Wikipedia

Pulled rickshaw

Apulled rickshaw(fromJapanesejinrikisha(Nhân lực xa) 'person/human-powered vehicle') is a mode ofhuman-powered transportby which a runner draws a two-wheeledcartwhich seats one or two people.

Japanese rickshawsc. 1897
Pulled rickshaw
Chinese name
Traditional ChineseNhân lực xa
Simplified ChineseNhân lực xa
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyinrénlìchē
Wade–Gilesjên2-li4-chʻê1
Japanese name
KanjiLực xa
Hiraganaりきしゃ
Transcriptions
Romanizationrikisha
Tourists dressed asmaikoon a rickshaw in Kyoto, Japan

In recent times the use of human-poweredrickshawshas been discouraged or outlawed in many countries due to concern for the welfare of rickshaw workers.[1]Pulled rickshaws have been replaced mainly bycycle rickshawandauto rickshaws.

Overview

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Main article:Rickshaw

Rickshaws are commonly believed to have been invented in Japan in the 1860s, at the beginning of a period of rapid technical advancement.[2][3]In the 19th century, rickshaw pulling became an inexpensive, popular mode of transportation across Asia.[2]

Peasants who migrated to large Asian cities often worked first as a rickshaw runner.[4][5]It was "the deadliest occupation in the East, [and] the most degrading for human beings to pursue."[5][nb 1]

The rickshaw's popularity in Japan declined by the 1930s with the advent of automated forms of transportation, like automobiles and trains. In China, the rickshaw's popularity began to decline in the 1920s.[4][6]In Singapore, the rickshaw's popularity increased into the 20th century. There were approximately 50,000 rickshaws in 1920 and that number doubled by 1930.[7]

Description

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The initial rickshaws rode on iron-shod wooden wheels and the passenger sat on hard, flat seats. In the late 19th century and early 20th century,rubberorpneumaticrubbertires,spring cushions,and backrests improved the passenger's comfort. Other features, such as lights, were also added.[8]

In the city of Shanghai, public rickshaws were painted yellow to differentiate from the private vehicles of the wealthy citizens, which were described as:

... always shiny, were carefully maintained, and sported 'a spotless white upholstered double seat, a cleanplaidfor one's lap, and a wide protective tarpaulin to protect the passenger (or passengers, since sometimes up to three people rode together) against the rain.[9]

The rickshaws were a convenient means of travel, able to traverse winding, narrow city streets. Duringmonsoon season,passengers might be carried out of the carriage, above the flooded streets, to the door of their arrival. They offered door-to-door travel, unlike scheduled public bus and tram service.[8]

Country overview

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Africa

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East Africa

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In the 1920s, it was used inBagamoyoandTangain Tanzania, and other areas of East Africa for short distances.[10]

Madagascar

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Pousse-pousse inMadagascar

Rickshaws, known aspousse-pousse,were introduced by Britishmissionaries.The intention was to eliminate the slavery-associatedpalanquin.Its name pousse-pousse, meaningpush-push,is reportedly gained from the need to have a second person to push the back of the rickshaw on Madagascar's hilly roads. They are a common form of transport in a number of Malagasy cities, especiallyAntsirabe,but are not found in the towns or cities with very hilly roads.[11]They are similar to Chinese rickshaws and are often brightly decorated.[12][13]

Nairobi

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Rickshaws operated inNairobiin the beginning of the 20th century; pullers went on strike there in 1908.[14]

South Africa

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Durbanis famous for its iconicZulurickshaw pullers navigating throughout the city. These colorful characters are famous for their giant, vibrant hats and costumes. They were introduced into Natal by SirMarshall Campbellin the 1890s.[15]: 299 There were about 2,000 registered men who pulled rickshaws in Durban in 1904; Since displaced by motorised transport, there are approximately 25 rickshaws left who mostly cater to tourists today.[16][17]

Asia

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Confucius(transported in a wheeled cart) and children, as imagined by a 17th-century Chinese artist; presumably, the design is similar to the vehicles used at the time. (Illustration from a children's book,Xiao er lun,printed in 1680)

