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Public bathing

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Public bathsoriginated when most people in population centers did not have access to private bathing facilities. Though termed "public", they have often been restricted according to gender, religious affiliation, personal membership, and other criteria.

TheAsser Levy Public BathsinManhattan,New York City (1904–1906, restored 1989–1990)

In addition to their hygienic function, public baths have also been social meeting places. They have includedsaunas,massages,and other relaxation therapies, as are found in contemporaryday spas.

As the percentage of dwellings containing private bathrooms has increased in some societies, the need for public baths has diminished, and they are now almost exclusively used recreationally.

History

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See also:Bathing § History,andHistory of water supply and sanitation

Indus Valley Civilization

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Great BathofMohenjo Daro
Further information:Sanitation in the Indus Valley Civilization

Some of the earliest public baths are found in the ruins in of theIndus Valley civilization.According toJohn Keay,the "Great Bath"ofMohenjo Daroin present-dayPakistanwas the size of 'a modest municipalswimming pool', complete with stairs leading down to the water at each one of its ends.[1]

The bath is housed inside a larger—more elaborate—building and was used for public bathing.[1]The Great Bath and the house of the priest suggest that the Indus had a religion.

Ancient Greece

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In Greece by the sixth century BC, men and women washed in basins near places of physical and intellectual exercise. Later gymnasia had indoor basins set overhead, the open maws of marble lions offering showers, and circular pools with tiers of steps for lounging.

Bathing was ritualized, and becoming an art, with cleansing sands, hot water, hot air in dark vaulted "vapor baths", a cooling plunge, and a rubdown witharomatic oils.Cities all over Ancient Greece honored sites where "youngephebesstood and splashed water over their bodies ".

Greek public bathing spread to the already rich ancient Egyptian bathing culture, duringPtolemaic rule[2][3]andancient Rome.

China

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Main article:Chinese bathhouses

Bathing culture in Chinese literature can be traced back to theShang dynasty(1600 – 1046 BCE), whereOracle boneinscriptions describe the people washing hair and body in bath, suggesting people paid attention to personal hygiene.Book of Rites,a work regardingZhou dynasty(1046 – 256 BCE) ritual, politics, and culture compiled during theWarring States period,describes that people should take a hot shower every five days and wash their hair every three days. It was also considered good manners to take a bath provided by the host before thedinner.In theHan dynasty,bathing became a regular activity every five days.[4]

Ancient public bath facilities have been found in ancient Chinese cities, such as the Dongzhouyang archaeological site inHenan Province.Bathrooms were called Bi (Chinese:Bức), and bathtubs were made of bronze or timber.[5]Bath beans, a powdery soap mixture of ground beans, cloves, eaglewood, flowers, and even powdered jade, was a luxury toiletry in the Han dynasty; commoners used powdered beans without spices. Luxurious bathhouses built around hot springs were recorded in theTang dynasty.[4]While royal bathhouses and bathrooms were common among ancient Chinese nobles and commoners, the public bathhouse was a relatively late development. In theSong dynasty(960–1279), public bathhouses became popular and ubiquitous,[5]and bathing became an essential part of social life and recreation. Bathhouses often provided massage, manicure, rubdowns, ear cleaning, food and beverages.[5]Marco Polo,who traveled to China during theYuan dynasty,noted Chinese bathhouses used coal for heating, which he had never seen in Europe.[6]At that time coal was so plentiful that Chinese people of every social class took frequent baths, either in public baths or in bathrooms in their own homes.[7][8][better source needed]

A typicalMing dynastybathhouse had slabbed floors and brick dome ceilings. A huge boiler was installed in the back of the house, connected with the bathing pool through a tunnel. Water could be pumped into the pool by water wheels attended by staff.[5]

South Korea

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Main article:Jjimjilbang

Unlike traditional public baths in other countries, public baths in Korea are known for having various amenities on site besides the basic bathing. This can range from public saunas known asHanjeungmak,hot tubs, showers, and even massage tables where people can get massage scrubs.[9]Due to the popularity of Korean jjimjilbangs, some have started to open up outside of Korea.

