ThePuritanswere EnglishProtestantsin the 16th and 17th centuries who sought to rid theChurch of Englandof what they considered to beRoman Catholicpractices, maintaining that the Church of England had not been fully reformed and should become more Protestant.[1]Puritanism played a significant role in English and early American history, especially duringthe Protectorate.

Puritans were dissatisfied with the limited extent of theEnglish Reformationand with the Church of England's toleration of certain practices associated with the Roman Catholic Church. They formed and identified with various religious groups advocating greater purity of worship anddoctrine,as well as personal and corporatepiety.Puritans adopted acovenant theology,and in that sense they wereCalvinists(as were many of their earlier opponents). In church polity, Puritans were divided between supporters ofepiscopal,presbyterian,andcongregationalpolities. Some believed a uniform reform of theestablished churchwas called for to create a godly nation, while others advocated separation from, or the end of, any established state church entirely in favour of autonomousgathered churches,called-out from the world. TheseSeparatistandIndependentsbecame more prominent in the 1640s, when the supporters of a presbyterian polity in theWestminster Assemblywere unable to forge a new English national church.

By the late 1630s, Puritans were in alliance with the growing commercial world, with the parliamentary opposition to theroyal prerogative,and with theScottish Presbyterianswith whom they had much in common. Consequently, they became a major political force in England and came to power as a result of theFirst English Civil War(1642–1646).

Almost all Puritan clergy left the Church of England after therestoration of the monarchyin 1660 and the1662 Uniformity Act.Many continued to practice their faith innonconformistdenominations, especially inCongregationalistandPresbyterianchurches.[2]The nature of the Puritan movement in England changed radically. In New England, it retained its character for alonger period.

Puritanism was never a formally defined religious division within Protestantism, and the termPuritanitself was rarely used after the turn of the 18th century. Some Puritan ideals, including the formal rejection of Roman Catholicism, were incorporated into the doctrines of the Church of England; others were absorbed into the many Protestant denominations that emerged in the late 17th and early 18th centuries in North America and Britain. The Congregational churches, widely considered to be a part of the Reformed tradition, are descended from the Puritans.[3][4]Moreover, Puritan beliefs are enshrined in theSavoy Declaration,theconfession of faithheld by the Congregationalist churches.[5]

Terminology

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Gallery of famous 17th-century Puritan theologians:Thomas Gouge,William Bridge,Thomas Manton,John Flavel,Richard Sibbes,Stephen Charnock,William Bates,John Owen,John HoweandRichard Baxter

In the 17th century, the wordPuritanwas a term applied not to just one group but to many. Historians still debate a precise definition of Puritanism.[6]Originally,Puritanwas a pejorative term characterizing certain Protestant groups as extremist.Thomas Fuller,in hisChurch History,dates the first use of the word to 1564. ArchbishopMatthew Parkerof that time used it andprecisianwith a sense similar to the modernstickler.[7]Puritans, then, were distinguished for being "more intensely protestant than their protestant neighbors or even the Church of England".[8]As a term of abuse,Puritanwas not used by Puritans themselves. Those referred to asPuritancalled themselves terms such as "the godly", "saints", "professors", or "God's children".[9]

"Non-separating Puritans" were dissatisfied with theReformation of the Church of Englandbut remained within it, advocating for further reform; they disagreed among themselves about how much further reformation was possible or even necessary. Others, who were later termed "Nonconformists","Separatists",or" separating Puritans ", thought theChurch of Englandwas so corrupt that true Christians should separate from it altogether. In its widest historical sense, the termPuritanincludes both groups.[10][11]

Puritans should not be confused with other radical Protestant groups of the 16th and 17th centuries, such asQuakers,Seekers,andFamilists,who believed that individuals could be directly guided by theHoly Spirit.They gave precedence todirect revelationover theBible.[12]

In current English,puritanoften means "against pleasure". In such usage,hedonismandpuritanismareantonyms.[13]William Shakespearedescribed the vain, pompous killjoyMalvolioinTwelfth Nightas "a kind of Puritan".[14]H. L. Menckendefined Puritanism as "the haunting fear that someone, somewhere, may be happy."[15]Puritans embraced sexuality but placed it in the context of marriage.Peter Gaywrites that the Puritans' standard reputation for "dour prudery" was a "misreading that went unquestioned in the nineteenth century". He said they were in favour of married sexuality, and opposed the Catholic veneration ofvirginity(associated with the Virgin Mary), citingEdward TaylorandJohn Cotton.[16]One Puritan settlement in western Massachusetts banished a husband because he refused to fulfill his sexual duties to his wife.[17]

History

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Puritanism had a historical importance over a period of a century, followed by fifty years of development in New England. It changed character and emphasis nearly decade by decade over that time.

Elizabethan Puritanism

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TheElizabethan Religious Settlementof 1559 established the Church of England as a Protestant church and brought theEnglish Reformationto a close. During the reign ofElizabeth I(r. 1558–1603), the Church of England was widely considered aReformedchurch, and Calvinists held the bestbishopricsanddeaneries.Nevertheless, it preserved certain characteristics of medievalCatholicism,such as cathedrals,church choirs,a formalliturgycontained in theBook of Common Prayer,traditional clericalvestments,andepiscopal polity.[18]

Many English Protestants — especially those formerMarian exilesreturning to England to work as clergy and bishops — considered the settlement merely the first step in reforming England's church.[19]The years of exile during theMarian Restorationhad exposed them to the practices of theContinental Reformed churches.The most impatient clergy began introducing reforms within their local parishes. The initial conflict between Puritans and the authorities included instances of nonconformity, such as omitting parts of the liturgy to allow more time for the sermon and singing ofmetrical psalms.Some Puritans refused to bow on hearing the name of Jesus, or to make thesign of the crossin baptism, or to usewedding ringsor the organ.

Yet, the main complaint Puritans had was the requirement that clergy wear the whitesurpliceandclerical cap.[20]Puritan clergymen preferred to wearblack academic attire.During thevestments controversy,church authorities attempted and failed to enforce the use of clerical vestments. While never a mass movement, the Puritans had the support and protection of powerful patrons in the aristocracy.[21]

In the 1570s, the primary dispute between Puritans and the authorities was over the appropriate form of church government. Many Puritans believed that the Church of England should follow the example of Reformed churches in other parts of Europe and adoptpresbyterian polity,under which government bybishopswould be replaced with government byelders.[22]But all attempts to enact further reforms throughParliamentwere blocked by the Queen. Despite such setbacks, Puritan leaders such asJohn FieldandThomas Cartwrightcontinued to promote presbyterianism through the formation of unofficial clerical conferences that allowed Puritan clergymen to organise and network. This covert Puritan network was discovered and dismantled during theMarprelate controversyof the 1580s. For the remainder of Elizabeth's reign, Puritans ceased to agitate for further reform.[23]

Caroline Puritanism

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Jacobean Puritanism

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The accession ofJames Ito the English throne brought theMillenary Petition,a Puritanmanifestoof 1603 for reform of the English church, but James wanted a religious settlement along different lines. He called theHampton Court Conferencein 1604, and heard the teachings of four prominent Puritan leaders, includingLaurence Chaderton,but largely sided with his bishops. He was well informed on theological matters by his education and Scottish upbringing, and he dealt shortly with the peevish legacy of Elizabethan Puritanism, pursuing aneirenicreligious policy, in which he was arbiter.