China

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In China, from the ancient times and until the 19th century, rich and important people, when traveling overland, were commonly transported insedan chairscarried by bearers, rather than in wheeled vehicles. This was at least partly explained by road conditions.[18] [19] It is thought that it was from China (or East Asia in general) that sedan chair (a.k.a. "palanquin" ) designs were introduced into Western Europe in the 17th century. [20]However, wheeled carts for one or two passengers, pushed (rather than pulled, like a proper rikshaw) by human servant, were attested as well. [21]

Rickshaw and driver inQingdao,c. 1914

In the 19th century, wheelbarrow is the most popular transportation for commoners. In the spring of 1873, the French merchant Menard introduced rickshaw from Japan. The original name is "Jinrikisha", meaning "man-power-vehicle" in Japanese. Most of the rickshaws were owned by foreign investors at the beginning, but in around the 1900s, rickshaws were owned mostly by Chinese companies. The official name for rickshaw is "renliche", meaning "man-power-vehicle" in Chinese, but it is more commonly called "dongyangche", meaning "east-foreign-vehicle", or "huangbaoche" in Shanghai, meaning "yellow carriage for rent".[22][23][24]

Rickshaw transportation was an important element in urban development in 20th century China, as a mode of transportation, source of employment and facilitation of migration for workers. According to author David Strand:

Sixty thousand men took as many as a half million fares a day in a city of slightly more than one million. Sociologist Li Jinghan estimated that one out of six males in the city between the ages of sixteen and fifty was a puller. Rickshaw men and their dependents made up almost 20 percent of Beijing's population.[25]

Most manual rickshaws – seen by manyMaoistsas a symbol of oppression of the working class[26]– were eliminated in China after thefounding of the People's Republic of Chinain 1949.[27][28]

Shanghai
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Shanghai's rickshaw industry began in 1874 with 1,000 rickshaws imported from Japan. By 1914 there were 9,718 vehicles. The pullers were a large group of the city's working poor: 100,000 men pulled rickshaws by the early 1940s, up from 62,000 in the mid-1920s.[29]

In contrary to coolies in Beijing, those in Shanghai mostly come from rural areas out of the city. With the destitution of their land, they poured into the city with their family. As the number of coolies rose up sharply, however, the number of rickshaw remained at 20,000 in Shanghai. Except private coolies, those for public work had to take turns, and thus their average income diminished to $9 per month. Therefore, many coolies worked in the factory and ran the rickshaw after work. However, many coolies were optimistic about life. They were satisfied about their income and dreamed of purchasing their own rickshaws and sending their kids to schools.[30]Due to this low income, many coolies would not give customers a clear idea of standard price and thus charge higher at any chance they had. In response to this phenomenon, hotels would provide the distance to various streets and the price charged.[31][32]

Hong Kong

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Outside the Lion Pavilion Lookout in 2011 onThe Peak,Hong Kong, can find this last licensed rickshaw ride in this ex-British colony.

Rickshaws were first imported to Hong Kong from Japan in 1880. They were a popular form of transport for many years, peaking at more than 3,000 in the 1920s. However, their popularity waned afterWorld War II.No new licenses for rickshaws have been issued since 1975, and only a few old men—three as of 2017[33]—still hold a license. It is reported that only one of them still offer rickshaw rides onThe Peak,mainly for tourists.[34]

India

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Kolkatarickshaw, 2004

Around 1880, rickshaws appeared in India, first inSimla.[35]At the turn of the century it was introduced inKolkata(Calcutta), India and in 1914 was a conveyance for hire.[2]

Service availability
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Though most cities offerauto rickshawservice, hand-pulled rickshaws do exist in some areas, such as Kolkata,[36]"the last bastion of human poweredtanarickshaws ".[37][nb 2]According to Trillin, most Kolkata rickshaws serve people "just a notch above poor" who tend to travel short distances. However, in a recent article by Hyrapiet and Greiner,[41]the authors found that rickshaws also transport middle-class residents who use their services out of convenience and for short-distance trips to the local marketplace. Rickshaws are used to transport goods, shoppers, and school children.[nb 3]It is also used as a "24-hour ambulance service."[39]Also according to Hyrapiet and Greiner, rickshaw pullers have acted as peer-educators for the Calcutta Samaritans providing critical information on HIV/AIDS because of their access to marginalized groups within Kolkata's red light districts.

