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Hallucinogenic fish

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Several species of fish are claimed to produce hallucinogenic effects when consumed, a condition known asichthyoallyeinotoxism.For example,Sarpa salpa,a species ofsea breamreferred to as the "dream-fish", is commonly claimed to be hallucinogenic.[1][2]These widely distributedcoastal fishare normally found in the Mediterranean and around theIberian Peninsula,west to theAzoresand along the west and south coasts of Africa.[3]Occasionally they are found in British or more northerly waters.[4]They may induce hallucinogenic effects similar to LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) if eaten.[5]However, based on the reports of exposure they are more likely to resemble hallucinogenic effects ofdeliriantsthan the effects ofserotonergic psychedelicssuch as LSD. In 2006, two men who apparently ate the fish experienced hallucinations lasting for several days (an effect common with some naturally occurring deliriants).[6][7]The likelihood of hallucinations depends on the season.[8][9]Sarpa salpais known as "the fish that makes dreams" inArabic.[6]

Ingesting the dreamfishSarpa salpacan result in hallucinations that last for several days.

Other species claimed to be capable of producing hallucinations include several species ofsea chubfrom the genusKyphosus.[6]It is unclear whether the toxins are produced by the fish themselves or by marine algae in their diet. Other hallucinogenic fish areSiganusspinus,[10]called "the fish that inebriates" inReunion Island,andMulloidichthys flavolineatus(formerlyMulloidichthys samoensis),[11]called "the chief of ghosts" in Hawaii.[12]

Cause of hallucinations

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Some fish may become hallucinogenic after grazing onCaulerpa prolifera,a species ofgreen algathat forms dense beds on shallow sandy areas.
Also implicated isPosidonia oceanica,aseagrassthat lives in meadows along the Mediterranean coast.

The active agent(s) that cause hallucinations in humans, and the origin of these agents, are not clear. Some authors think they could come from toxins associated withmacroalgaethat accumulate in the flesh of the fish. Toxins from thegreen algaeCaulerpa proliferain the Mediterranean Sea appear to be implicated,[13]as is theseagrassPosidonia oceanica.[8]Whenherbivoreseat seagrass leaves they ingest algalepiphytesand toxicdinoflagellatesthat live on the seagrass leaves.[14]The German anthropologistChristian Rätschthinks that dreamfish might contain the hallucinogenDMT.[15]

A few reporters have eaten the dream fish and described their strange effects. The most famous user is Joe Roberts, a photographer for theNational Geographicmagazine. He broiled the dream fish in 1960. After eating the delicacy, he experienced intense hallucinations with a science-fiction theme that included futuristic vehicles, images of space exploration, and monuments marking humanity's first trips into space.[15]

Hallucinogenic species

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Fish species reported as hallucinogenic
Diet Family Image Species Common name Max length Reported locations[6] Notes Other sources
Herbivores Clown and damselfishes Abudefduf septemfasciatus Banded sergeant
23 cm
 Gilbert Islands[16] [17][18]
Rabbitfish Siganus argenteus Streamlined spinefoot
40 cm
 Mauritius[19] [20][21]
Siganus corallinus Blue-spotted spinefoot
35 cm
 Mauritius[19] [22][23]
Siganus luridus Dusky spinefoot
30 cm
 Israel[24][25] [26][27]
Siganus rivulatus Marbled spinefoot
27 cm
 Mauritius[19]
Israel(suspected)[28] 		[29][30]
Siganus spinus Little spinefoot
28 cm
 Réunion island[31] [10][32]
Sea breams Sarpa salpa Salema
51 cm
 Tunisia[33]
France[34]
Israel[28][35] 		[3][36]
Sea chub Kyphosus cinerascens Blue sea chub
50 cm
 Hawaii[37] [38][39]
Kyphosus vaigiensis Brassy chub
70 cm
 Hawaii[37] [40][41]
Kyphosus bigibbus Brown chub
75 cm
 Norfolk Island[42] FormerlyKyphosus fuscus [43][44]
Surgeon fish Acanthurus triostegus Convict surgeonfish
27 cm
 Hawaii[37] [45][46]
Omnivores Goatfish Mulloidichthysflavolineatus Yellowstripe goatfish
43 cm
 Hawaii[47][48][49] FormerlyMulloidichthys samoensis.[50]
Called "the chief of ghosts" in Hawaii[12][51] 		[11][52]
Upeneus taeniopterus Finstripe goatfish
33 cm
 Hawaii[47][48][49] FormerlyUpeneus arge [53][54]
Mullet Mugil cephalus Flathead grey mullet
100 cm
 Hawaii[47] [55][56]
Neomyxusleuciscus Acute-jawed mullet
46 cm
 Hawaii[47] FormerlyNeomyxus chaptalli [57][58]
Carnivores Groupers Epinephelus corallicola Coral grouper
49 cm
 Gilbert Islands[16] [59][60]

