Wikipedia

Quartz

This article is about the mineral. For other uses, seeQuartz (disambiguation).

Quartzis a hard,crystallinemineralcomposed of silica (silicon dioxide). The atoms are linked in a continuous framework of SiO4silicon–oxygentetrahedra,with each oxygen being shared between two tetrahedra, giving an overallchemical formulaofSiO2.Quartz is, therefore, classified structurally as aframework silicate mineraland compositionally as anoxide mineral.Quartz is the second most abundantmineralinEarth'scontinental crust,behindfeldspar.[10]

Quartz
Quartzcrystal clusterfromBrazil
General
CategorySilicate mineral[1]
Formula
(repeating unit)		SiO2
IMA symbolQz[2]
Strunz classification4.DA.05 (oxides)
Dana classification75.01.03.01 (tectosilicates)
Crystal systemα-quartz:trigonal
β-quartz:hexagonal
Crystal classα-quartz: trapezohedral (class 3 2)
β-quartz: trapezohedral (class 6 2 2)[3]
Space groupα-quartz:P3221(no. 154)[4]
β-quartz:P6222(no. 180) orP6422(no. 181)[5]
Unit cella = 4.9133Å,c = 5.4053 Å; Z = 3
Identification
Formula mass60.083g·mol−1
ColorColorless, pink, orange, white, green, yellow, blue, purple, dark brown, or black
Crystal habit6-sided prism ending in 6-sided pyramid (typical), drusy, fine-grained to microcrystalline, massive
TwinningCommon Dauphine law, Brazil law, and Japan law
Cleavage{0110} Indistinct
FractureConchoidal
TenacityBrittle
Mohs scalehardness7 – lower in impure varieties (defining mineral)
LusterVitreous – waxy to dull when massive
StreakWhite
DiaphaneityTransparent to nearly opaque
Specific gravity2.65; variable 2.59–2.63 in impure varieties
Optical propertiesUniaxial(+)
Refractive indexnω= 1.543–1.545
nε= 1.552–1.554
Birefringence+0.009 (B-G interval)
PleochroismNone
Melting point1670 °C (βtridymite); 1713 °C (βcristobalite)[3]
SolubilityInsoluble atSTP;1 ppmmassat 400 °C and 500 lb/in2to 2600 ppmmassat 500 °C and 1500 lb/in2[3]
Other characteristicsLattice:hexagonal,piezoelectric,may betriboluminescent,chiral(hence optically active if notracemic)
References[6][7][8][9]

Quartz exists in two forms, the normal α-quartz and the high-temperature β-quartz, both of which arechiral.The transformation from α-quartz to β-quartz takes place abruptly at 573 °C (846 K; 1,063 °F). Since the transformation is accompanied by a significant change in volume, it can easily induce microfracturing of ceramics or rocks passing through this temperature threshold.

There are many different varieties of quartz, several of which are classified asgemstones.Since antiquity, varieties of quartz have been the most commonly used minerals in the making ofjewelryandhardstone carvings,especially in Europe and Asia.

Quartz is themineraldefining the value of 7 on theMohs scale of hardness,a qualitativescratchmethod for determining the hardness of a material to abrasion.

Etymology

edit

The word"quartz"is derived from theGermanwordQuarz,[11]which had the same form in the first half of the 14th century inMiddle High Germanand inEast Central German[12]and which came from thePolishdialect termkwardy,which corresponds to theCzechtermtvrdý( "hard" ).[13]Some sources, however, attribute the word's origin to theSaxonwordQuerkluftertz,meaningcross-vein ore.[14][15]

TheAncient Greeksreferred to quartz asκρύσταλλος(krustallos) derived from theAncient Greekκρύος(kruos) meaning "icy cold", because somephilosophers(includingTheophrastus) understood the mineral to be a form ofsupercooledice.[16]Today, the termrock crystalis sometimes used as an alternative name for transparent coarsely crystalline quartz.[17][18]

Early studies

edit

Roman naturalistPliny the Elderbelieved quartz to be waterice,permanently frozen after great lengths of time.[19]He supported this idea by saying that quartz is found near glaciers in the Alps, but not on volcanic mountains, and that large quartz crystals were fashioned into spheres to cool the hands. This idea persisted until at least the 17th century. He also knew of the ability of quartz to split light into aspectrum.[20]

In the 17th century,Nicolas Steno's study of quartz paved the way for moderncrystallography.He discovered that regardless of a quartz crystal's size or shape, its long prism faces always joined at a perfect 60° angle.[21]

Crystal habit and structure

edit
Crystal structure of α-quartz (red balls are oxygen, grey are silicon)
Crystal structure of β-quartz
A chiral pair of α-quartz

Quartz belongs to thetrigonal crystal systemat room temperature, and to thehexagonal crystal systemabove 573 °C (846 K; 1,063 °F). Theideal crystal shapeis a six-sidedprismterminating with six-sided pyramid-likerhombohedronsat each end. In nature, quartz crystals are oftentwinned(with twin right-handed and left-handed quartz crystals), distorted, or so intergrown with adjacent crystals of quartz or other minerals as to only show part of this shape, or to lack obvious crystal faces altogether and appearmassive.[22][23]