Rickshaws are the most effective means of transportation through the flooded streets of the monsoon season.[37]When Kolkata floods rickshaw business increases and prices rise.[42][nb 4]

The pullers live a life of poverty and many sleep under rickshaws.[37]Rudrangshu Mukerjee,an academic, stated many people's ambivalent feelings about riding a rickshaw: he does not like being carried about in a rickshaw but does not like the idea of "taking away their livelihood".[citation needed]

Motor vehicles are banned in theEco-sensitive zonearea ofMatheran,India,a tourist hill station nearMumbaiso man-pulled rickshaws are still one of the major forms of transport there.[43]

Legislation
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In August 2005, the Communist government ofWest Bengalannounced plans to completely ban pulled rickshaws, resulting in protests and strikes of the pullers.[44]In 2006, the chief minister of West Bengal,Buddhadeb Bhattacharya,announced that pulled rickshaws would be banned and that rickshaw pullers would be rehabilitated.[45][nb 5]

A Chinese man posing next to his rickshaw,Medan,Indonesia 1936

Indonesia

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Pulled rickshaws used to be in Indonesia a long time ago. Nowadays, they are replaced byDelman(the horse-drawn carriage) andBecak(cycle rickshaw/pedicab).

Edward, Prince of Walesdisguising himself as Jinrikishafu (Japanese rickshaw men) at a party in 1922.

Japan

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There are several theories about theinvention of the rickshaw.Japan historian Seidensticker wrote of the theories:

Though the origins of the rickshaw are not entirely clear, they seem to be Japanese, and of Tokyo specifically. The most widely accepted theory offers the name of three inventors, and gives 1869 as the date of invention.[7]

Starting in 1870, the Tokyo government issued a permission for Izumi Yosuke, Takayama Kosuke, and Suzuki Tokujiro to build and sell rickshaws.[46]By 1872, they became the main mode of transportation in Japan, with about 40,000 rickshaws in service.[6]

The rickshaw's popularity in Japan declined by the 1930s with the advent of automated forms of transportation, like automobiles and trains. After World War II, when gasoline and automobiles were scarce, they made a temporary come-back. The rickshaw tradition has stayed alive inKyotoand Tokyo'sgeishadistricts[4][6]only for tourists as well as in other tourist places. The tradition completely disappeared once, but a few people revived jinrikisha (human-powered rickshaws) for tourists in the 1970s-1980s[47][48]and the rickshaws became popular as a tourism resource in the 2000s.[49][50][51]The modern rickshaw men are a kind of tourist guide, who take their clients to some tourist spots and explain about them.[52]Many of them are part-time working students and athletes who like running or exchanging cultures.

Malaysia

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Rickshaws were a common mode of transport in urban areas ofMalaysiain the 19th and early 20th centuries until gradually replaced bycycle rickshaws.[citation needed]

Pakistan

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Pulled and cycle rickshaw (qinqi) have been banned inPakistansince April 1960.[53]Prior to the introduction ofauto rickshawsin cities, horse-drawn carriages (tongas) were a main source of public transportation.

Philippines

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The pulled rickshaw never gained acceptance in the Philippines. Americans tried to introduce it toManilain the early 20th century, but it was strongly opposed by local Filipinos who viewed it as an undignified mode of transport that turned humans into "beasts". The main mode of public and private transportation in the Philippines from the 18th to the early 20th centuries was thekalesa,a two-wheeled horse-drawn carriage.[54]

Singapore

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Singapore had received its first rickshaws in 1880 and soon after they were prolific, making a "noticeable change in the traffic on Singapore's streets."[2]Bullock cartsandgharrieswere used prior to the introduction of rickshaws.[5]

Many of the poorest individuals in Singapore in the late nineteenth century were poor, unskilled people of Chinese ancestry. Sometimes calledcoolies,the hardworking men found pulling rickshaws was a new means of employment.[22]Rickshaw pullers experienced "very poor"living conditions,poverty and long hours of hard work. Income remained unchanged from 1876 to 1926, about $.60 per day.[55][56][nb 6]

Rickshaws popularity increased into the 20th century. There were approximately 50,000 rickshaws in 1920 and that number doubled by 1930.[7]In or after the 1920s a union was formed, called the Rickshaw Association, to protect the welfare of rickshaw workers.[58]