Ichthyoallyeinotoxism

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Main article:Ichthyoallyeinotoxism

Ichthyoallyeinotoxism,or hallucinogenic fish inebriation, is a clinical syndrome that refers to a hallucinogenicinebriationof a distressing nature that can arise from consuming hallucinogenic fish. It is characterised by "psychologic disturbances of hallucination and depression. Gastrointestinal disturbance may occur".[61]"Ichthyoallyeinotoxism is a kind of ichthysarcotoxism (fish flesh poisoning) responsible of an unusual clinical feature: it is the unique case of central nervous systemichthyotoxicity.The most frequent signs are dizziness, loss of co-ordination and hallucinations. "[13]

Ichthyoallyeinotoxism may result from eating the flesh or the head of the fish where the poison is reputedly concentrated. This biotoxication is sporadic and unpredictable in its occurrence. The poison affects primarily the central nervous system. The symptoms may develop within a few minutes to 2 hours and persist for 24 hours or longer. Symptoms are dizziness, loss of equilibrium, lack of motor coordination, hallucinations and mental depression. A common complaint of the victim is that "someone is sitting on my chest", or there is a sensation of a tight constriction around the chest. The conviction that he is going to die, or some other frightening fantasy, is a characteristic part of the clinical picture. Other complaints consist of itching, burning of the throat, muscular weakness and abdominal distress. No fatalities have been reported, and in comparison with other forms of ichthyosarcotoxism, hallucinogenic fish poisoning is relatively mild... Ordinary cooking procedures do not destroy the poison.[62]