Many of James's episcopal appointments were Calvinists, notablyJames Montague,who was an influential courtier. Puritans still opposed much of the Roman Catholic summation in the Church of England, notably theBook of Common Prayer,but also the use of non-secular vestments (cap and gown) during services, the sign of the Cross in baptism, and kneeling to receive Holy Communion.[24]Some of the bishops under both Elizabeth and James tried to suppress Puritanism, though other bishops were more tolerant. In many places, individual ministers were able to omit disliked portions of therevisedBook of Common Prayer.[citation needed]

The Puritan movement of Jacobean times became distinctive by adaptation and compromise, with the emergence of "semi-separatism", "moderate puritanism", the writings ofWilliam Bradshaw(who adopted the term "Puritan" for himself), and the beginnings ofCongregationalism.[25]Most Puritans of this period were non-separating and remained within the Church of England; Separatists who left the Church of England altogether were numerically much fewer.

Fragmentation and political failure

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TheWestminster Assembly,which saw disputes on Church polity in England (Victorian history painting byJohn Rogers Herbert).

The Puritan movement in England was riven over decades by emigration and inconsistent interpretations of Scripture, as well as some political differences that surfaced at that time.The Fifth Monarchy Men,a radical millenarian wing of Puritanism, aided by strident, popular clergy likeVavasor Powell,agitated from the right wing of the movement, even as sectarian groups like theRanters,Levellers,andQuakerspulled from the left.[26][27]The fragmentation created a collapse of the centre and, ultimately, sealed a political failure, while depositing an enduring spiritual legacy that would remain and grow in English-speaking Christianity.[28]

TheWestminster Assemblywas called in 1643, assembling clergy of the Church of England. The Assembly was able to agree to theWestminster Confession of Faithdoctrinally, a consistent Reformed theological position. TheDirectory of Public Worshipwas made official in 1645, and the larger framework (now called theWestminster Standards) was adopted by theChurch of Scotland.In England, the Standards were contested by Independents up to 1660.[29]

TheWestminster Divines,on the other hand, were divided over questions ofchurch polityand split into factions supporting a reformedepiscopacy,presbyterianism,congregationalism,andErastianism.The membership of the Assembly was strongly weighted towards the Presbyterians, butOliver Cromwellwas a Puritan and anindependent Congregationalist Separatistwho imposed his doctrines upon them. The Church of England of theInterregnum (1649–60)was run along Presbyterian lines but never became a national Presbyterian church, such as existed in Scotland. England was not the theocratic state which leading Puritans had called for as "godly rule".[30]

Great Ejection and Dissenters

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At the time of theEnglish Restorationin 1660, theSavoy Conferencewas called to determine a new religious settlement for England and Wales. Under theAct of Uniformity 1662,the Church of England was restored to its pre-Civil Warconstitution with only minor changes, and the Puritans found themselves sidelined. A traditional estimate of historianCalamyis that around 2,400 Puritan clergy left the Church in the "Great Ejection"of 1662.[31]At this point, the term "Dissenter"came to include" Puritan ", but more accurately described those (clergy or lay) who" dissented "from the1662Book of Common Prayer.[32]

The Dissenters divided themselves from all other Christians in the Church of England and established their own Separatist congregations in the 1660s and 1670s. An estimated 1,800 of the ejected clergy continued in some fashion as ministers of religion, according toRichard Baxter.[31]The government initially attempted to suppress these schismatic organisations by using theClarendon Code.There followed a period in which schemes of "comprehension" were proposed, under which Presbyterians could be brought back into the Church of England, but nothing resulted from them. TheWhigsopposed the court religious policies and argued that the Dissenters should be allowed to worship separately from the established Church. This position ultimately prevailed when theToleration Actwas passed in the wake of theGlorious Revolutionin 1689. This permitted the licensing of Dissenting ministers and the building of chapels. The term "Nonconformist"generally replaced the term" Dissenter "from the middle of the 18th century.

Puritans in North America

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Interior of theOld Ship Church,a PuritanmeetinghouseinHingham, Massachusetts.Puritans wereCalvinists,so their churches were unadorned and plain.

SomePuritans left for New England,particularly from 1629 to 1640 (theEleven Years' TyrannyunderKing Charles I), supporting the founding of theMassachusetts Bay Colonyand other settlements among the northern colonies. The large-scale Puritan migration to New England ceased by 1641, with around 21,000 persons having moved across the Atlantic. This English-speaking population in the United States was not descended from all of the original colonists, since many returned to England shortly after arriving on the continent, but it produced more than 16 million descendants.[33][34]This so-called "Great Migration" is not so named because of sheer numbers, which were much less than the number of English citizens who immigrated toVirginiaand theCaribbeanduring this time, many as indentured servants.[35]The rapid growth of the New England colonies (around 700,000 by 1790) was almost entirely due to the high birth rate and lower death rate per year. They had formed families more rapidly than did the southern colonies.[36]

Death's head,Granary Burying Ground.A typical example of earlyFunerary art in Puritan New England

Puritan hegemony lasted for at least a century. That century can be broken down into three parts: the generation ofJohn CottonandRichard Mather,1630–62 from the founding to the Restoration, years of virtual independence and nearly autonomous development; the generation ofIncrease Mather,1662–89 from the Restoration and theHalfway Covenantto the Glorious Revolution, years of struggle with the British crown; and the generation ofCotton Mather,1689–1728 from the overthrow ofEdmund Andros(in which Cotton Mather played a part) and the new charter, mediated by Increase Mather, to the death of Cotton Mather.[37]Puritan leaders were political thinkers and writers who considered the church government to be God's agency in social life.[38]

The Puritans in the Colonies wanted their children to be able to read and interpret the Bible themselves, rather than have to rely on the clergy for interpretation.[39][40][41][42]In 1635, they established the Boston Latin School to educate their sons, the first and oldest formal education institution in the English-speaking New World. They also set up what were called dame schools for their daughters, and in other cases taught their daughters at home how to read. As a result, Puritans were among the most literate societies in the world.