People bathing in Bhindyo Gaa Hiti inKathmandu,Nepalin 2021

Nepal

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Main article:Dhunge dhara

From at least as early as 550 AD there have been public drinking fountains in Nepal, also called dhunge dhara or hiti. The primary function of these dhunge dharas was to provide easily accessible and safe drinking water. Depending on their size and location, they were also used as a public bath and for other washing and cleaning activities. Many of them are still being used as such today.[10][11]

Japan

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Main article:Sentō

The origin of Japanese bathing ismisogi,ritual purification with water.[12]After Japan imported Buddhist culture, many temples had saunas, which were available for anyone to use for free.

In theHeian period,houses of prominent families, such as the families of court nobles or samurai, had baths. The bath had lost its religious significance and instead became leisure.Misogibecamegyōzui,to bathe in a shallow wooden tub.[13]

In the 17th century, the first European visitors to Japan recorded the habit of daily baths in sexually mixed groups.[12]Before the mid-19th century, when Western influence increased, nude communal bathing for men, women, and children at the local unisex public bath, orsentō,was a daily fact of life.

In contemporary times, many, but not all administrative regions forbid nude mixed gender public baths, with exceptions for children under a certain age when accompanied by parents. Public baths using water fromonsen(hot springs) are particularly popular. Towns with hot springs are destination resorts, which are visited daily by the locals and people from other, neighboring towns.

Indonesia

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Public bathing as cleansing ritual inTirta Empul,Bali.

Traditionally inIndonesia,bathing is almost always "public", in the sense that people converge at riverbanks, pools, or water springs for bathing or laundering. However, some sections of riverbanks are segregated by gender. Nude bathing is quite uncommon; many people still usekain jarik(usuallybatikclothes orsarong) wrapped around their bodies to cover their genitals. More modest bathing springs might use woven bamboo partitions for privacy, still a common practice in villages and rural areas.

The 8th-century complex ofRatu Bokocontains apetirtaanor bathing-pool structure enclosed in a walled compound.[14]This suggests that other than bathing in riverbanks or springs, people of ancient Java'sMataram Kingdomdeveloped a bathing pool, although it was not actually "public" since it was believed to be reserved for royalty or people residing in the compound. The 14th-centuryMajapahitcity ofTrowulanhad several bathing structures, including the Candi Tikus bathing pool, believed to be a royal bathing pool; and the Segaran reservoir, a large public pool.[15]

The Hindu-majority island ofBalicontains several public bathing pools—some, such asGoa Gajah,dating from the 9th century. A notable public bathing pool isTirta Empul,which is primarily used for theBalinese Hinduismcleansing ritual rather than for sanitation or recreation.[16]Its bubbling water is the main source of the Pakerisan River.

Roman Empire

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Main articles:ThermaeandAncient Roman bathing
Ruins of a Roman bath inDion, Greece,showing the under-floor heating system, orhypocaust

The first public thermae of 19 BC had a rotunda 25 metres across, circled by small rooms, set in a park with an artificial river and pool. By AD 300 theBaths of Diocletianwould cover 140,000 square metres (1,500,000 sq ft), its soaring granite and porphyry sheltering 3,000 bathers a day. Most Roman homes, except for those of the most elite, did not have any sort of bathing area, so people from various classes of Roman society would convene at the public baths.[17]Roman baths became "something like a cross between an aqua centre and atheme park",with pools, exercise spaces, game rooms, gardens, even libraries, and theatres. One of the most famous public bath sites isAquae SulisinBath, England.

Dr. Garrett G Fagan, a professor atPennsylvania State University,described public bathing as a "social event" for the Romans in his bookBathing in Public in the Roman World.He also states that "In Western Europe only the Finns still practice a truly public bathing habit."[18][19]

Muslim world

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Main article:Hammam
The changing room or vestibule of theVakil HammaminShiraz,Iran(18th century)