North America

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United States

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A tourist "Ricsha" ride inChinatown, Los Angeles,1938

FromA History of the Los Angeles City Market (1930-1950),pulled rickshaws were operated in Los Angeles by high school teenagers during that time period.[59][60]

Canada

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Foot-driven rickshaws have enjoyed several decades of popularity inHalifax,Nova Scotia; in addition to providing tours of the historic Waterfront, rickshaws are also occasionally used for transportation by local residents. The city is home to the oldest rickshaw company in Canada.[61]

Rickshaws are a popular mode of transportation in downtownOttawa, Ontario,providing tours of historicalByward Market,in the summer. Ottawa's rickshaws stay true to the traditional foot-driven rickshaw model, but feature modern sound-systems.[62][63]

Books, films, television, music and modern art

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Rickshaw in a museum in Japan
  • An earlyRudyard Kiplingstory has the titleThe Phantom Rickshaw(1885). In it a young Englishman has a romance aboard a ship bound for India. He ends the affair and becomes engaged to another woman, causing his original love to die of a broken heart. After that, on excursions around the city ofSimla,he frequently sees the ghost of the deceased driving around in her yellow-panelled rickshaw, though nobody else seems to notice the phenomenon.[64]
  • The 1936 novelRickshaw Boyis a novel by the Chinese authorLao Sheabout the life of a fictional Beijing rickshaw man. The English versionRickshaw Boybecame a U.S. bestseller in 1945. It was an unauthorized translation that added ahappy endingto the story. In 1982, the original version was made into a film of the same title.[65]
  • In the 1940s,Eddy Howardrecorded a song calledThe Rickety Rickshaw Man.[66]
  • The 1958 Japanese movieMuhomatsu no issho(Rickshaw Man) byHiroshi Inagakitells the story of a Matsugoro, a rickshaw man who becomes a surrogate father to the child of a recently widowed woman.
  • The 1953BollywoodfilmDo Bigha Zameen,directed byBimal Roy,describes the fate of an impoverished farmer who becomes a rickshaw puller inKolkata.
  • In the 1992 filmCity of Joy(whose title refers to Kolkata),Om Puriplays a rickshaw puller, revealing the economic and emotional hardship that these underpaid workers face on a day-to-day basis.
  • InPearl S. Buck's 1931 novelThe Good Earth,hero Wang Lung leaves his land to travel southward during a drought. He ends up in the city of Kiangsu (Jiangsu), where he becomes a rickshaw puller in order to support his family.[67]
  • In the 1998Seinfeldepisode "The Bookstore",Kramer and Newman decide to start a rickshaw business with homeless people being trained to carry passengers.

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^In China,cooliesperformed rickshaw pulling. Other hard or demeaning jobs included beingnight soil cleanersand dock workers.[5]
  2. ^Several major streets have been closed to rickshaw traffic since 1972, and in 1982 the city seized over 12,000 rickshaws and destroyed them. In 1992, it was estimated that over 30,000 rickshaws were operating in the city, all but 6,000 of them illegally, lacking a license (no new licenses have been issued since 1945). The large majority of rickshaw pullers rent their rickshaws for a few dollars per shift. They live cheaply in hostels, trying to save money to send home. (Eide, 1993) Eachdera,a mixture of a garage, repair shop, and dormitory, has asardarthat manages it. Pullers often pay around 100rupees(around $2.50 United States dollars) per month to live in adera.[38]HinduandMuslimpullers often share housing.[39]Some pullers sleep in the streets in their rickshaws. As of 2008, many of the Kolkata rickshaw pullers originate fromBihar,considered to be one of the poorest states in India.[39][40]
  3. ^Trillin added that pullers told him that children enrolled in schools were the "steadiest" customers. Many middle-class families contract with rickshaw pullers to transport their children; a rickshaw puller who transports children becomes a "family retainer".[39]
  4. ^A Kolkata writer told Trillin, "When it rains, even the governor takes rickshaws."[42]
  5. ^Calvin Trillin ofNational Geographicstated in a 2008 article that the city government has not decided how rickshaw drivers would be rehabilitated, nor has it settled on a date regarding when the government would decide. Trillin added that many high West Bengal officials made statements saying that rickshaws would be banned from 1976 to 2008.[1]
  6. ^80% of rickshaw pullers were addicted to opium and many gambled and purchased the services of whores. These activities locked them into a state of poverty, but the remaining group of pullers might be able to improve their lot over time and "strike into new lines of business as the opportunities arose". Rickshaw pullers could become repairers or owners of rickshaws or bicycles.[56][57]