By the time of the American Revolution there were 40 newspapers in the United States (at a time when there were only two cities—New York and Philadelphia—with as many as 20,000 people in them).[42][43][44][45]The Puritans also set up a college (nowHarvard University) only six years after arriving in Boston.[42][46]

Beliefs

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Calvinism

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Puritanismbroadly refers to a diverse religious reform movement in Britain committed to theContinental Reformedtradition.[47]While Puritans did not agree on all doctrinal points, most shared similar views on the nature ofGod,humansinfulness,and the relationship between God and mankind. They believed that all of their beliefs should be based on theBible,which they considered to bedivinely inspired.[48]

The concept of covenant was extremely important to Puritans, andcovenant theologywas central to their beliefs. With roots in the writings of Reformed theologiansJohn CalvinandHeinrich Bullinger,covenant theology was further developed by Puritan theologiansDudley Fenner,William Perkins,John Preston,Richard Sibbes,William Amesand, most fully by Ames's Dutch student,Johannes Cocceius.[49]Covenant theology asserts that when God createdAdam and Evehe promised themeternal lifein return for perfect obedience; this promise was termed the covenant ofworks.After thefall of man,human nature was corrupted byoriginal sinand unable to fulfill the covenant of works, since each person inevitably violated God's law as expressed in theTen Commandments.As sinners, every person deserveddamnation.[50]

Puritans shared with other Calvinists a belief indouble predestination,that some people (theelect) were destined by God to receivegraceandsalvationwhile others were destined forHell.[51]No one, however, couldmeritsalvation. According to covenant theology,Christ's sacrifice on the crossmade possible the covenant of grace, by which those selected by God could be saved. Puritans believed inunconditional electionandirresistible grace—God's grace was given freely without condition to the elect and could not be refused.[52]

Conversion

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Covenant theology made individual salvation deeply personal. It held that God's predestination was not "impersonal and mechanical" but was a "covenant of grace" that one entered into byfaith.Therefore, being a Christian could never be reduced to simple "intellectual acknowledgment" of the truth of Christianity. Puritans agreed "that theeffectual callof each electsaintof God would always come as an individuated personal encounter with God's promises ".[53]

The process by which the elect are brought fromspiritual deathto spiritual life (regeneration) was described asconversion.[52]Early on, Puritans did not consider a specific conversion experience normative or necessary, but many gainedassurance of salvationfrom such experiences. Over time, however, Puritan theologians developed a framework for authentic religious experience based on their own experiences as well as those of their parishioners. Eventually, Puritans came to regard a specific conversion experience as an essential mark of one's election.[54]

The Puritan conversion experience was commonly described as occurring in discrete phases. It began with a preparatory phase designed to produce contrition for sin through introspection,Bible studyand listening topreaching.This was followed by humiliation, when the sinner realized that he or she was helpless to break free from sin and that their good works could never earn forgiveness.[52]It was after reaching this point—the realization that salvation was possible only because of divinemercy—that the person would experiencejustification,when the righteousness of Christ isimputedto the elect and their minds and hearts are regenerated. For some Puritans, this was a dramatic experience and they referred to it as beingborn again.[55]

Confirming that such a conversion had actually happened often required prolonged and continual introspection. HistorianPerry Millerwrote that the Puritans "liberated men from the treadmill ofindulgencesandpenances,but cast them on the iron couch of introspection ".[56]It was expected that conversion would be followed bysanctification— "the progressive growth in the saint's ability to better perceive and seek God's will, and thus to lead a holy life".[55]Some Puritans attempted to find assurance of their faith by keeping detailed records of their behavior and looking for the evidence of salvation in their lives. Puritan clergy wrote many spiritual guides to help their parishioners pursue personalpietyand sanctification. These includedArthur Dent'sThe Plain Man's Pathway to Heaven(1601),Richard Rogers'sSeven Treatises(1603),Henry Scudder'sChristian's Daily Walk(1627) and Richard Sibbes'sThe Bruised Reed and Smoking Flax(1630).[57]

Too much emphasis on one's good works could be criticized for being too close toArminianism,and too much emphasis on subjective religious experience could be criticized asAntinomianism.Many Puritans relied on both personal religious experience and self-examination to assess their spiritual condition.[57]

Puritanism's experiential piety would be inherited by theevangelical Protestantsof the 18th century.[56]While evangelical views on conversion were heavily influenced by Puritan theology, the Puritans believed that assurance of one's salvation was "rare, late and the fruit of struggle in the experience of believers", whereas evangelicals believed that assurance was normative for all the truly converted.[58]

Worship and sacraments

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While most Puritans were members of the Church of England, they were critical of its worship practices. In the 17th century, Sunday worship in the established church took the form of theMorning Prayerservice in theBook of Common Prayer.This may include a sermon, but Holy Communion or the Lord's Supper was only occasionally observed. Officially, lay people were only required to receive communion three times a year, but most people only received communion once a year at Easter. Puritans were concerned about biblical errors and Catholic remnants within the prayer book. Puritans objected to bowing at the name of Jesus, the requirement that priests wear thesurplice,and the use of written, set prayers in place of improvised prayers.[59]

The sermon was central to Puritan piety.[60]It was not only a means of religious education; Puritans believed it was the most common way that God prepared a sinner's heart for conversion.[61]On Sundays, Puritan ministers often shortened the liturgy to allow more time for preaching.[20]Puritan churchgoers attended two sermons on Sundays and as many weekday sermons and lectures they could find, often traveling for miles.[62]Puritans were distinct for their adherence toSabbatarianism.[63]

Puritans taught that there were twosacraments:baptism and the Lord's Supper. Puritans agreed with the church's practice ofinfant baptism.However, the effect of baptism was disputed. Puritans objected to the prayer book's assertion ofbaptismal regeneration.[64]In Puritan theology, infant baptism was understood in terms of covenant theology—baptism replacedcircumcisionas a sign of the covenant and marked a child's admission into thevisible church.It could not be assumed that baptism produces regeneration. The Westminster Confession states that the grace of baptism is only effective for those who are among the elect, and its effects lie dormant until one experiences conversion later in life.[65]Puritans wanted to do away withgodparents,who madebaptismal vowson behalf of infants, and give that responsibility to the child's father. Puritans also objected to priests making thesign of the crossin baptism. Private baptisms were opposed because Puritans believed that preaching should always accompany sacraments. Some Puritan clergy even refused to baptise dying infants because that implied the sacrament contributed to salvation.[66]

Puritans rejected both Roman Catholic (transubstantiation) and Lutheran (sacramental union) teachings that Christ is physically present in thebreadandwineof the Lord's Supper. Instead, Puritans embraced the Reformed doctrine ofreal spiritual presence,believing that in the Lord's Supper the faithful receive Christ spiritually. In agreement withThomas Cranmer,the Puritans stressed "that Christ comes down to us in the sacrament by His Word and Spirit, offering Himself as our spiritual food and drink".[67]They criticised the prayer book service for being too similar to the Catholic mass. For example, the requirement that people kneel to receive communion impliedadoration of the Eucharist,a practice linked to transubstantiation. Puritans also criticised the Church of England for allowing unrepentant sinners to receive communion. Puritans wanted better spiritual preparation (such as clergy home visits and testing people on their knowledge of the catechism) for communion and betterchurch disciplineto ensure that the unworthy were kept from the sacrament.[66]

Puritans did not believeconfirmationwas necessary and thought candidates were poorly prepared since bishops did not have the time to examine them properly.[68][69]The marriage service was criticised for using a wedding ring (which implied that marriage was a sacrament) and having the groom vow to his bride "with my body I thee worship", which Puritans consideredblasphemous.In the funeral service, the priest committed the body to the ground "in sure and certain hope of resurrection to eternal life, through our Lord Jesus Christ." Puritans objected to this phrase because they did not believe it was true for everyone. They suggested it be rewritten as "we commit his body [etc.] believing a resurrection of the just and unjust, some to joy, and some to punishment."[69]

Puritans eliminated choral music andmusical instruments in their religious servicesbecause these were associated with Roman Catholicism; however, singing thePsalmswas considered appropriate (seeExclusive psalmody).[70]Church organs were commonly damaged or destroyed in the Civil War period, such as when an axe was taken to the organ ofWorcester Cathedralin 1642.[71]

Ecclesiology

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Polemicalpopular printwith aCatalogue of Sects,1647.

