Wikipedia

Psilocybe cubensis

Psilocybe cubensis,commonly known as themagic mushroom,shroom,golden halo,golden teacher,cube,orgold cap,is a species ofpsilocybin mushroomof moderate potency whose principalactive compoundsarepsilocybinandpsilocin.It belongs to the fungus familyHymenogastraceaeand was previously known asStropharia cubensis.It is the best-known psilocybin mushroom due to its wide distribution and ease of cultivation.

Psilocybe cubensis
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Agaricales
Family: Hymenogastraceae
Genus: Psilocybe
Species:
P. cubensis
Binomial name
Psilocybe cubensis
Synonyms

Stropharia cubensisEarle
Stropharia cyanescensMurrill
Naematoloma caerulescensPat.
Hypholoma caerulescens(Pat.) Sacc. & Trotter

Psilocybe cubensis
View the Mycomorphbox template that generates the following list
Gillsonhymenium
Capisconvex orflat
Hymeniumisadnate oradnexed
Stipehas aring
Spore printispurple
Ecology issaprotrophic
Edibility ispsychoactive

Taxonomy

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The species wasfirst describedin 1906 asStropharia cubensisby American mycologistFranklin Sumner EarleinCuba.[1]In 1907, it was identified asNaematoloma caerulescensinTonkin(now Vietnam) by French pharmacist and mycologistNarcisse Théophile Patouillard,[2]while in 1941, it was calledStropharia cyanescensbyWilliam Alphonso MurrillnearGainesvilleinFlorida.[3]German-born mycologistRolf Singermoved the species into the genusPsilocybein 1949, giving it the binomial namePsilocybe cubensis.[4]Thesynonymswere later also assigned to the speciesPsilocybe cubensis.[5][6]

The namePsilocybeis derived from theAncient Greekrootspsilos(ψιλος) andkubê(κυβη),[7]and translates as "bare head".Cubensismeans "coming from Cuba", and refers to the type locality published by Earle.

Singer dividedP. cubensisinto three varieties: the nominate, which usually had a brownish cap, Murrill'scyanescensfrom Florida, which generally had a pale cap, and varcaerulascensfrom Indochina with a more yellowish cap.[8]

Psilocybe cubensisis commonly known as gold top, golden top or gold cap in Australia, sacred mushroom[9]or blue mushroom in Brazil, and San Ysidro or Palenque mushroom in the United States and Mexico, while the term "magic mushroom" has been applied to hallucinogenic mushrooms in general.[10]It is commonly known as "Golden teacher" in South Africa.[11]A common name in Thai is "Hed keequai", which translates as "mushroom which appears after water buffalo defecates".[12]

Description

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Psilocybe cubensis

Thecapis 1.6–8 cm (0.6–3.1 in),conictoconvexwith a central papilla when young, becoming broadly convex to plane with age, retaining a slight umbo sometimes surrounded by a ring-shaped depression. The cap surface issmoothand sticky, sometimes with whiteuniversal veilremnants attached. The cap is brown becoming paler to almost white at the margin and fades to more golden-brown or yellowish with age. When bruised, all parts of the mushroom stain blue. The narrow grey gills are adnate to adnexed, sometimes seceding attachment, and darken to purplish-black and somewhat mottled with age. The gill edges remain whitish. The hollow whitestipeis 4–15 cm (2–6 in) high by 0.4–1.4 cm (0.2–0.6 in) thick, becoming yellowish in age.[8]The well-developed veil leaves a persistent white membranous ring whose surface usually becomes the same color as the gills because of falling spores.[13]The fruiting bodies are 90% water.[14]The mushroom has no odor and has been described as tastingfarinaceous,with an alkaline or metallic aftertaste. The spores are 11.5–17.3 x 8–11.5μm,sub-ellipsoid,basidia4-spored but sometimes 2- or 3-, pleurocystidia and cheilocystidia present.[8]

The related speciesPsilocybe subcubensis—found in tropical regions—is indistinguishable but has smaller spores.[12]