Public bathhouses were a prominent feature in theculture of the Muslim worldwhich was inherited from the model of the Romanthermae.[20][21][22]Muslim bathhouses, also called hammams (fromArabic:حمّام,romanized:ḥammām) or "Turkish baths" (mainly by westerners due to the bath's association with theOttoman Empire), are historically found across theMiddle East,North Africa,al-Andalus(IslamicSpainandPortugal),Central Asia,theIndian subcontinent,and incentralandeastern EuropeunderOttoman rule.In Islamic culture the significance of the hammam was both religious and civic: it provided for the needs ofritual ablutions(wuduandghusl) but also provided general hygiene and served other functions in the community such as meeting places for socialization for both men and women.[20][21][23]Archaeological remains attest to the existence of bathhouses in the Islamic world as early as theUmayyad period(7th–8th centuries) and their importance has persisted up to modern times.[23][20]Their architecture evolved from the layout of Roman andGreekbathhouses and featured a similar sequence of rooms: anundressing room,acold room,awarm room,and ahot room.Heat is produced byfurnaceswhich provide hot water andsteam,as well as smoke and hot air passing throughconduits under the floor.[21][23][22]The process of visiting a hammam was similar to that of Roman bathing, albeit with some exceptions such as the absence of exercise.[24][20]

In Judaism

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A contemporary mikveh at theTemple Beth-Elsynagogue inBirmingham, Alabama

Public baths in Judaism, unlike the ritual bath (mikveh) which is used for purification afterdefilement,are used only for enhancing bodily cleanliness and for pleasure and relaxation. OnTisha B'Av,thefast daymarking the commemoration of theSecond Temple's destruction, Jews are not permitted to visit the public bath house.[25]

In theMinor tractateKallah Rabbati(chapter 10), the earlySages of Israelinstructed on what should be the conduct of every Jew who enters a public bath. Before a Jew enters a public bath, he is first required to offer a short prayer unto God, requesting that no offensive act befall him there.[26]He is also instructed on which clothes he is to remove before entering the bath itself, with the item that puts his body at the most exposure being the very last thing removed.[26]When entering a public bath, a Jew is not permitted to greet his neighbor with a verbal salutation, and if another person should greet him audibly, he is to retort: "This is a bath house."[26]Once inside, he is forbidden to sit in afetal positionupon the marble floor, such as one who puts his head between his own legs while sitting upright (others explain the sense as exercising the body);[26]nor is he permitted to rub or scratch another person's limbs with his bare hands, but may use an extended device to scratch another bather's back.[26]Furthermore, he is not permitted to have his "limbs broken" (a kind of stretching of the muscles, ormassaging) while lying on the marble floor in the bath house.[26][27]These strictures were enacted in order to discourage developing any close bond and connection with another bather that might, otherwise, lead to inappropriate behavior while both men are naked.

Christian world

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A bathhouse, c. 1475–1485

Despite the denunciation of themixed bathingstyle of Roman pools byearly Christianclergy, as well as the pagan custom of women bathing naked in front of men, this did not stop the Church from urging its followers to go to public baths for bathing,[28]which contributed tohygieneand goodhealthaccording to theChurch Father,Clement of Alexandria.TheChurchbuilt public bathing facilities that were separate for both sexes nearmonasteriesand pilgrimage sites; also, thepopessituatedbathswithin churchbasilicasandmonasteriessince the earlyMiddle Ages.[29]PopeGregory the Greaturged his followers on the value ofbathingas a bodily need.[30]

Great bathhouses were built inByzantine centerssuch asConstantinopleandAntioch,[31][32]: 87 and thepopesallocated to the Romans bathing throughdiaconia,or privateLateranbaths, or even a myriad of monastic bath houses functioning in eighth and ninth centuries.[30]Thepopesmaintained their baths in their residences which described by scholar Paolo Squatriti as "luxurious baths", and bath houses including hot baths incorporated into Christian Church buildings or those of monasteries, which known as "charity baths"because they served both the clerics and needy poor people.[33]Public bathing were common in mediaevalChristendomlarger towns and cities such asParis,RegensburgandNaples.[34][35]Catholic religious orders of theAugustinians' andBenedictines' rules containedritual purification,[36]and inspired byBenedict of Nursiaencouragement for the practice of therapeutic bathing;Benedictinemonks played a role in the development and promotion ofspas.[33]Protestantismalso played a prominent role in the development of the Britishspas.[33]

Byzantine BathinThessaloniki

Roman style public baths were introduced on a limited scale by returningcrusadersin the 11th and 12th centuries,[37]who had enjoyed warm baths in the Middle East. These, however, rapidly degenerated intobrothelsor at least the reputation as such and were closed down at various times. For instance, in England during the reign ofHenry II,bath houses, calledbagniosfrom the Italian word for bath, were set up inSouthwarkon the riverThames.They were all officially closed down byHenry VIIIin 1546 due to their negative reputation.