While the Puritans were united in their goal of furthering the English Reformation, they were always divided over issues ofecclesiologyand church polity, specifically questions relating to the manner of organizing congregations, how individual congregations should relate with one another and whetherestablished national churcheswere scriptural.[54]On these questions, Puritans divided between supporters ofepiscopal polity,presbyterian polityandcongregational polity.

The episcopalians (known as theprelaticalparty) were conservatives who supported retaining bishops if those leaders supported reform and agreed to share power with local churches.[72]They also supported the idea of having aBook of Common Prayer,but they were against demanding strict conformity or having too much ceremony. In addition, these Puritans called for a renewal of preaching,pastoral careand Christiandisciplinewithin the Church of England.[54]

Like the episcopalians, the presbyterians agreed that there should be a national church but one structured on the model of theChurch of Scotland.[72]They wanted to replace bishops with a system of elective and representative governing bodies of clergy andlaity(localsessions,presbyteries,synods,and ultimately a nationalgeneral assembly).[54]During theInterregnum,the presbyterians had limited success at reorganizing the Church of England. TheWestminster Assemblyproposed the creation of a presbyterian system, but theLong Parliamentleft implementation to local authorities. As a result, the Church of England never developed a complete presbyterian hierarchy.[73]

CongregationalistsorIndependentsbelieved in the autonomy of the local church, which ideally would be a congregation of "visible saints" (meaning those who had experienced conversion).[74]Members would be required to abide by achurch covenant,in which they "pledged to join in the proper worship of God and to nourish each other in the search for further religious truth".[72]Such churches were regarded as complete within themselves, with full authority to determine their own membership, administer their own discipline and ordain their own ministers. Furthermore, the sacraments would only be administered to those in the church covenant.[75]

Most congregational Puritans remained within the Church of England, hoping to reform it according to their own views. TheNew England Congregationalistswere also adamant that they were not separating from the Church of England. However, some Puritans equated the Church of England with the Roman Catholic Church, and therefore considered it no Christian church at all. These groups, such as theBrownists,would split from the established church and become known as Separatists. Other Separatists embraced more radical positions onseparation of church and stateandbeliever's baptism,becoming earlyBaptists.[75]

Family life

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The Snake in the Grass or Satan Transform'd to an Angel of Light,title page engraved byRichard Gaywood,c. 1660

Based on Biblical portrayals ofAdam and Eve,Puritans believed that marriage was rooted in procreation, love, and, most importantly, salvation.[76]Husbands were the spiritual heads of the household, while women were to demonstrate religious piety and obedience under male authority.[77]Furthermore, marriage represented not only the relationship between husband and wife, but also the relationship between spouses and God. Puritan husbands commanded authority through family direction and prayer. The female relationship to her husband and to God was marked by submissiveness and humility.[78]

Thomas Gatakerdescribes Puritan marriage as:

... together for a time as copartners in grace here, [that] they may reigne together forever as coheires in glory hereafter.[79]

The paradox created by female inferiority in the public sphere and the spiritual equality of men and women in marriage, then, gave way to the informal authority of women concerning matters of the home and childrearing.[80]With the consent of their husbands, wives made important decisions concerning the labour of their children, property, and the management of inns and taverns owned by their husbands.[81]Pious Puritan mothers laboured for their children's righteousness and salvation, connecting women directly to matters of religion and morality.[82]In her poem titled "In Reference to her Children", poetAnne Bradstreetreflects on her role as a mother:

I had eight birds hatched in one nest; Four cocks there were, and hens the rest. I nursed them up with pain and care, Nor cost nor labour I did spare.

Bradstreet alludes to thetemporalityof motherhood by comparing her children to a flock of birds on the precipice of leaving home. While Puritans praised the obedience of young children, they also believed that, by separating children from their mothers at adolescence, children could better sustain a superior relationship with God.[83]A child could only be redeemed through religious education and obedience. Girls carried the additional burden of Eve's corruption and werecatechisedseparately from boys at adolescence. Boys' education prepared them for vocations and leadership roles, while girls were educated for domestic and religious purposes. The pinnacle of achievement for children in Puritan society, however, occurred with the conversion process.[82]

Puritans viewed the relationship between master and servant similarly to that of parent and child. Just as parents were expected to uphold Puritan religious values in the home, masters assumed the parental responsibility of housing and educating young servants. Older servants also dwelt with masters and were cared for in the event of illness or injury. African-American and Indian servants were likely excluded from such benefits.[84]

Demonology and witch hunts

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Like most Christians in theearly modern period,Puritans believed in the active existence of thedevilanddemonsas evil forces that could possess and cause harm to men and women. There was also widespread belief inwitchcraftand witches—persons in league with the devil. "Unexplained phenomena such as the death of livestock, human disease, and hideous fits suffered by young and old" may all be blamed on the agency of the devil or a witch.[85]

Puritan pastors undertookexorcismsfordemonic possessionin some high-profile cases. ExorcistJohn Darrellwas supported byArthur Hildershamin the case of Thomas Darling.[86]Samuel Harsnett,a sceptic on witchcraft and possession, attacked Darrell. However, Harsnett was in the minority, and many clergy, not only Puritans, believed in witchcraft and possession.[87]

In the 16th and 17th centuries, thousands of people throughout Europe were accused of being witches and executed. In England and Colonial America, Puritans engaged inwitch huntsas well. In the 1640s,Matthew Hopkins,the self-proclaimed "Witchfinder General", whose career flourished during Puritan rule, was responsible for accusing over two hundred people of witchcraft, mainly inEast Anglia.[88]Between 1644 and 1647, Hopkins and his colleagueJohn Stearnesent more accused people to thegallowsthan all the other witch-hunters in England of the previous 160 years.[89]In New England, few people were accused and convicted of witchcraft before 1692; there were at most sixteen convictions.[90]

TheSalem witch trialsof 1692 had a lasting impact on the historical reputation of New England Puritans. Though this witch hunt occurred after Puritans lost political control of theMassachusetts colony,Puritans instigated the judicial proceedings against the accused and comprised the members of the court that convicted and sentenced the accused. By the time GovernorWilliam Phipsended the trials, fourteen women and five men had been hanged as witches.[91]

Millennialism

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Puritanmillennialismhas been placed in the broader context of European Reformed beliefs about the millennium and interpretation ofbiblical prophecy,for which representative figures of the period wereJohannes Piscator,Thomas Brightman,Joseph Mede,Johannes Heinrich Alsted,andJohn Amos Comenius.[92]Like most English Protestants of the time, Puritans based their eschatological views on anhistoricistinterpretation of theBook of Revelationand theBook of Daniel.Protestant theologians identified the sequential phases the world must pass through before theLast Judgmentcould occur and tended to place their own time period near the end. It was expected that tribulation and persecution would increase but eventually the church's enemies—theAntichrist(identified with the Roman Catholic Church) and theOttoman Empire—would be defeated.[93]Based onRevelation 20,it was believed that a thousand-year period (the millennium) would occur, during which the saints would rule with Christ on earth.[94]