Psilocybe cubensisspores, 1000x

Distribution and habitat

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Psilocybe cubensisis a pan-tropical species,[4]occurring in the Gulf Coast states and southeastern United States, Mexico, in the Central American countries of Belize, Costa Rica, Panamá,El Salvadorand Guatemala, the Caribbean countries Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Guadalupe, Martinique, and Trinidad, in the South American countries of Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, French Guiana, Paraguay, Uruguay and Peru, Southeast Asia,[15]including Thailand,[12]Vietnam, Cambodia and Malaysia, India, Australia, Fiji, and possibly Nepal and Hawaii.[15]

Psilocybe cubensisis found on cow (and occasionally horse) dung, sugar cane mulch or rich pasture soil, with mushrooms appearing from February to December in the northern hemisphere, and November to April in the southern hemisphere.[8]In Asia, the species grows on water buffalo dung.[12]Along with other fungi that grow on cow dung,P. cubensisis thought to have colonized Australia with the introduction of cattle there, 1800 of which were on the Australian mainland by 1803—having been transported there from theCape of Good Hope,Kolkata and the American west coast. In Australia, the species grows between northern Queensland to southern New South Wales.[10]

In March 2018, severalPsilocybe cubensisspecimens were collected inZimbabwein theWedza Districtof Mashonaland East province, approx. 120 km southeast of Harare. This was the first reported occurrence of a psilocybin mushroom in Zimbabwe. The mushrooms were collected on Imire Rhino & Wildlife Conservation - a nature reserve that is home to both wildlife and cattle, as well as cattle egrets.[16]

Relationship with cattle

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Psilocybe cubensis,Zimbabwe

BecausePsilocybe cubensisis intimately associated with cattle ranching,[17]the fungus has found unique dispersal niches not available to most other members of the familyHymenogastraceae.Of particular interest is thecattle egret(Bubulcus ibis), a colonizer of Old World origin (via South America), whose range of distribution overlaps much of that ofPsilocybe cubensis.Cattle egrets typically walk alongside cattle, preying on insects; they track through spore-laden vegetation and cow dung and transfer the spores to suitable habitats, often thousands of miles away during migration activities. This type of spore dispersal is known aszoochory,and it enables a parent species to propagate over a much greater range than it could achieve alone. The relationship between cattle, cattle egrets, andPsilocybe cubensisis an example ofsymbiosis—a situation in which dissimilar organisms live together in close association.[18]

Cultivation

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Indoor cultivation ofPsilocybe cubensis

Psilocybe cubensisgrows naturally in tropical and subtropical conditions, often near cattle due to the ideal conditions they provide for the growth of the fungus. The cow usually consumes grains or grass covered with the spores ofPsilocybe cubensisand the fungus will begin to germinate within the dung.

Mushrooms such asPsilocybe cubensisare relatively easy to cultivate indoors. First,sporesare inoculated within sterilized jars or bags, colloquially known as grainspawn, containing a form of carbohydrate nutrient such as rye grains.[19]After approximately one month, the spores fully colonize the grain spawn forming densemycelium,which is then planted within a substrate such as a coconut husk fiber and vermiculite mixture.[20]Given proper humidity, temperature, and fresh air exchange, the substrate will produce fruitingPsilocybe cubensisbodies within a month of planting. To preserve potency after harvesting, growers often dehydrate the fruit and store them in air-tight containers in cool environments.

A study conducted in 2009 showed that mushrooms grown in the dark had higher levels of psilocybin and psilocin compared to the mushrooms grown in bright, indirect light, which had minimum levels.[21]

Studies were conducted where an environmentally controlled wind tunnel and a computer program were used to determine the influence of humidity on the individual basidiocarps ofPsilocybe cubensiswhich aided in mapping their growth and development. The transpiration and growth of the mushroom were heavily influenced due to the humidity of the air, and the transpiration was accelerated at higher humidities while light did not affect the growth. Faster growth was observed at higher humidities. It was also discovered that misting enhanced both the growth and transpiration rates in the growing process ofPsilocybe cubensis.[22]

Mushrooms grown with PF-Tek

Small-scale cultivation ofPsilocybe cubensisis often accomplished with "cakes" that colonize within jars, but fruit inside specially designed tubs called "shotgun fruiting chambers". The most common cake method for beginners is PF-Tek ( "Psilocybe Fanaticus technique" ), named after Psylocybe Fanaticus, the clandestine cultivator credited for its creation. Cakes are popular for the new cultivator because of their fool-proof inoculation methods and low cost of startup materials. As cakes are composed of brown rice flour, vermiculite, and gypsum, they can be sterilized with steam sterilization in a large pot. Unlike with cereal grains used in bulk growing, brown rice flour contains no bacterial endospores, a contamination vector requiring a pressure cooker to sterilize.