Modern public bathing

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A notable exception to this trend was inFinlandandScandinavia,where the sauna remained a popular phenomenon, even expanding during theReformation period,when European bath houses were being destroyed.Finnish saunasremain an integral and ancient part of the way of life there. They are found on the lake shore, in private apartments, corporate headquarters, at theParliament Houseand even at the depth of 1,400 metres (4,600 ft) inPyhäsalmi Mine.The sauna is an important part of the national identity[38]and those who have the opportunity usually take a sauna at least once a week.[39]

British Empire

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Further information:Baths and wash houses in Britain
Interior ofLiverpoolwash house, the first public wash house in England

The first modern public baths were opened inLiverpoolin 1829. The first known warm fresh-water public wash house was opened in May 1842.[40][41]

The popularity of wash-houses was spurred by the newspaper interest inKitty Wilkinson,an Irish immigrant "wife of a labourer" who became known as theSaint of the Slums.[42]In 1832, during acholeraepidemic, Wilkinson took the initiative to offer the use of her house and yard to neighbours to wash their clothes, at a charge of a penny per week,[40]and showed them how to use achloride of lime(bleach) to get them clean. She was supported by the DistrictProvident SocietyandWilliam Rathbone.In 1842 Wilkinson was appointed baths superintendent.[43][44]

InBirmingham,around ten private baths were available in the 1830s. Whilst the dimensions of the baths were small, they provided a range of services.[45]A major proprietor of bath houses in Birmingham was a Mr. Monro who had had premises in Lady Well and Snow Hill.[46]Private baths were advertised as having healing qualities and being able to cure people ofdiabetes,goutand allskin diseases,amongst others.[46]On 19 November 1844, it was decided that theworking classmembers of society should have the opportunity to access baths, in an attempt to address the health problems of the public. On 22 April and 23 April 1845, two lectures were delivered in thetown hallurging the provision of public baths in Birmingham and other towns and cities.

After a period of campaigning by many committees, thePublic Baths and Wash-houses Actreceivedroyal assenton 26 August 1846. The Act empoweredlocal authoritiesacross the country to incur expenditure in constructing public swimming baths out of its own funds.[47]

The firstLondonpublic baths was opened at Goulston Square,Whitechapel,in 1847 with thePrince Consortlaying the foundation stone.[48][49]

The introduction of bath houses intoBritish culturewas a response to the public's desire for increased sanitary conditions, and by 1915 most towns in Britain had at least one.[50]

Hot baths

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Main article:Victorian Turkish baths
Maud and friends visit a London Turkish bath, 1892

Victorian Turkish baths(based on the traditionalMuslim bathhouseswhich are derived from theRoman bath) were introduced to Britain byDavid Urquhart,diplomat and sometimeMember of ParliamentforStafford,who for political and personal reasons wished to popularize Turkish culture. In 1850 he wroteThe Pillars of Hercules,a book about his travels in 1848 through Spain and Morocco. He described the system of dry hot-air baths (little-changed since Roman times) which were used there and in theOttoman Empire.In 1856Richard Barterread Urquhart's book and worked with him to construct such a bath. After a number of unsuccessful attempts, Barter opened the first bath of this type at St Ann'sHydropathic EstablishmentnearBlarney,County Cork,Ireland.[51]

The following year, the first public bath of its type to be built in mainland Britain since Roman times was opened inManchester,and the idea spread rapidly. It reachedLondonin July 1860, when Roger Evans, a member of one of Urquhart's Foreign Affairs Committees, opened a Turkish bath at 5 Bell Street, nearMarble Arch.During the following 150 years, over 700 Turkish baths opened in Britain, including those built by municipal authorities as part of swimming pool complexes.