In contrast to other Protestants who tended to view eschatology as an explanation for "God's remote plans for the world and man", Puritans understood it to describe "the cosmic environment in which the regenerate soldier of Christ was now to do battle against the power of sin".[95]On a personal level, eschatology was related to sanctification, assurance of salvation, and the conversion experience. On a larger level, eschatology was the lens through which events such as the English Civil War and theThirty Years' Warwere interpreted. There was also an optimistic aspect to Puritan millennianism; Puritans anticipated a future worldwide religious revival before theSecond Comingof Christ.[96][94]Another departure from other Protestants was the widespread belief among Puritans that theconversion of the Jewsto Christianity was an important sign of theapocalypse.[97]

Cultural consequences

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Pilgrims Going to ChurchbyGeorge Henry Boughton(1867)

Some strong religious beliefs common to Puritans had direct impacts on culture. Puritans believed it was the government's responsibility to enforce moral standards and ensure true religious worship was established and maintained.[98]Education was essential to every person, male and female, so that they could read the Bible for themselves. However, the Puritans' emphasis on individual spiritual independence was not always compatible with the community cohesion that was also a strong ideal.[99]Anne Hutchinson(1591–1643), the well educated daughter of a teacher, argued with the established theological orthodoxy, and was forced to leave colonial New England with her followers.[100]

Education

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Cotton Mather,influential New England Puritan minister, portrait byPeter Pelham

At a time when the literacy rate in England was less than 30 per cent, the Puritan leaders of colonial New England believed children should be educated for both religious and civil reasons, and they worked to achieve universal literacy.[101]In 1642, Massachusetts required heads of households to teach their wives, children and servants basic reading and writing so that they could read the Bible and understand colonial laws. In 1647, the government required all towns with 50 or more households to hire a teacher and towns of 100 or more households to hire agrammar schoolinstructor to prepare promising boys for college. Philemon Pormort'sBoston Latin Schoolwas the only one in Boston, the first school of public instruction in Massachusetts ".[102]Boys interested in the ministry were often sent to colleges such asHarvard(founded in 1636) orYale(founded in 1707).[41]Aspiring lawyers or doctors apprenticed to a local practitioner, or in rare cases were sent to England or Scotland.[103]

Puritan scientists

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TheMerton Thesisis an argument about the nature of earlyexperimental scienceproposed byRobert K. Merton.Similar toMax Weber'sfamous claimon the link between theProtestant work ethicand thecapitalist economy,Merton argued for a similar positivecorrelationbetween the rise of English Puritanism, as well as GermanPietism,and early experimental science.[104]As an example, seven of 10 nucleus members of theRoyal Societywere Puritans. In the year 1663, 62 per cent of the members of the Royal Society were similarly identified.[105]The Merton Thesis has resulted in continuous debates.[106]

Behavioral regulations

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1659 public notice inBostondeeming Christmas illegal

Puritans in both England and New England believed that the state should protect and promote true religion and that religion should influence politics and social life.[107][108]Certain holidays were outlawed when Puritans came to power. In 1647, Parliament outlawed the celebration ofChristmas,EasterandWhitsuntide.[109]Puritans strongly condemned the celebration of Christmas, considering it a Catholic invention and the "trappings ofpopery"or the" rags ofthe Beast".[110]They also objected to Christmas because the festivities surrounding the holiday were seen as impious (English jails were usually filled with drunken revelers and brawlers).[111]During the years that the Puritan ban on Christmas was in place in England, protests occurred over the repressiveness of the Puritan regime.[112]Pro-Christmas rioting broke out across England, semi-clandestine religious services marking Christ's birth continued to be held, and people sangcarolsin secret.[112][113]Followingthe restorationin 1660, when Puritan legislation was declared null and void, Christmas was again freely celebrated in England.[113]Christmas was outlawed in Boston from 1659.[114]The ban was revoked in 1681 by the English-appointed governorEdmund Andros,who also revoked a Puritan ban on festivities on Saturday nights.[114]Nevertheless, it was not until the mid-19th century that celebrating Christmas became fashionable in the Boston region.[115]

Attempting to force religious and intellectual homogeneity on the whole community, civil and religious restrictions were most strictly applied by the Puritans of Massachusetts which saw various banishments applied to enforce conformity, including thebranding iron,thewhipping post,thebilboesand thehangman's noose.[116]Swearing and blasphemy were illegal. In 1636, Massachusetts made blasphemy—defined as "a cursing of God by atheism, or the like" —punishable by death.[117]

Puritans were opposed to Sunday sport or recreation because these distracted from religious observance of theSabbath.[108]In an attempt to offset the strictness of the Puritans,James I'sBook of Sports(1618) permitted Christians to play football every Sunday afternoon after worship.[118]When the Puritans established themselves in power, football was among the sports that were banned: boys caught playing on Sunday could be prosecuted.[119]Football was also used as a rebellious force: when Puritans outlawed Christmas in England in December 1647 the crowd brought out footballs as a symbol of festive misrule.[119]Other forms of leisure and entertainment were completely forbidden on moral grounds. For example, Puritans were universally opposed toblood sportssuch asbearbaitingandcockfightingbecause they involved unnecessary injury to God's creatures. For similar reasons, they also opposedboxing.[61]These sports were illegal in England during Puritan rule.[120]

While card playing by itself was generally considered acceptable, card playing andgamblingwere banned in England and the colonies, as was mixed dancing involving men and women—which Mather condemned as "promiscuous dancing" —because it was thought to lead tofornication.[107][121]Folk dancethat did not involve close contact between men and women was considered appropriate.[122]Thebranledance, which involved couples intertwining arms or holding hands, returned to popularity in England after the restoration when the bans imposed by the Puritans were lifted.[123]In New England, the first dancing school did not open until the end of the 17th century.[108]

Puritans condemned thesexualizationof thetheatreand its associations with depravity and prostitution—London's theatres were located on the south side of theThames,which was a center of prostitution. A major Puritan attack on the theatre wasWilliam Prynne's bookHistriomastixwhich marshals a multitude of ancient and medieval authorities against the "sin" of dramatic performance. Puritan authoritiesshut down English theatresin the 1640s and 1650s—Shakespeare'sGlobe Theatrewas demolished—and none were allowed to open in Puritan-controlled colonies.[124][125]In January 1643, actors in London protested against the ban with a pamphlet titledThe Actors remonstrance or complaint for the silencing of their profession, and banishment from their severall play-houses.[126]With the end of Puritan rule and the restoration of Charles II, theatre among other arts exploded, and London's oldest operating theatre,Drury Lanein theWest End,opened in 1663.[127][128]The puppet showPunch and Judy,dominated by the anarchic Mr Punch, made its first recorded appearance in England in May 1662, with show historian Glyn Edwards stating the character of Punch "went down particularly well with Restoration British audiences, fun-starved after years of Puritanism... he became, really, a spirit of Britain – a subversive maverick who defies authority".[129]

Puritans were not opposed to drinking alcohol in moderation.[130]However, alehouses were closely regulated by Puritan-controlled governments in both England and Colonial America.[108]Laws inMassachusettsin 1634 banned the "abominable" practice of individualstoastingeach other's health.[131]William Prynne,the most rabid of the Puritan anti-toasters, wrote a book on the subject,Health's Sicknesse(1628), that "this drinking and quaffing of healthes had it origin and birth from Pagans, heathens, and infidels, yea, from the very Deuill himself."[131]

19th-century portrayal of the burning of William Pynchon'sbanned bookon Boston Common after it was deemed blasphemous by the Massachusetts Bay Colony.