Cultivation methods resulting in larger yields are categorized as "bulk growing." Bulk growing allows cultivators to operate on a larger scale, but require a greater investment of time, money, and knowledge. While small-scale grows utilize spore syringes to inject spore solution into cakes, bulk methods instead use grain spawn as primary nutrition for the subsequent growth. Additionally, cultivators must develop solid sterile technique in working with agar. Instead of inoculating grain with spores, growers instead germinate spores on agar plates, then transfer the resultant healthy mycelium to the grain jars. Once the grain is colonized with clean mycelial growth, users inoculate their bulk substrates with the grain in a process known as "spawning." Bulk substrates are frequently a mix of coir, vermiculite and gypsum due to not requiring pasteurization or sterilization. However, some utilize blends of manure-based substrates or straw; substrates which always require pasteurization with open-air spawning. After spawning, the healthy mycelium will colonize the bulk substrate, and given proper conditions, eventually fruit mushrooms.[23]

TerenceandDennis McKennamadePsilocybe cubensisparticularly famous when they publishedPsilocybin: Magic Mushroom Grower's Guidein the 1970s upon their return from theAmazon rainforest,having deduced new methods (based on pre-existing techniques originally described by J.P. San Antonio[24]) for growingpsilocybin mushroomsand assuring their audience thatPsilocybe cubensiswere amongst the easiest psilocybin-containing mushrooms to cultivate.[25]

The potency of cultivated specimens can vary widely per each flush (harvest). In a classic paper published by Jeremy Bigwood and M.W. Beug, it was shown that with each flush,psilocybinlevels varied somewhat unpredictably but were much the same on the first flush as they were on the last flush; however,psilocinwas typically absent in the first two flushes but peaked by the fourth flush, making it the most potent. Two strains were also analyzed to determine potency in caps and stems: In one strain the caps contained generally twice as much psilocybin as the stems, but the small amount of psilocin present was entirely in the stems. In the other strain, a trace of psilocin was present in the cap but not in the stem; the cap and stem contained equal amounts of psilocybin. The study concluded that the levels of psilocybin and psilocin vary by over a factor of four in cultures ofPsilocybe cubensisgrown under controlled conditions.[26]

Psychedelic and entheogenic use

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Psilocybe cubensis

Singer noted thatPsilocybe cubensishad psychoactive properties in 1949.[4]

In Australia, the use of psychoactive mushrooms grew rapidly between 1969 and 1975.[10]

In a 1992 paper, locals and tourists in Thailand were reported to consumeP. cubensisand related species in mushroom omelets—particularly inKo SamuiandKo Pha-ngan.At times, omelets were adulterated with LSD, resulting in prolonged intoxication. A thriving subculture had developed in the region. Other localities, such asHat Yai,Ko Samet,andChiang Mai,also had some reported usage.[12]

In 1996, jars of honey containingPsilocybe cubensiswere confiscated at the Dutch-German border. Upon examination, it was revealed that jars of honey containing psychedelic mushrooms were being sold at Dutch coffee shops.[27]

P. cubensisis probably the most widely known of the psilocybin-containing mushrooms used for triggeringpsychedelic experiencesafter ingestion. Its majorpsychoactivecompounds are:

The concentrations of psilocin and psilocybin, as determined byhigh-performance liquid chromatography,are in the range of 0.14–0.42% (wet weight) and 0.37–1.30% (dry weight) in the whole mushroom 0.17–0.78% (wet weight) and 0.44–1.35% (dry weight) in the cap, and 0.09%–0.30% (wet weight) and 0.05–1.27% (dry weight) in the stem, respectively.[28]For quickly and practically measuring the psychoactive contents of most healthyPsilocybe cubensisvarieties, it can generally be assumed that there is approximately 15 mg (+/- 5 mg) of psilocybin per gram of dried mushroom.[29]Furthermore, due to factors such as age and storage method, the psilocybin and psilocin content of a given sample of mushrooms will vary.