See also

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References

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  1. ^Orsolini, L.; Ciccarese, M.; Papanti, D.; De Berardis, D.; Guirguis, A.; Corkery, J. M.; Schifano, F. (2018)."Psychedelic fauna for psychonaut hunters: a mini-review".Frontiers in Psychiatry.9:153.doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00153.PMC5992390.PMID29910745.
  2. ^Jawad, Laith A. (2017)."Hallucinogenic fish".Dangerous Fishes of the Eastern and Southern Arabian Peninsula.Springer International. pp. 177–185.ISBN978-3-319-57926-9.
  3. ^abFroese, Rainer;Pauly, Daniel (eds.)."Sarpa salpa".FishBase.October 2013 version.
  4. ^"Fish that triggers hallucinations found off British coast".The Telegraph.13 May 2009.
  5. ^"'Hallucination' fish netted in Channel ".The Guardian.13 May 2009.
  6. ^abcd de Haro, L.; Pommier, P. (2006). "Hallucinatory fish poisoning (ichthyoallyeinotoxism): two case reports from the Western Mediterranean and literature review".Clinical Toxicology.44(2): 185–8.doi:10.1080/15563650500514590.PMID16615678.S2CID41191477.
  7. ^ Clarke, Matt (19 April 2006)."Men hallucinate after eating fish".Practical Fishkeeping.Archived fromthe originalon 5 June 2011.Retrieved31 March2010.
  8. ^abBellassoued K, Hamza A, Abdelmouleh A, Makni FA, Van Pelt J, Elfeki A (2012). "Toxicity assessment of dreamfishSarpa salpafrom the Gulf of Gabes (Tunisia, Eastern Mediterranean Sea) ".Journal of Food, Agriculture and Environment.10(2): 1308–1313.
  9. ^de Haro L, Jouglard DE, Thomas MJ, David JM (1994). "Intoxications de type ciguatera after eating the Sparidae in Mediterranean". In Boudoresque, CF, Meinsez A, Gravez V (eds.).First International Workshop on Caulerpa taxifolia.France: GIS Posidonie Publ. pp. 271–274.ISBN978-2-905540-19-5.
  10. ^abFroese, Rainer;Pauly, Daniel (eds.)."Siganus spinus".FishBase.October 2013 version.
  11. ^abFroese, Rainer;Pauly, Daniel (eds.)."Mulloides flavolineatus".FishBase.October 2013 version.
  12. ^abThomas, Craig; Scott, Susan (1 June 1997).All Stings Considered: First Aid and Medical Treatment of Hawai'i's Marine Injuries.Hawaii: University of Hawai'i Press. p. 120.ISBN978-0-8248-1900-2.
  13. ^abde Haro, L., Prost, N., Arditti, J., David, J. M., & Jouglard, J. (1998)"Ichthyoallyeinotoxism: a rare pathology"Toxicon,36(12): 1738–1739.
  14. ^Kitting, Christopher L.; Fry, Brian; Morgan, Mark D. (1984). "Detection of inconspicuous epiphytic algae supporting food webs in seagrass meadows".Oecologia.62(2): 145–149.Bibcode:1984Oecol..62..145K.doi:10.1007/BF00379006.PMID28310706.S2CID24235492.
  15. ^abPickover, Clifford A(2005) [Sex, Drugs, Einstein, and Elves] Chapter 1, page 9, Smart Publications.ISBN978-1-890572-17-4.
  16. ^abCooper MJ (1964)"Ciguatera and other marine poisoning in the Gilbert Islands",Pacific Science,18(4): 411–440.
  17. ^Abudefduf septemfasciatus:Sevenband DamselfishEncyclopedia of Life.Retrieved 23 October 2013.
  18. ^Froese, Rainer;Pauly, Daniel (eds.)."Abudefduf septemfasciatus".FishBase.October 2013 version.
  19. ^abcHalstead BW, Cox KM (1973)"An investigation on fish poisoning in Mauritius",Proc Roy Soc Arts Sci Mauritius,4(2): 1–26.
  20. ^Siganus argenteus:Yellowspotted SpinefootEncyclopedia of Life.Retrieved 23 October 2013.
  21. ^Froese, Rainer;Pauly, Daniel (eds.)."Siganus argenteus".FishBase.October 2013 version.
  22. ^Siganus corallinus:Blue-spotted spinefootEncyclopedia of Life.Retrieved 23 October 2013.
  23. ^Froese, Rainer;Pauly, Daniel (eds.)."Siganus corallinus".FishBase.October 2013 version.
  24. ^Raikhlin-Eisenkraft B and Bentur Y (2002)"Rabbitfish (" Aras "). An unusual source of ciguatera poisoning"Israeli Medical Association Journal,4:28–30.
  25. ^Herzberg A (1973)"Toxicity ofSiganus luridus(Ruppell) on the Mediterranean Coast of Israël "Aquaculture,2:89–91.
  26. ^Siganus luridus:Squaretail RabbitfishEncyclopedia of Life.Retrieved 23 October 2013.
  27. ^Froese, Rainer;Pauly, Daniel (eds.)."Siganus luridus".FishBase.October 2013 version.
  28. ^abSpanier E, Finkelstein Y and Raikhlin-Eisenkraft B (1989)"Toxicity of the saupe,Sarpa salpa(Linnaeus, 1758), on the Mediterranean coast of Israel "Archived28 November 2021 at theWayback MachineJournal of Fish Biology,34:635–636.doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.1989.tb03342.x