In 1649, English colonistWilliam Pynchon,the founder ofSpringfield,Massachusetts, wrote a critique of Puritanical Calvinism, entitledThe Meritorious Price of Our Redemption.Published in London in 1650, when the book reached Boston it was immediately burned onBoston Commonand the colony pressed Pynchon to return to England which he did.[132]The censorious nature of the Puritans and the region they inhabited would lead to the phrase "banned in Boston"being coined in the late 19th century, a phrase which was applied to Boston up to the mid-20th century.[133]

Bounds were not set on enjoying sexuality within the bounds of marriage, as a gift from God.[134]Spouses were disciplined if they did not perform their sexual marital duties, in accordance with1 Corinthians 7and other biblical passages. Women and men were equally expected to fulfill marital responsibilities.[135]Women and men could file for divorce based on this issue alone. In Massachusetts colony, which had some of the most liberal colonial divorce laws, one out of every six divorce petitions was filed on the basis of male impotence.[136]Puritans publicly punished drunkenness andsexual relations outside marriage.[107]Couples who had sex during their engagement were fined and publicly humiliated.[107]Men, and a handful of women, who engaged in homosexual behavior, were seen as especially sinful, with some executed.[107]While the practice of execution was also infrequently used for rape and adultery, homosexuality was actually seen as a worse sin.[137]Passages from the Old Testament, including Lev 20:13., were thought to support the disgust for homosexuality and efforts to purge society of it. New Haven code stated "If any man lyeth with mankinde, as a man lyeth with a woman, both of them have committed abomination, they shall surely be put to death"[138]and in 1636 the Plymouth Colony adopted a set of laws that included a sentence of death for sodomy and buggery.[139]Prominent authors such as Thomas Cobbert, Samual Danforth and Cotton Mather wrote pieces condemning homosexuality.[137]Mather argued that the passage "Overcome the Devil when he tempts you to the youthful sin of Uncleanness" was referring "probably to the young men of Sodom".[140]

Religious toleration

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Puritan rule in England was marked by limited religious toleration. TheToleration Actof 1650 repealed theAct of Supremacy,Act of Uniformity,and all laws makingrecusancya crime. There was no longer a legal requirement to attend the parish church on Sundays (for both Protestants and Catholics). In 1653, responsibility for recording births, marriages and deaths was transferred from the church to a civil registrar. The result was that church baptisms and marriages became private acts, not guarantees of legal rights, which provided greater equality to dissenters.[141]

The 1653Instrument of Governmentguaranteed that in matters of religion "none shall be compelled by penalties or otherwise, but endeavours be used to win them by sound Doctrine and the Example of a good conversation". Religious freedom was given to "all who profess Faith in God by Jesus Christ".[142]However, Catholics and some others were excluded. No one was executed for their religion duringthe Protectorate.[142]In London, those attending Catholic mass or Anglican holy communion were occasionally arrested but released without charge. Many unofficial Protestant congregations, such as Baptist churches, were permitted to meet.[143]Quakers were allowed to publish freely and hold meetings. They were, however, arrested for disrupting parish church services and organisingtithe-strikes against the state church.[144]

QuakerMary Dyerled to execution onBoston Common,1 June 1660, by an unknown 19th century artist

In New England, where Congregationalism was the official religion, the Puritans exhibited intolerance of other religious views, includingQuaker,AnglicanandBaptisttheologies. The Puritans of theMassachusetts Bay Colonywere the most active of the New England persecutors of Quakers, and the persecuting spirit was shared by thePlymouth Colonyand the colonies along theConnecticut river.[145]

Four Quakers, known as theBoston martyrs,were executed. The first two of the four Boston martyrs were executed by the Puritans on 27 October 1659, and in memory of this, 27 October is nowInternational Religious Freedom Dayto recognise the importance of freedom of religion.[146]In 1660, one of the most notable victims of the religious intolerance was English QuakerMary Dyer,who was hanged in Boston for repeatedly defying a Puritan law banning Quakers from the colony.[145]The hanging of Dyer on Boston Common marked the beginning of the end of the Puritantheocracy.[147]In 1661,King Charles IIexplicitly forbade Massachusetts from executing anyone for professing Quakerism.[147]In 1684, Englandrevoked the Massachusetts charter,sent over a royal governor to enforce English laws in 1686 and, in 1689, passed a broadToleration Act.[147]

Anti-Catholicsentiment appeared in New England with the first Pilgrim and Puritan settlers.[148]In 1647, Massachusetts passed a law prohibiting anyJesuit Roman Catholicpriests from entering territory under Puritan jurisdiction.[149]Any suspected person who could not clear himself was to be banished from the colony; a second offense carried a death penalty.[150]

Historiography

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Second version ofThe Puritan,a late 19th-century sculpture byAugustus Saint-Gaudens

Puritanism has attracted much scholarly attention, and as a result, the secondary literature on the subject is vast. Puritanism is considered crucial to understanding the religious, political and cultural issues of early modern England. In addition, historians such asPerry Millerhave regarded Puritan New England as fundamental to understanding American culture and identity. Puritanism has also been credited with the creation ofmodernityitself, from England'sScientific Revolutionto the rise of democracy. In the early 20th century,Max Weberargued inThe Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalismthat Calvinist self-denial resulted in aProtestant work ethicthat nurtured the development ofcapitalismin Europe and North America. Puritan authors such asJohn Milton,John Bunyan,Anne BradstreetandEdward Taylorcontinue to be read and studied as important figures within English and American literature.[151]

A debate continues on the definition of "Puritanism".[152]English historianPatrick Collinsonargues that "There is little point in constructing elaborate statements defining what, in ontological terms, puritanism was and what it was not, when it was not a thing definable in itself but only one half of a stressful relationship."[153]Puritanism "was only the mirror image of anti-puritanism and to a considerable extent its invention: a stigma, with great power to distract and distort historical memory."[154]Historian John Spurr writes that Puritans were defined by their relationships with their surroundings, especially with the Church of England. Whenever the Church of England changed, Spurr argues, the definition of a Puritan also changed.[8]