Individual body composition, brain chemistry and psychological predisposition play a significant role in determining appropriate doses. For a modest psychedelic effect, a minimum of one gram of driedPsilocybe cubensismushrooms is ingested orally, 0.25–1 gram is usually sufficient to produce a mild effect, 1–2.5 grams usually provides a moderate effect and 2.5 grams and higher usually produces strong effects.[30]For most people, 3.5 dried grams (1/8 oz) would be considered a high dose and may produce an intense experience; this is, however, typically considered a standard dose among recreational users. Body composition (usually weight) should be taken into account when calculating dosage. For many individuals, doses above three grams may be overwhelming. For a few rare people, doses as small as 0.25 gram can produce full-blown effects normally associated with very high doses. For most people, however, that dose level would have virtually no effects.

There are many different ways to ingestPsilocybe cubensis.Users may prefer to take them raw, freshly harvested, or dried and preserved. It is also possible to prepare culinary dishes such as pasta or tea with the mushrooms. However, the psychoactive compounds begin to break down rapidly at temperatures exceeding 100 °C (212 °F).[31]Another method of ingestion known as "Lemon Tekking" involves combining pulverizedPsilocybe cubensiswith a concentrated citrus juice with a pH of ~2. Many users believe that a considerable amount of the psilocybin will have beendephosphorylatedinto psilocin, the psychoactive metabolite, by citric acid. However, this claim is not substantiated by the literature on the metabolism of psilocybin, as dephosphorylation is known to be mediated by the enzyme alkaline phosphatase in humans.[32]It is therefore more likely that citric acid mostly helps in breakdown of mushroom cells, aiding in digestion and psilocybin release.[citation needed] The "Lemon Tekk" method of consumption results in a more rapid onset and can offer easier digestion or reduced "come-up pressure" associated with raw consumption.[33]Psilocybe cubensiscan also be taken in conjunction with other botanicals such as turmeric, ginger, and black pepper. A 2019 study observed turmeric to act as a mildMAOI,which, when combined with psilocin, potentiates the biochemical interactions betweenserotoninreceptors and psilocin, creating an entourage effect.[34]

Upon ingestion, effects usually begin after approximately 20–60 minutes (depending on the method of ingestion and stomach contents) and may last from four to ten hours, depending on dosage and individual biochemistry. Visual distortions often occur, including walls that seem to breathe, a vivid enhancement of colors, and the animation of organic shapes.[citation needed]

The effects of high doses can be overwhelming depending on the particular phenotype of cubensis, grow method, and the individual. It is recommended not to eat wild mushrooms without properly identifying them as they may bepoisonous.[35]In particular, similar species include mushrooms of the genusGalerinaandPholiotina rugosa—all potentially deadly—andChlorophyllum molybdites.All of these grow in pastures, a similar habitat to that preferred byP. cubensis.[10]

Spore print ofPsilocybe cubensis

In 2019, a 15-year-old boy suffered from transient kidney failure after eatingP. cubensisfrom a cultivation kit in Canada. No one else in the group suffered any ill effects.[36]

Legality

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Main article:Legal status of psilocybin mushrooms

Psilocybinandpsilocinare listed asSchedule I drugsunder the United Nations 1971Convention on Psychotropic Substances.[37]However, mushrooms containing psilocybin and psilocin are not illegal in some parts of the world. For example, in Brazil they are legal, but extractions from the mushroom containing psilocybin and psilocin remain illegal. In the United States, growing or possessingPsilocybe cubensismushrooms is illegal in all states, but it is legal to possess and buy the spores for microscopy purposes. However, as of May 8, 2019Denver, Coloradohas decriminalized it for those 21 and up. On June 4, 2019,Oakland, Californiafollowed suit, decriminalizing psilocybin-containing mushrooms as well as thePeyotecactus.[38]On January 29, 2020,Santa Cruz, Californiadecriminalized naturally-occurring psychedelics, including psilocybin mushrooms.[39]On November 3, 2020, the state of Oregon decriminalized possession of psilocybin mushrooms for recreational use and granted licensed practitioners permission to administer psilocybin mushrooms to individuals age 21 years and older.[40][41]