Similar baths opened in other parts of theBritish Empire.Dr. John Le Gay Brereton opened a Turkish bath inSydney,Australia in 1859, Canada had one by 1869, and the first in New Zealand was opened in 1874. Urquhart's influence was also felt outside the Empire when in 1861, Dr Charles H Shepard opened the first Turkish baths in the United States at 63 Columbia Street, Brooklyn Heights, New York, most probably on 3 October 1863.[52]

Russia

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1926 depiction of ruralbanyaby Russian artistBoris Kustodiev:Russian Venus(holdingbirch besom)

Washing andthermalbody treatments with steam and accessories such as a bunch of birch branches have been traditionally carried out inbanyas.This tradition was born in rural areas,Russiabeing a spacious country with a farming population dominating until World War II. Farmers did not have inside their log cabins running water supply and hot bathtubs for washing their bodies, so they either used for their washing heat and space inside theirRussian stovesor built from logs, like the cottage itself, a one-familybanyabathouthousebehind their dwelling on the family's land plot. It was usually a smallish wooden cabin with a low entrance and no more than one small window to keep heat inside. Traditionally, the family washed their bodies completely once a week before the day of the Bible-prescribed rest (Sunday) as having a (steam) bath meant having to get and bring in a considerable amount of firewood and water and spending time off other farm work heating the bathhouse.

With the growth ofRussianbig cities since the 18th century, public baths were opened in them and then back in villages. While the richer urban circles could afford to have an individual bathroom with a bathtub in their apartments (since the late 19th century with running water), the lower classes necessarily used public steambaths – special big buildings which were equipped with developed side catering services enjoyed by the merchants with a farming background.

Since the first half of the 20th century running unheated drinking water supply has been made available virtually to all inhabitants of multi-story apartment buildings in cities, but if such dwellings were built during the 1930s and not updated later, they do not have hot running water (except for central heating) or space to accommodate a bathtub, plumbing facilities being limited in them only to a kitchen sink and a small toilet room with a toilet seat. Thus the dwellers of such apartments, on a par with those living in the part of pre-1917-built blocks of flats which had not undergone cardinal renovation, would have no choice but to use public bathhouses.

Since the 1950s in cities, towns, and many rural areas more comfortable dwelling became a nationally required standard, and almost all apartments are designed with both cold and hot water supply, and a bathroom with a bathtub, but a percentage of people living in them still go to public steam baths for health treatments with steam, tree branches, aromatic oils.

United States

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The building of public baths in the United States began in the 1890s. Public baths were created to improve the health and sanitary condition of the working classes, before personal baths became commonplace.

One pioneering public bathhouse was the well-appointedJames Lick Bathsbuilding, with laundry facilities, given to the citizens of San Francisco in 1890 by theJames Lickestate for their free use.[53]The Lick bathhouse continued as a public amenity until 1919. Other early examples such as the 1890 West Side Natatorium in Milwaukee, the first of Chicago's in 1894, and the 1891 People's Baths on the Lower East Side of Manhattan were alike in their explicit spirit of social improvement—the People's Baths were organized bySimon Baruchand financed by theAssociation for Improving the Condition of the Poor.[54]

In an 1897 comparison to Pittsburgh, which had no municipal baths, Philadelphia was equipped with a dozen, "distributed through the very poorest quarters of the city," each with a concrete pool and 80 dressing rooms. Every pool was drained, flushed and swept twice a week, prior to the two days set aside for ladies only, Mondays and Thursdays.[55]The average number of visitors to the Philadelphia baths every week was about 28,000, with a "great crush" of boys appearing after school hours, boys who were likely to ignore their 30-minute time limits. Operators discouraged the use of soap.[55]By 1904 Pittsburgh would have its third municipal bath, theWash House and Public Building,built by private contributors but maintained by the city.[56]

A New York state law of 1895 required every city over 50,000 in population maintain as many public baths as their Boards of Health deemed necessary, providing hot and cold water for at least 14 hours a day.[57]Despite that mandate, the first civic bathhouse in New York City, theRivington Street municipal bathon the Lower East Side, opened five years later.

This amounted to a national bath-building movement that peaked in the decade between 1900 and 1910.[54]By 1904, eight of the nation's ten most populous cities had year-round bathhouses available to the working class. In 1922, 40 cities across the country maintained at least one or two public facilities, and the city with the largest system of baths was New York City, with 25.[54]

Other notable constructions of the period/includeBathhouse Row[58]in the spa resort town ofHot Springs, Arkansas,and theAsser Levy Public BathsinNew York City,completed in 1908.

