse. Several scholars argue about this subject matter. Wolfgang von Krause sees the language of the runic inscriptions of the Proto-Norse period as an immediate precursor to Old Norse, but Elmer Antonsen views them as Northwest Germanic.

One early difference shared by the West Germanic dialects is the monophthongization of unstressed diphthongs. Unstressed*aibecameē,as inhaitē(Kragehul I) from Proto-Germanic*haitai,and unstressed*aulikewise becameō.Characteristic is also the Proto-Norse lowering of Proto-Germanic stressed*ētoā,which is demonstrated by the pairGothicmēnaand Old Norsemáni(Englishmoon). Proto-Norse thus differs from the early West Germanic dialects, as West Germanicēwas lowered toāregardless of stress; in Old Norse, earlier unstressedēsurfaces asi.For example, the weak third-person singular past tense ending-dēappears in Old High German as-ta,with a low vowel, but in Old Norse as-ði,with a high vowel.

The time that*z,a voiced apical alveolar fricative, represented in runic writing by thealgizrune, changed toʀ,an apical post-alveolar approximant, is debated. If the general Proto-Norse principle of devoicing of consonants in final position is taken into account,*z,if retained, would have been devoiced to[s]and would be spelled as such in runes. There is, however, no trace of that in the Elder Futhark runic inscriptions, so it can be safely assumed that the quality of this consonant must have changed before the devoicing, or the phoneme would not have been marked with a rune different from thesowilōrune used fors.The quality of the consonant can be conjectured, and the general opinion is that it was something between[z]and[r],the Old Norse reflex of the sound. In Old Swedish, the phonemic distinction betweenrandʀwas retained into the 11th century, as shown by the numerous runestones from Sweden from then.

Proto-Norse to Old Norse

From 500 to 800, two great changes occurred within Proto-Norse.Umlautsappeared, which means that a vowel was influenced by the succeeding vowel or semivowel: Old Norsegestr(guest) came from PNgastiz(guest). Another sound change is known asvowel breakingin which the vowel changed into adiphthong:hjartafrom *hertōorfjǫrðrfrom *ferþuz.

Umlauts resulted in the appearance of the new vowelsy(likefyllafrom *fullijaną) andœ(likedœmafrom *dōmijaną). The umlauts are divided into three categories:a-umlaut,i-umlaut andu-umlaut; the last was still productive in Old Norse. The first, however, appeared very early, and its effect can be seen already around 500, on theGolden Horns of Gallehus.The variation caused by the umlauts was itself no great disruption in the language. It merely introduced newallophonesofback vowelsif certain vowels were in following syllables. However, the changes brought forth bysyncopemade the umlaut-vowels a distinctive non-transparent feature of the morphology and phonology, phonemicising what were previously allophones.

Syncope shortened the long vowels of unstressed syllables; many shortened vowels were lost. Also, most short unstressed vowels were lost. As in PN, the stress accent lay on the first syllable words as PN *katilōzbecame ONkatlar(cauldrons), PNhornąwas changed into Old Norsehorn(horn) and PNgastizresulted in ONgestr(guest). Some words underwent even more drastic changes, like *habukazwhich changed into ONhaukr(hawk).

Further reading

• Michael Schulte:Urnordisch. Eine Einführung(2018). Praesens Verlag, Wien.ISBN978-3706909518.

External links

• General information
• Proto-Norse paradigms and linksArchived16 January 2022 at theWayback Machine(archived copy)