In 1978, the Florida Supreme Court ruled inFiske vs Floridathat possession of psilocybin mushrooms is not illegal, in that the mushrooms cannot be considered a "container" for psilocybin based on how the law is written, i.e., it does not specifically state that psilocybin mushrooms themselves are illegal, but that the hallucinogenic constituents in them are. According to this decision, the applicable statute as framed imparts no information as to which plants may contain psilocybin in its natural state and does not advise a person of ordinary intelligence that this substance is contained in a particular variety of mushroom. The statute, therefore, can not constitutionally be applied to the appellant.[42][43]

The production, sale and possession of magic mushrooms is illegal in Canada.[44]

See also

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References

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  1. ^Earle, Franklin Summer (1906)."Algunos hongos cubanos".Información Anual Estación Central Agronomica Cuba(in Spanish).1:225–242 [240–241].
  2. ^Patouillard, Narcisse Théophile (1907)."Champignons nouveaux du Tonkin".Bulletin de la Société Mycologique de France(in French).23(1): 69–79.
  3. ^Murrill, William Alphonso (1941)."Some Florida Novelties".Mycologia.33(3): 279–287.doi:10.2307/3754763.JSTOR3754763.
  4. ^abcGuzmán, Gastón (2009). "The Hallucinogenic Mushrooms: Diversity, Traditions, Use and Abuse with Special Reference to the Genus Psilocybe".Fungi from Different Environments(PDF).Enfield, New Hampshire: Science Publishers. pp. 269–290.ISBN978-1-57808-578-1.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2021-05-13.Retrieved2021-05-13.
  5. ^"Naematoloma caerulescensPat. 1907 ".MycoBank.International Mycological Association.Retrieved2010-10-18.
  6. ^"Stropharia cyanescensMurrill 1941 ".MycoBank.International Mycological Association.Retrieved2010-10-18.
  7. ^Cornelis, Schrevel (1826).Schrevelius' Greek lexicon, tr. into Engl. with numerous corrections.p. 358.Retrieved2011-10-04.
  8. ^abcdSinger, Rolf; Smith, Alexander H. (1958). "Mycological Investigations on Teonanácatl, the Mexican Hallucinogenic Mushroom. Part II. A Taxonomic Monograph of Psilocybe, Section Caerulescentes".Mycologia.50(2): 262–303.doi:10.2307/3756197.JSTOR3756197.
  9. ^"Sacred Mushrooms".Natureza Divina.1 March 2022.Retrieved1 March2022.
  10. ^abcdAllen, John W.; Merlin, Mark D.; Jansen, Karl L.R. (1991). "An Ethnomycological Review of Psychoactive Agarics in Australia and New Zealand".Journal of Psychoactive Drugs.23(1): 39–69.doi:10.1080/02791072.1991.10472573.PMID1941366.
  11. ^Nkadimeng, Sanah M.; Steinmann, Christiaan M. L.; Eloff, Jacobus N. (18 December 2020)."Effects and safety of Psilocybe cubensis and Panaeolus cyanescens magic mushroom extracts on endothelin-1-induced hypertrophy and cell injury in cardiomyocytes".Scientific Reports.10(1).doi:10.1038/s41598-020-79328-5.PMC7749179.
  12. ^abcdeAllen, John W.; Merlin, Mark D. (1992). "Psychoactive mushroom use in Koh Samui and Koh Pha-Ngan, Thailand".Journal of Ethnopharmacology.35(3): 205–228.doi:10.1016/0378-8741(92)90020-R.PMID1548895.
  13. ^Stamets, Paul (1996).Psilocybin Mushrooms of the World.Ten Speed Press. pp. g. 108.ISBN0-89815-839-7.
  14. ^Borovicˇka, J; Konvalinková, T (2019)."Disentangling the factors of contrasting silver and copper accumulation in sporocarps of the ectomycorrhizal fungus Amanita strobiliformis from two sites".Sci Total Environ.694:133679.Bibcode:2019ScTEn.694m3679B.doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.133679.PMID31400682.S2CID199527535.
  15. ^abGuzmán, Gaston; Allen, John W.; Gartz, Jochen (1998)."A worldwide geographical distribution of the neurotropic fungi, an analysis and discussion"(PDF).Annali del Museo Civico di Rovereto.14:207.
  16. ^"Mushroom Observer".mushroomobserver.org.Retrieved2021-02-23.
  17. ^O.T. Oss, O.N. Oeric.Psilocybin: Magic Mushroom Grower's Guide,page 20. Quick American Press (1991).
  18. ^Smith, D. "The cattle egret (Bubulcus ibis): colonizer of Old World origin and a vector ofPsilocybe cubensisspores. "Stain Blue Press, Spring, Texas (1996).http://www.stainblue.com/cubensis.html
  19. ^"Cultivating Psilocybe cubensis: Suitable Substrates".Psychedelic Science Review.2020-10-14.Retrieved2022-05-10.
  20. ^Nicholas, LG; Kerry, Ogame (2006).Psilocybin mushroom handbook: easy indoor & outdoor cultivation.Quick Trading.ISBN978-0932-55171-9.