The analysis of "mainstream Puritanism" in terms of the evolution from it of Separatist andantinomiangroups that did not flourish, and others that continue to this day, such asBaptistsandQuakers,can suffer in this way. The national context (England and Wales, as well as the kingdoms of Scotland and Ireland) frames the definition of Puritans, but was not a self-identification for those Protestants who saw the progress of theThirty Years' Warfrom 1620 as directly bearing on their denomination, and as a continuation of the religious wars of the previous century, carried on by the English Civil Wars. English historianChristopher Hillwrites of the 1630s, old church lands, and the accusations thatWilliam Laudwas a crypto-Catholic:

To the heightened Puritan imagination it seemed that, all over Europe, the lamps were going out: theCounter-Reformationwas winning back property for thechurchas well as souls: and Charles I and his government, if not allied to the forces of the Counter-Reformation, at least appeared to have set themselves identical economic and political objectives.[155]

Notable Puritans

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Oliver Cromwell,Lord Protectorof theCommonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland

See also

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References

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Notes

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  1. ^Spraggon 2003,p. 98.
  2. ^Cliffe 2002,p. 195.
  3. ^Miller 2008,p. 296: "Congregationalists were theologically descended directly from the Puritans of England and consequently enjoyed pride of place as one of the oldest, most numerous, and most significant religious groups in the colonies."
  4. ^Morris, John W. (2011).The Historic Church: An Orthodox View of Christian History.Author House. p. 438.
  5. ^Bremer & Webster 2006.
  6. ^Spurr 1998,p. 3.
  7. ^The A to Z of the Puritans.Scarecrow Press. 2008. p. 250.
  8. ^abSpurr 1998,p. 4.
  9. ^Spurr 1998,p. 18.
  10. ^Trickler, C. Jack (2010).A Layman's Guide To: Why Are There So Many Christian Denominations?.Author House. p. 146.ISBN978-1-4490-4578-4.Archivedfrom the original on 18 July 2013.Retrieved4 November2012– viaGoogle Books.
  11. ^Nuttall 1992,p. 9.
  12. ^Spurr 1998,p. 7.
  13. ^Mencken, H. L.(1916).A Book of Burlesques.Puritanism: The haunting fear that someone, somewhere, may be happy
  14. ^Hagberg, Garry L. (2018).Stanley Cavell on Aesthetic Understanding.Springer. p. 125.
  15. ^Fitzpatrick, Vincent (2004).H. L. Mencken.Mercer University Press.p. 37.
  16. ^Gay 1984,p. 49.
  17. ^Coffin 1987.
  18. ^Coffey & Lim 2008,pp. 3–4.
  19. ^Craig 2008,p. 36.
  20. ^abCraig 2008,p. 37.
  21. ^Craig 2008,pp. 43–44.
  22. ^Craig 2008,pp. 39–40.
  23. ^Craig 2008,p. 42.
  24. ^Neil, Daniel (1844).The History of the Puritans, Or Protestant Noncomformists: From the Reformation in 1517, to the Revolution in 1688; Comprising an Account of Their Principles; Their Attempts for a Farther Reformation in the Church; Their Sufferings; and the Lives and Characters of Their Most Considerable Divines.Vol. 1. p. 246. Archived fromthe originalon 4 May 2016 – viaGoogle Books.
  25. ^Spurr 1998,Chapter 5.
  26. ^Milton 1997.
  27. ^Hill 1972.
  28. ^Kelly 1992.
  29. ^Benedetto & McKim 2010,pp. 521–522.
  30. ^Lamont 1969.
  31. ^abLee, Sidney,ed. (1897)."Calamy, Edmund (1671–1732)".Dictionary of National Biography.Vol. 51. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 63–65.
  32. ^Leighton 2004,p. 196.
  33. ^Fischer 1989.
  34. ^"The Puritans: A Sourcebook of Their WritingsArchived16 January 2010 at theWayback Machine".Perry Miller and Thomas H. Johnson.
  35. ^"Leaving England: The Social Background of Indentured Servants in the Seventeenth CenturyArchived6 January 2009 at theWayback Machine",The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation.
  36. ^Bremer, Francis J. (1995).The Puritan Experiment: New England Society from Bradford to Edwards.
  37. ^Carpenter 2003,p. 41.
  38. ^Osgood, Herbert L. (7 August 1891)."The Political Ideas of the Puritans".Political Science Quarterly.6(1): 1–28.doi:10.2307/2139228.JSTOR2139228.
  39. ^Axtell, James (1976).The School upon a Hill: Education and Society in Colonial New England.
  40. ^McCullough, David (22 May 2001).John Adams.New York:Simon & Schuster.p. 223.ISBN0-684-81363-7.
  41. ^abBremer 2009,pp. 81–82.
  42. ^abcFischer 1989,pp. 132–134.
  43. ^Copeland, David A. (2000).Debating the Issues in Colonial Newspapers.Westport, Connecticut:Greenwood Press.p. viii.ISBN0-313-30982-5.
  44. ^Burns, Eric (2006).Infamous Scribblers: The Founding Fathers and the Rowdy Beginnings of American Journalism.New York: Public Affairs. pp. 6–7.ISBN978-1-58648-334-0.
  45. ^Wroth, Lawrence C. (1965).The Colonial Printer.New York: Dover Publications, Inc. pp. 230–236.ISBN0-486-28294-5.
  46. ^Rudolph, Frederick (1961).The American College and University.University of Georgia Press.p. 3.ISBN0-8203-1285-1.
  47. ^Ahlstrom 2004,p. 125.
  48. ^Bremer 2009,p. 35.
  49. ^Ahlstrom 2004,pp. 130–131.
  50. ^Bremer 2009,pp. 37–38.
  51. ^Bremer 2009,p. 40.
  52. ^abcBremer 2009,p. 42.
  53. ^Ahlstrom 2004,p. 131.
  54. ^abcdAhlstrom 2004,p. 132.
  55. ^abBremer 2009,p. 43.
  56. ^abAhlstrom 2004,p. 128.
  57. ^abBremer 2009,p. 44.
  58. ^Bebbington 1993,p. 43.
  59. ^Spurr 1998,pp. 29–30.
  60. ^Spurr 1998,p. 37.
  61. ^abBremer 2009,p. 59.
  62. ^Spurr 1998,p. 38.
  63. ^Coffey & Lim 2008,p. 4.
  64. ^Spurr 1998,pp. 31–32.
  65. ^Beeke & Jones 2012,"Regeneration and Baptism",Amazon Kindlelocation 18043–18056.
  66. ^abSpurr 1998,p. 32.
  67. ^Beeke & Jones 2012,"The True Meaning of the Lord's Supper",Amazon Kindlelocation 28097–28107.
  68. ^White 1999,p. 49.
  69. ^abSpurr 1998,p. 33.
  70. ^Bremer 2009,p. 65.
  71. ^"Worcester Cathedral welcomes you to their Website".Worcestercathedral.co.uk. 20 February 2010.Archivedfrom the original on 23 August 2010.Retrieved21 August2010.
  72. ^abcBremer 2009,p. 69.
  73. ^Bremer 2009,p. 72.
  74. ^Ahlstrom 2004,pp. 132–133.
  75. ^abAhlstrom 2004,p. 133.