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  • Alfred Laliberté'sLes petits Baigneurs,1915 restored 1992 at Maisonneuve public baths,Montreal,Quebec
  • Bathing in 1450
  • Bathing in 1568
  • A woman bathing is spied upon through a window, England, 1782
  • Ancient Ruins Used as Public BathsbyHubert Robert(1798)
  • Bagno del Papa inViterbo
  • AgkistroByzantine bath

See also

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References

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  1. ^abKeay, John (2001).India: A History.Grove Press. pp. 13–14.ISBN0-8021-3797-0.
  2. ^"An Insight into an Egyptian Intangible Cultural Heritage Tradition: The Hammām".International Journal of Heritage and Museum Studies.2(1). Egypts Presidential Specialized Council for Education and Scientific Research: 51–67. 2020-10-01.doi:10.21608/ijhms.2020.188742.ISSN2735-3850.S2CID237439213.
  3. ^Redon, Bérangère (2017).Collective baths in Egypt 2: new discoveries and perspectives: Balaneîa = Thermae = Hammâmât.Le Caire.ISBN978-2-7247-0696-3.OCLC1002185387.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  4. ^abSun, Jiahui (1 July 2021)."Bathing in Ancient Times".theworldofchinese.
  5. ^abcd"Ancient Chinese Bath Culture".viewofchina.30 April 2019.
  6. ^Golas, Peter J and Needham, Joseph (1999)Science and Civilisation in China.Cambridge University Press. pp. 186–91.ISBN0-521-58000-5
  7. ^"Marco Polo's Descriptions of China".Facts and Details.Retrieved15 November2022.
  8. ^"Marco Polo's World".Retrieved15 November2022.
  9. ^"How to visit a Korean bathhouse for the first time".
  10. ^Water Conduits in the Kathmandu Valley (2 vols.) by Raimund O.A. Becker-Ritterspach,ISBN9788121506908,Published by Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, India, 1995
  11. ^Kathmandu water spouts, lost and found casesArchived2019-12-06 at theWayback Machineby Purushottam P. Khatri, The Rising Nepal, 1 June 2019, retrieved 6 December 2019
  12. ^abClark, Scott (1994).Clark – 1994.ISBN978-0-8248-1657-5.backcover Misogi
  13. ^Clark, Scott (1994).Clark – 1994.p. 36.ISBN978-0-8248-1657-5.Gyōzui
  14. ^"The Majestic Beauty of the Ratu Boko Palace ruins".Wonderful Indonesia. Archived fromthe originalon 2014-06-25.Retrieved2014-06-23.
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  20. ^abcdM. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Bath".The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture.Oxford University Press.
  21. ^abcSibley, Magda. "The Historic Hammams of Damascus and Fez: Lessons of Sustainability and Future Developments".The 23rd Conference on Passive and Low Energy Architecture.
  22. ^abMarçais, Georges (1954).L'architecture musulmane d'Occident.Paris: Arts et métiers graphiques.
  23. ^abcSourdel-Thomine, J.; Louis, A. (2012). "Ḥammām". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.).Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition.Brill.
  24. ^"About Bath Houses, Turkish Baths and Sauna Culture and Bath Resources".Aquariussauna.com.Retrieved2014-05-21.
  25. ^Maimonides(1974).Sefer Mishneh Torah - HaYad Ha-Chazakah (Maimonides' Code of Jewish Law)(in Hebrew). Vol. 2. Jerusalem: Pe'er HaTorah. p. 359 [180a] (Hil. Ta'aniyot 5:6).OCLC122758200.;cf.Joseph Karo,Shulchan Aruch(Orach Chaim554:1)
  26. ^abcdefBabylonian Talmud(vol. 16:Avodah Zarah,Eduyoth,Horayoth), appendix, TractateKallah Rabbati(chapter 10), p. 55a in theOr HachaimInstitutions edition (in Hebrew)
  27. ^Jastrow, M.,ed. (2006),Dictionary of the Targumim, the Talmud Babli and Yerushalmi, and the Midrashic Literature,Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson Publishers, p. 1517,OCLC614562238,s.v.שבר‎ I (end)
  28. ^Warsh, Cheryl Krasnick (2006).Children's Health Issues in Historical Perspective.Veronica Strong-Boag. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press. p. 315.ISBN978-0-88920-912-1.... Thus bathing also was considered a part of good health practice. For example, Tertullian attended the baths and believed them hygienic. Clement of Alexandria, while condemning excesses, had given guidelines for Christian] who wished to attend the baths...