  21. ^"Cultivating P. cubensis: Light and Tryptamine Are Key for Controlling Psilocybin and Psilocin Levels".Psychedelic Science Review.2020-08-25.Retrieved2022-05-10.
  22. ^Badham, Edmond R. (1985)."The Influence of Humidity upon Transpiration and Growth in Psilocybe cubensis".Mycologia.77(6): 932–939.doi:10.2307/3793305.ISSN0027-5514.JSTOR3793305.
  23. ^Oss, O. T. (1991).Psilocybin: magic mushroom grower's guide: a handbook for psilocybin enthusiasts.O. N. Oeric. [San Francisco, Calif.?]: Quick American Pub.ISBN0-932551-06-8.OCLC27721523.
  24. ^Antonio, James P. San (January 1971). "A Laboratory Method to Obtain Fruit from Cased Grain Spawn of the Cultivated Mushroom, Agaricus Bisporus".Mycologia.63(1): 16–21.doi:10.1080/00275514.1971.12019077.PMID5102274.
  25. ^"Terence McKenna's books in print".RetrievedDecember 17,2015.
  26. ^Bigwood, Jeremy; Beug, Michael W. (1 May 1982). "Variation of psilocybin and psilocin levels with repeated flushes (harvests) of mature sporocarps of Psilocybe cubensis (Earle) singer".Journal of Ethnopharmacology.5(3): 287–291.doi:10.1016/0378-8741(82)90014-9.PMID7201054.
  27. ^Bogusz, M. J.; Maier, R. D.; Schäfer, A. T.; Erkens, M. (1998)."Honey with Psilocybe mushrooms: a revival of a very old preparation on the drug market?".International Journal of Legal Medicine.111(3): 147–150.doi:10.1007/s004140050135.ISSN0937-9827.PMID9587797.S2CID34213721.
  28. ^Tsujikawa, Kenji; Kanamori, Tatsuyuki; Iwata, Yuko; Ohmae, Yoshihito; Sugita, Ritsuko; Inoue, Hiroyuki; Kishi, Tohru (December 2003). "Morphological and chemical analysis of magic mushrooms in Japan".Forensic Science International.138(1–3): 85–90.doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2003.08.009.PMID14642723.
  29. ^Laussmann, Tim; Meier-Giebing, Sigrid (2010)."Forensic analysis of hallucinogenic mushrooms and khat (Catha edulisForsk) using cation-exchange liquid chromatography".Forensic Science International.1(3): 160–164.doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2009.12.013.PMID20047807.
  30. ^Erowid (2006)."Erowid Psilocybin Mushroom Vault: Dosage"(shtml).Erowid.Retrieved2006-11-26.
  31. ^Gotvaldová, Klára (2021)."Stability of psilocybin and its four analogs in the biomass of the psychotropic mushroom Psilocybe cubensis"(PDF).Drug Testing and Analysis.13(2): 439–446.doi:10.1002/dta.2950.PMID33119971.S2CID226205357.
  32. ^Dinis-Oliveira, Ricardo Jorge (2 January 2017). "Metabolism of psilocybin and psilocin: clinical and forensic toxicological relevance".Drug Metabolism Reviews.49(1). Informa UK Limited: 84–91.doi:10.1080/03602532.2016.1278228.ISSN0360-2532.PMID28074670.S2CID7656157.
  33. ^Horita, A; Weber, L.J. (1961). "The Enzymatic Dephosphorylation and Oxidation of Psilocybin and Psilocin by Mammalian Tissue Homogenates".Biochemical Pharmacology.7(1): 47–54.doi:10.1016/0006-2952(61)90124-1.PMID13715852.
  34. ^Blei, Felix (2019)."Blei, Felix, et al." Simultaneous production of psilocybin and a cocktail of β-carboline monoamine oxidase inhibitors in "magic" mushrooms ".Chemistry: A European Journal.26(3): 729–734.doi:10.1002/chem.201904363.PMC7003923.PMID31729089.
  35. ^Phillips, Roger (2010).Mushrooms and Other Fungi of North America.Buffalo, NY: Firefly Books. p. 231.ISBN978-1-55407-651-2.
  36. ^Austin, Emily; Myron, Hilary S.; Summerbell, Richard K.; MacKenzie, Constance A. (2019)."Acute renal injury caused by confirmed Psilocybe cubensis mushroom ingestion".Medical Mycology Case Reports.23:55–57.doi:10.1016/j.mmcr.2018.12.007.PMC6322052.PMID30627509.
  37. ^List of psychotropic substances under international control(PDF)(Report) (29 ed.).International Narcotics Control Board.2018.
  38. ^"Oakland second city in USA to allow 'magic mushrooms'".East Bay Times.California, USA. 2019-06-04.Retrieved2023-02-04.
  39. ^"Breaking: Santa Cruz City Council Votes to Decriminalize Entheogenic Plants and Fungi".DoubleBlind Magazine.2020-01-29.Retrieved2020-01-30.
  40. ^"Oregon measure 109".Ballotpedia.org.Ballotpedia.Retrieved10 November2020.
  41. ^"Oregon measure 110".Ballotpedia.org.Ballotpedia.Retrieved10 November2020.
  42. ^"Fiske v. State".Justia Law.Archived fromthe originalon 19 September 2017.Retrieved21 August2020.
  43. ^"Florida Court Rules Psilocybin Mushrooms Are Not a 'Container' for Psilocybin Based on How the Law is Written".Psychedelic Science Review.2020. Archived fromthe originalon 21 August 2020.Retrieved21 August2020.
  44. ^"Psilocybin and psilocin (Magic mushrooms)".12 January 2012.