References

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  1. ^abTrillin, Calvin (April 2008)."Last Days of the Rickshaw".National Geographic.Vol. 213, no. 4. p. 104. Archived fromthe originalon 19 March 2008.
  2. ^abcdJames Francis Warren (2003).Rickshaw Coolie: A People's History of Singapore, 1880-1940.NUS Press. pp.14.ISBN997169266X.
  3. ^David Diefendorf (2007).Amazing... But False!: Hundreds of "Facts" You Thought Were True, But Aren't.Sterling Publishing Company. pp.223.ISBN978-1402737916.
  4. ^abcBoye De Mente (2010). Demetra De Ment (ed.).The Bizarre and the Wondrous from the Land of the Rising Sun!.Cultural-Insight Books. p. 95.ISBN978-1456424756.
  5. ^abcdLeo Suryadinata (1992).Chinese Adaptation and Diversity: Essays on Society and Literature in Indonesia, Malaysia & Singapore.National University of Singapore. Centre for Advanced Studies. NUS Press. p. 37.ISBN9971691868.
  6. ^abc"Japanese rickshaw".Powerhouse Museum.Retrieved11 April2013.
  7. ^abcHanchao Lu (1999).Beyond the Neon Lights: Everyday Shanghai in the Early Twentieth Century.University of California Press. pp.348.ISBN0520215648.
  8. ^abHanchao Lu (1999).Beyond the Neon Lights: Everyday Shanghai in the Early Twentieth Century.University of California Press. pp.69.ISBN0520215648.
  9. ^Hanchao Lu (1999).Beyond the Neon Lights: Everyday Shanghai in the Early Twentieth Century.University of California Press. pp.69–70.ISBN0520215648.
  10. ^Werner Voigt (1995).60 Years in East Africa: The Life of a Settler.GeneralStore Publishing House. pp. 32, 34–35.ISBN1896182399.
  11. ^Hilary Bradt (2011).Madagascar(10 ed.). Bradt Travel Guides. p. 98.ISBN978-1841623412.
  12. ^Jay Heale; Zawiah Abdul Latif (2008).Madagascar, Volume 15 of Cultures of the World Cultures of the World - Group 15(2 ed.). Marshall Cavendish. pp. 75–76.ISBN978-0761430360.
  13. ^Madagascar Travel Guide(7 ed.). Lonely Planet. 2012.ISBN978-1743213018.
  14. ^A. Adu Boahen, Unesco. International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of Africa, ed. (1985).Africa under colonial domination 1880–1935: 7.UNESCO. p. 666.ISBN9231017136.
  15. ^Joyce, Peter (1989).The South African family encyclopaedia.Internet Archive. Cape Town: Struik Publishers.ISBN978-0-86977-887-6.
  16. ^Romita Hanuman."Zulu Rickshaws".Durban.gov.za. Archived fromthe originalon 19 May 2010.Retrieved2 July2010.
  17. ^Mary Fitzpatrick; Kate Armstrong (2006).South Africa: Lesotho & Swaziland(7 ed.). Lonely Planet. p. 308.ISBN1740599705.
  18. ^Murray, Hugh (1836),An Historical and Descriptive Account of China: Its Ancient and Modern History...,vol. 1, Oliver & Boyd, pp. 344–345
  19. ^Staunton, Sir George (1797),An Historical Account of the Embassy to the Emperor of China, Undertaken by Order of the King of Great Britain: Including the Manners & Customs of the Inhabitants & Preceded by an Account of the Causes of the Embassy & Voyage to China. Abridged Principally from the Papers of Earl Macartney...,J. Stockdale, pp. 279–280
  20. ^Reichwein, A. (2013),China and Europe,Routledge, p. 35,ISBN978-1136204623
  21. ^Colby, Fred Myron (1888),"Locomotion in the Olden Time",Granite Monthly: A New Hampshire Magazine,11:64
  22. ^abJames Francis Warren (2003).Rickshaw Coolie: A People's History of Singapore, 1880-1940.NUS Press. pp.15.ISBN997169266X.