  29. ^Thurlkill, Mary (2016).Sacred Scents in Early Christianity and Islam: Studies in Body and Religion.Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 6–11.ISBN978-0-7391-7453-1.... Clement of Alexandria (d. c. 215 CE) allowed that bathing contributed to good health and hygiene... Christian skeptics could not easily dissuade the baths' practical popularity, however; popes continued to build baths situated within church basilicas and monasteries throughout the early medieval period...
  30. ^abSquatriti, Paolo (2002).Water and Society in Early Medieval Italy, AD 400-1000, Parti 400–1000.Cambridge University Press. p. 54.ISBN978-0-521-52206-9.... but baths were normally considered therapeutic until the days of Gregory the Great, who understood virtuous bathing to be bathing "on account of the needs of body"...
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  35. ^Kleinschmidt, Harald (2005).Perception and Action in Medieval Europe.Boydell & Brewer. p. 61.ISBN978-1-84383-146-4.The evidence of early medieval laws that enforced punishments for the destruction of bathing houses suggests that such buildings were not rare. That they... took a bath every week. At places in southern Europe, Roman baths remained in use or were even restored... The Paris city scribe Nicolas Boileau noted the existence of twenty-six public baths in Paris in 1272
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  44. ^Rathbone, Herbert R. (1927),Memoir of Kitty Wilkinson of Liverpool, 1786–1860: with a short account of Thomas Wilkinson, her husband,H. Young & Sons
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  46. ^ab"Private Bath Advertisements".The Birmingham Journal.1851-05-17.
  47. ^"Baths and Wash-Houses".The Times.1846-07-22. p. 6. Archived fromthe originalon October 4, 2011.Yesterday the bill, as amended by the committee, for promoting the voluntary establishment in boroughs and parishes in England and Wales of public baths and wash-houses was printed.
  48. ^"Classified Advertising".The Times.1847-07-26. p. 1. Archived fromthe originalon October 4, 2011.Model Public Baths, Goulston-square, Whitechapel. The BATHS for men and boys are now OPEN from 5 in the morning till 10 at night. Charges – first-class (two towels), cold bath 5d., warm bath 6d.; second-class (one towel), cold bath 1d, warm bath 2d. Every bath is in a private room.
  49. ^Metcalfe, Richard (1877),Sanitas Sanitatum et Omnia Sanitas,vol. 1, Co-operative printing company, p. 7
  50. ^Sally Sheard* (2014-05-02)."Profit is a Dirty Word: The Development of Public Baths and Wash-houses in Britain 1847–1915 – SHEARD 13 (1): 63 – Social History of Medicine".Shm.oxfordjournals.org. Archived fromthe originalon 2006-10-03.Retrieved2014-05-21.
  51. ^Shifrin, Malcolm (3 October 2008),"St Ann's Hydropathic Establishment, Blarney, Co. Cork",Victorian Turkish Baths: Their origin, development, and gradual decline,archivedfrom the original on 11 May 2011,retrieved12 December2009
  52. ^The Brooklyn Daily Eagle,3 October 1863
  53. ^"James Lick's Public Baths – A Building the City May Well Feel Proud Of".San Francisco Call. 2 November 1890.Retrieved27 January2021.
  54. ^abcWilliams, Marilyn Thornton (1 January 1991).Washing "The Great Unwashed": Public Baths in Urban America, 1840–1920.The Ohio State University Press. pp. 39, 44.Retrieved27 January2021.
  55. ^abBayard, "Meg," Mary Temple (14 March 1897)."The Great Unwashed".Pittsburgh Press.Retrieved23 January2021.{{cite news}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  56. ^"Former Pittsburgh Wash House & Public Baths Nominated for Historic Landmark Status".Preservation Pittsburgh.Retrieved24 January2021.
  57. ^Veiller, Lawrence (1 January 1903).The Tenement House Problem Including the Report of the New York State Tenement House Commission of 1900 · Volume 2.Macmillan. p. 42.Retrieved24 January2021.
  58. ^"FORDYCE Bathhouse General History".asms.k12.ar.us. Archived fromthe originalon 2008-02-28.Retrieved2008-03-24.

Bibliography

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