Further reading

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  • Guzman, G. The Genus Psilocybe: A Systematic Revision of the Known Species Including the History, Distribution and Chemistry of the Hallucinogenic Species. Beihefte zur Nova Hedwigia Heft 74. J. Cramer, Vaduz, Germany (1983) [now out of print].
  • Guzman, G. "Supplement to the genus Psilocybe." Bibliotheca Mycologica 159: 91-141 (1995).
  • Haze, Virginia & Mandrake, K.The Psilocybin Mushroom Bible: The Definitive Guide to Growing and Using Magic Mushrooms.Green Candy Press: Toronto, Canada, 2016.ISBN978-1937866-28-0.
  • Nicholas, L.G.; Ogame, Kerry (2006).Psilocybin Mushroom Handbook: Easy Indoor and Outdoor Cultivation.Quick American Archives.ISBN0-932551-71-8.
  • Oss, O.T.; O.N. Oeric (1976).Psilocybin: Magic Mushroom Grower's Guide.Quick American Publishing Company.ISBN0-932551-06-8.
  • Stamets, Paul; Chilton, J.S. (1983).Mushroom Cultivator, The.Olympia: Agarikon Press.ISBN0-9610798-0-0.
  • Stamets, Paul (1996).Psilocybin Mushrooms of the World.Berkeley: Ten Speed Press.ISBN0-9610798-0-0.
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