  23. ^Hanchao Lu (1999).Beyond the Neon Lights: Everyday Shanghai in the Early Twentieth Century.University of California Press. pp.68.ISBN0520215648.
  24. ^Hanchao Lu (1999).Beyond the Neon Lights: Everyday Shanghai in the Early Twentieth Century.University of California Press. pp.68–81.ISBN0520215648.
  25. ^David Strand.Rickshaw Beijing: City People and Politics in the 1920.p. 21.
  26. ^Hanchao Lu (1999).Beyond the Neon Lights: Everyday Shanghai in the Early Twentieth Century.University of California Press. pp.66,73.ISBN0520215648.
  27. ^Chu, Henry (4 November 2005)."India Rickshaws Feeling the Pull of Modern Ways".Los Angeles Times.ISSN0458-3035.Retrieved11 July2018.After all, the Communists in China eliminated this mode of transport soon after assuming power more than half a century ago, criticizing it as primitive and demeaning.
  28. ^Cernetig, Miro (20 October 1999)."China's Rickshaws Bring Back Bad Memories".The New York Times.Retrieved11 July2018.But this test-run of rickshaws in China's capital, after a ban of more than 40 years, is widely seen as retrograde. For many Chinese, the rickshaw remains a symbol of feudalism's "coolie culture" and one of the evils of capitalism that was supposed to have been expunged forever from Communist China.
  29. ^Hanchao Lu (1999).Beyond the Neon Lights: Everyday Shanghai in the Early Twentieth Century.University of California Press. pp.65–66, 68.ISBN0520215648.
  30. ^Hanchao Lu (1999).Beyond the Neon Lights: Everyday Shanghai in the Early Twentieth Century.University of California Press. pp.68–81.ISBN0520215648.
  31. ^Darwent, Charles Ewart. Shanghai; a handbook for travellers and residents to the chief objects of interest in and around the foreign settlements and native city. Shanghai, Hongkong: Kelly and Walsh [date of publication not identified].
  32. ^Hongs & Homes, 1928: A complete directory of Shanghai. Shanghai: Millington, Ltd., 1929.
  33. ^[1]Vehicle Licensing during - 2008-2017
  34. ^Bị di vong đích công giao The Forgotten Transportation: Rickshaw ride in Hong Kong
  35. ^Pamela Kanwar (2003).Imperial Simla: the political culture of the Raj(2 ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 176.ISBN0195667212.
  36. ^Pippa de Bruyn; Keith Bain; David Allardice; Shonar Joshi (18 February 2010).Frommer's India(Fourth ed.). John Wiley and Sons. pp. 15, 57, 156.ISBN978-0470645802.
  37. ^abcJoe Bindloss (2009).India(2 ed.). Lonely Planet. p. 135.ISBN978-1741793192.
  38. ^Trillin, Calvin (April 2008)."Last Days of the Rickshaw".National Geographic.Vol. 213, no. 4. pp. 101–104. Archived fromthe originalon 19 March 2008.
  39. ^abcdTrillin, Calvin (April 2008)."Last Days of the Rickshaw".National Geographic.Vol. 213, no. 4. p. 100. Archived fromthe originalon 19 March 2008.
  40. ^Trillin, Calvin (April 2008)."Last Days of the Rickshaw".National Geographic.Vol. 213, no. 4. p. 96. Archived fromthe originalon 19 March 2008.
  41. ^Hyrapiet, Shireen; Greiner, Alyson L. (October 2012). "Calcutta's Hand–Pulled Rickshaws: Cultural Politics and Place Making in a Globalizing City".Geographical Review.102(4): 407–426.doi:10.1111/j.1931-0846.2012.00167.x.S2CID143034771.
  42. ^abTrillin, Calvin (April 2008)."Last Days of the Rickshaw".National Geographic.Vol. 213, no. 4. p. 101. Archived fromthe originalon 19 March 2008.
  43. ^Admin."Matheran: Smallest, peaceful & vehicle-free hill station".India Post.