  29. ^Siganus rivulatus:Squaretail RabbitfishEncyclopedia of Life.Retrieved 23 October 2013.
  30. ^Froese, Rainer;Pauly, Daniel (eds.)."Siganus rivulatus".FishBase.October 2013 version.
  31. ^Lebeau A (1979)."La ciguatera dans l'Océan Indien: étude des poissons vénéneux des bancs de l'archipel des Mascareignes et de la crète centrale de l'Océan Indien"(PDF).Rev Trav Inst Pêches Marit.42(4): 325–345.
  32. ^Siganus spinus:Little spinefootEncyclopedia of Life.Retrieved 23 October 2013.
  33. ^Chevaldonne P (1990)"Ciguatera and the saupe,Sarpa salpa(L.), in the Mediterranean: a possible misinterpretation "Journal of fish biology,37:503–504.doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.1990.tb05883.x
  34. ^de Haro L, Treffot MJ, Jouglard J and Perringué C (1993) "Trois cas d'intoxication de type ciguatérique après ingestion de Sparidae de Méditerranée",Ictyophysiologica Acta,16:133–146.
  35. ^Raikhlin-Eisenkraft B, Finkelstein Y, Spanier E (1988)"Ciguatera-like poisoning in the Mediterranean"Vet Hum Toxicol,30(6): 582–583.
  36. ^Sarpa salpa:Salema porgyEncyclopedia of Life.Retrieved 23 October 2013.
  37. ^abcHelfrich P (1963)"Fish Poisoning in HawaiiHawaii Medical Journal,22(5): 361–372.
  38. ^Kyphosus cinerascens:Blue SeachubEncyclopedia of Life.Retrieved 23 October 2013.
  39. ^Froese, Rainer;Pauly, Daniel (eds.)."Kyphosus cinerascens".FishBase.October 2013 version.
  40. ^Kyphosus vaigiensis:Lowfinned DrummerEncyclopedia of Life.Retrieved 23 October 2013.
  41. ^Froese, Rainer;Pauly, Daniel (eds.)."Kyphosus vaigiensis".FishBase.October 2013 version.
  42. ^Roughly TC, Roberts BJ (1960)"Bounty descendant live on remote Norfolk Island"Archived24 April 2016 at theWayback MachineNational Geographic Magazine,116(6): 575.
  43. ^Kyphosus bigibbus:Striped DrummerEncyclopedia of Life.Retrieved 23 October 2013.
  44. ^Froese, Rainer;Pauly, Daniel (eds.)."Kyphosus bigibbus".FishBase.October 2013 version.
  45. ^Acanthurus triostegus:Convict TangEncyclopedia of Life.Retrieved 23 October 2013.
  46. ^Froese, Rainer;Pauly, Daniel (eds.)."Acanthurus triostegus".FishBase.October 2013 version.
  47. ^abcdHelfrich P, Banner A. (1960)"Hallucinatory mullet poisoning"Archived29 October 2013 at theWayback MachineJournal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene,1:86–89.
  48. ^abJordan DS, Evermann BW and Tanaka S (1927) "Notes on new or rare fishes from Hawaii",Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences,16(20): 649–680.
  49. ^abRandall JE (1958) "A review of ciguatera, tropical fish poisoning, with tentative explanation of its cause",Bulletin of Marine Science Gulf Caribbean,8(3): 236–267.
  50. ^Froese, Rainer;Pauly, Daniel (eds.)."Mulloidichthys samoensis".FishBase.October 2009 version.
  51. ^Titcomb, Margaret (1951)"Memoir: Native use of fish in Hawaii"Archived18 February 2020 at theWayback MachineJournal of the Polynesian Society,60"1–146.
  52. ^Mulloides flavolineatus:Yellowstripe goatfishEncyclopedia of Life.Retrieved 23 October 2013.
  53. ^Upeneus arge:Bandtail GoatfishEncyclopedia of Life.Retrieved 23 October 2013.
  54. ^Froese, Rainer;Pauly, Daniel (eds.)."Upeneus taeniopterus".FishBase.October 2013 version.
  55. ^Mugil cephalus:Striped MulletEncyclopedia of Life.Retrieved 23 October 2013.
  56. ^Froese, Rainer;Pauly, Daniel (eds.)."Mugil cephalus".FishBase.October 2013 version.
  57. ^Neomyxus leuciscus:Brown MulletEncyclopedia of Life.Retrieved 23 October 2013.
  58. ^Froese, Rainer;Pauly, Daniel (eds.)."Neomyxus leuciscus".FishBase.October 2013 version.
  59. ^Epinephelus corallicola:Malabar GrouperEncyclopedia of Life.Retrieved 23 October 2013.
  60. ^Froese, Rainer;Pauly, Daniel (eds.)."Epinephelus corallicola".FishBase.October 2013 version.
  61. ^Report of the Seminar on IchthyosarcotoxismPapeete 1968,South Pacific Commission.
  62. ^R Bagnis R, F Berglund, PS Elias, GJ van Esch, BW Halstead and K Kojima (1970)"Problems of Toxicants in Marine Food Products: 1. Marine biotoxins"Bulletin of the World Health Organization,42:69–88.
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