  76. ^Porterfield 1992,p. 82.
  77. ^Norton 2011,p. 91.
  78. ^Porterfield 1992,p. 81.
  79. ^Johnson 1970,p. 93.
  80. ^Ulrich 1976,p. 37.
  81. ^Demos 1970.
  82. ^abSaxton 2003,p. 82.
  83. ^Ulrich 1976,p. 35.
  84. ^Demos 1970,pp. 107–117.
  85. ^Bremer 2009,p. 30.
  86. ^Bremer & Webster 2006,p. 584.
  87. ^"Scott, Reginald".Dictionary of National Biography.London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885–1900.
  88. ^Robbins, Rossell Hope (1959). "Hopkins, Matthew".The Encyclopedia of Witchcraft and Demonology.New York: Crown Publishers.
  89. ^Notestein, Wallace(1911).A History of Witchcraft In England from 1558 to 1718.American Historical Association 1911 (reissued 1965) New YorkRussell & Russell.p. 195.
  90. ^Bremer 2009,pp. 31–32.
  91. ^Bremer 2009,pp. 30–32.
  92. ^Hotson 2000,p. 173.
  93. ^Maclear 1975,pp. 225–226.
  94. ^abBremer 2009,p. 76.
  95. ^Maclear 1975,p. 226.
  96. ^Maclear 1975,p. 227.
  97. ^Maclear 1975,p. 229.
  98. ^Bremer 1995,pp. 91–92.
  99. ^Watras 2008.
  100. ^Bremer 1981.
  101. ^Axtell, James (1976).The School upon a Hill: Education and Society in Colonial New England.
  102. ^"BLS History".Archivedfrom the original on 27 November 2020.Retrieved13 November2020.
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  104. ^Sztompka, 2003
  105. ^Harrison 2001.
  106. ^Cohen, 1990
  107. ^abcdeNorton 2008,p. 49.
  108. ^abcdBremer 2009,p. 79.
  109. ^Spencer 1935,p. 499.
  110. ^Durston, Chris (December 1985)."Lords of Misrule: The Puritan War on Christmas 1642–60".History Today.Vol. 35, no. 12. pp. 7–14. Archived fromthe originalon 10 March 2007.
  111. ^Spencer 1935,p. 498.
  112. ^abGentles, I. J. (2014).The English Revolution and the Wars in the Three Kingdoms, 1638-1652.Taylor & Francis. p. 329.
  113. ^ab"When Christmas carols were banned".BBC.Archivedfrom the original on 2 February 2018.Retrieved11 March2022.
  114. ^abBarnett 1984,p. 3.
  115. ^Marling, Karal Ann (2000).Merry Christmas!: Celebrating America's Greatest Holiday.Harvard University Press. p. 44.ISBN978-0-674-00318-7.Archivedfrom the original on 21 January 2023.Retrieved24 December2020– viaGoogle Books.
  116. ^Merrill, Louis Taylor (1945)."The Puritan Policeman".American Sociological Review.10(6). American Sociological Association: 766–776.doi:10.2307/2085847.JSTOR2085847.Archivedfrom the original on 10 March 2022.Retrieved10 March2022.
  117. ^Williams Levy, Leonard (1995).Blasphemy: Verbal Offense Against the Sacred, from Moses to Salman Rushdie.UNC Press Books. p. 242.
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  120. ^Bremer 2009,p. 80.
  121. ^Miller & Johnson 2014,p. 394.
  122. ^Bremer 2009,p. 60.
  123. ^Snodgrass, Mary Ellen (2016).The Encyclopedia of World Folk Dance.Rowman & Littlefield. p. 30.
  124. ^Keeble 1987,p. 153.
  125. ^Bremer 2009,p. 58.
  126. ^Schoch, Richard (2016).Writing the History of the British Stage 1660-1900.Cambridge University Press. p. 64.
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  129. ^"Punch and Judy around the world".The Telegraph.2 June 2024.
  130. ^West 2003,pp. 68ff.
  131. ^ab"Cheers: Celebration Drinking Is an Ancient Tradition".National Geographic.Archived fromthe originalon 12 March 2022.Retrieved12 March2022.
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  133. ^Miller, Neil (13 October 2010).Banned in Boston: The Watch and Ward Society's Crusade against Books, Burlesque, and the Social Evil.Beacon Press.ISBN978-0-8070-5113-9.Retrieved26 January2023.
  134. ^Lewis (1969,pp. 116–117): "On many questions and specially in view of the marriage bed, the Puritans were the indulgent party,... they were much moreChestertonianthan their adversaries [the Roman Catholics]. The idea that a Puritan was a repressed and repressive person would have astonished SirThomas MoreandLutherabout equally. "
  135. ^Foster 1999,p. 724.
  136. ^Foster 1999,pp. 726–727.
  137. ^abCrandell 1997,p. 20.
  138. ^Crompton 1976,p. 281.
  139. ^Chicago Whispers: A History of LGBT Chicago before Stonewall.University of Wisconsin Press. 2012. p. 248.
  140. ^Mather 1663–1728,p. 70.
  141. ^Coffey & Lim 2008,p. 80.
  142. ^abCoffey & Lim 2008,p. 81.
  143. ^Coffey & Lim 2008,p. 83.
  144. ^Coffey & Lim 2008,pp. 83–84: "But it was not for their heterodox theology or their own open meetings that they [the Quakers] were arrested and mistreated. It was for disrupting services in what they insisted on calling ‘steeple-houses’ rather than churches; that, or for organising tithe-strikes aimed directly and specifically to undermine the state church."
  145. ^abRogers, Horatio, 2009.Mary Dyer of Rhode Island: The Quaker Martyr That Was Hanged on BostonArchived15 January 2016 at theWayback Machinepp. 1–2. BiblioBazaar, LLC
  146. ^Post Abbott, Margery (2011).Historical Dictionary of the Friends (Quakers).Scarecrow Press.pp.102.ISBN978-0-8108-7088-8.Archivedfrom the original on 10 May 2016 – viaGoogle Books.
  147. ^abcPuritans and Puritanism in Europe and America.ABC-CLIO.2006.ISBN978-1576076781.Archivedfrom the original on 26 January 2018 – viaGoogle Books.
  148. ^Carroll, Rory (25 February 2016)."America's dark and not-very-distant history of hating Catholics".The Guardian.Archivedfrom the original on 30 December 2016.
  149. ^Pat, Perrin (1 January 1970).Crime and Punishment: The Colonial Period to the New Frontier.Discovery Enterprises. p. 24.
  150. ^Mahoney, Kathleen A. (10 September 2003).Catholic Higher Education in Protestant America: The Jesuits and Harvard in the Age of the University.Johns Hopkins University Press.p. 47.
  151. ^Coffey & Lim 2008,pp. 7–8.
  152. ^Bremer 2009,p. 2.
  153. ^Spurr (1998,p. 4) cites and quotesCollinson (1988,p. 143)
  154. ^Spurr (1998,p. 27) cites and quotesPatrick Collinson,"Fundamental Objections",Times Literary Supplement(17–23 February 1989), p. 156.
  155. ^Hill, Christopher(1971).Economic Problems of the Church.p. 337.

Sources

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Further reading

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Puritan works

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