  44. ^WebIndia, 2005.
  45. ^Trillin, Calvin (April 2008)."Last Days of the Rickshaw".National Geographic.Vol. 213, no. 4. p. 97. Archived fromthe originalon 19 March 2008.
  46. ^Boye De Mente (2010). Demetra De Ment (ed.).The Bizarre and the Wondrous from the Land of the Rising Sun!.Cultural-Insight Books. p. 94.ISBN978-1456424756.
  47. ^Jinrikisha in KamakuraYoufuu-tei
  48. ^Jinrikisha in HidatakayamaGokurak-sha
  49. ^3-Day Model Trip Day1 / Kakunodate - Lake Tazawa-ko - MoriokaJapan National Tourism Organization, 31 January 2002
  50. ^Kinh đô quan quangArchived16 June 2015 at theWayback MachineISFJ chính sách フォーラム2009 phát biểu luận văn 12 – 13 December 2009
  51. ^RickshawTV Show "Sekai Tsukai Densetsu" 2002-2003
  52. ^Hataraku IkemenJoshiFuji Channel 2013/04/29
  53. ^Bradsheer, Harry S. (4 November 1959)."Pakistan To Ban Rickshaws".Lakeland Ledger.p. 4.Retrieved3 December2018.
  54. ^Pante, Michael D. (14 August 2014)."Rickshaws and Filipinos: Transnational Meanings of Technology and Labor in American-Occupied Manila".International Review of Social History.59(S22): 133–159.doi:10.1017/S0020859014000315.
  55. ^Suryadinata (1992). p. 39.
  56. ^abJames Alexander (2006).Malaysia, Brunei and Singapore.New Holland Publishers. p. 435.ISBN1860113095.
  57. ^Leo Suryadinata (1992).(same).pp. 39–40.
  58. ^Suryadinata (1992). p. 45.
  59. ^Tara Fickle."A History of The Los Angeles City Market: 1930-1950".Chinese Historical Society of Southern California (previously published: Gum Saan Journal, Volume 32, No. 1, 2010). Archived fromthe originalon 20 December 2014.Retrieved12 April2013.
  60. ^Iris Chang (2004).The Chinese in America: A Narrative History.Penguin. p. PT155.ISBN1101126876.
  61. ^"Halifax Rickshaw Tours".2013. Archived fromthe originalon 11 August 2014.Retrieved19 July2013.
  62. ^Hilary Davidson; Paul Karr; Herbert Bailey Livesey; Bill McRae; Donald Olson (2006).Frommer's Canada: With the best hiking & outdoor adventures(14 ed.). John Wiley & Sons.ISBN0470044578.
  63. ^"Downtown Ottawa Rickshaw Tours".Ottawa Rickshaws. Archived fromthe originalon 19 April 2013.Retrieved13 April2013.
  64. ^"The Phantom Rickshaw".Online Literature.Retrieved13 April2013.
  65. ^Rickshaw Boy: A Novel.Translated byGoldblatt, Howard.New York: Harper Perennial Modern Chinese Classics. 2010.ISBN9780061436925.
  66. ^"Most Played Juke Box Records".The Billboard.Vol. 59, no. 4. Nielsen Business Media, Inc. 25 January 1947. p. 24.
  67. ^Pearl S. Buck (2004).The Good Earth(reprint ed.). Simon and Schuster.ISBN0743272935.

Further reading

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  • Bandyopadhyay, Subir (1990).Calcutta cycle-rickshaw pullers: a sociological study.Minerva Associates Publications.ISBN8185195277.
  • Fung, Chi Ming (2005).Reluctant Heroes: Richshaw Pullers in Hong Kong And Canton, 1874-1954.Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Hong Kong University Press.ISBN9622097340.
  • Indian Institute of Economics (1962).A socio-economic survey of rickshaw drivers in Hyderabad City area.A.P.
  • Mulhall, Priscilla (2010).Solar-assisted Electric Auto Rickshaw Three Wheeler.Illinois Institute of Technology.
  • Warren, James Francis (2003).Rickshaw Coolie: A People's History of Singapore, 1880-1940.NUS Press.ISBN997169266X.
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