Well-formed crystals typically form as adruse(a layer of crystals lining a void), of which quartzgeodesare particularly fine examples.[24]The crystals are attached at one end to the enclosing rock, and only one termination pyramid is present. However, doubly terminated crystals do occur where they develop freely without attachment, for instance, withingypsum.[25]

α-quartz crystallizes in the trigonal crystal system,space groupP3121 orP3221 (space group 152 or 154 resp.) depending on the chirality. Above 573 °C (846 K; 1,063 °F), α-quartz inP3121 becomes the more symmetric hexagonalP6422 (space group 181), and α-quartz inP3221 goes to space groupP6222 (no. 180).[26]

These space groups are truly chiral (they each belong to the 11 enantiomorphous pairs). Both α-quartz and β-quartz are examples of chiral crystal structures composed of achiral building blocks (SiO4tetrahedra in the present case). The transformation between α- and β-quartz only involves a comparatively minor rotation of the tetrahedra with respect to one another, without a change in the way they are linked.[22][27]However, there is a significant change in volume during this transition,[28]and this can result in significant microfracturing in ceramics during firing,[29]in ornamental stone after a fire[30]and in rocks of the Earth's crust exposed to high temperatures,[31]thereby damaging materials containing quartz and degrading their physical and mechanical properties.

  • Common, prismatic quartz
  • Sceptered quartz
  • Sceptered quartz (as aggregates: "Elestial quartz" )
  • Bipyramidal quartz
  • Tessin or tapered quartz
  • Twinned quartz (known as Japan law)
  • Dauphine quartz (single dominant face)
  • "Herkimer diamond"
  • Druse quartz
  • Granular quartz
  • Massive quartz

Varieties (according to microstructure)

edit

Although many of the varietal names historically arose from the color of the mineral, current scientific naming schemes refer primarily to the microstructure of the mineral. Color is a secondary identifier for the cryptocrystalline minerals, although it is a primary identifier for the macrocrystalline varieties.[32]

Major varieties of quartz
Type Color and description Transparency
Herkimer diamond Colorless Transparent
Rock crystal Colorless Transparent
Amethyst Purple to violet colored quartz Transparent
Citrine Yellow quartz ranging to reddish-orange or brown (Madeira citrine), and occasionally greenish yellow Transparent
Ametrine A mix of amethyst and citrine with hues of purple/violet and yellow or orange/brown Transparent
Rose quartz Pink, may displaydiasterism Transparent
Chalcedony Fibrous, variously translucent, cryptocrystalline quartz occurring in many varieties.
The term is often used for white, cloudy, or lightly colored material intergrown withmoganite.
Otherwise more specific names are used.
Carnelian Reddish orange chalcedony Translucent
Aventurine Quartz with tiny aligned inclusions (usuallymica) that shimmer withaventurescence Translucent to opaque
Agate Multi-colored, curved or concentric banded chalcedony (cf. Onyx) Semi-translucent to translucent
Onyx Multi-colored, straight banded chalcedony orchert(cf. Agate) Semi-translucent to opaque
Jasper Opaque cryptocrystalline quartz, typically red to brown but often used for other colors Opaque
Milky quartz White, may displaydiasterism Translucent to opaque
Smoky quartz Light to dark gray, sometimes with a brownish hue Translucent to opaque
Tiger's eye Fibrous gold, red-brown or bluish colored chalcedony, exhibitingchatoyancy.
Prasiolite Green Transparent
Rutilated quartz Containsacicular(needle-like)inclusionsofrutile
Dumortierite quartz Contains large amounts of bluedumortieritecrystals Translucent
Prase Green Translucent

Varieties (according to color)

edit
Quartz crystal demonstratingtransparency

Pure quartz, traditionally called rock crystal or clear quartz, is colorless andtransparentor translucent and has often been used forhardstone carvings,such as theLothair Crystal.Common colored varieties include citrine, rose quartz, amethyst, smoky quartz, milky quartz, and others.[33]These color differentiations arise from the presence of impurities which change the molecular orbitals, causing some electronic transitions to take place in the visible spectrum causing colors.

The most important distinction between types of quartz is that ofmacrocrystalline(individual crystals visible to the unaided eye) and themicrocrystallineorcryptocrystallinevarieties (aggregatesof crystals visible only under high magnification). The cryptocrystalline varieties are either translucent or mostly opaque, while the transparent varieties tend to be macrocrystalline.Chalcedonyis a cryptocrystalline form ofsilicaconsisting of fine intergrowths of both quartz, and itsmonoclinicpolymorphmoganite.[34]Other opaque gemstone varieties of quartz, or mixed rocks including quartz, often including contrasting bands or patterns of color, areagate,carnelianor sard,onyx,heliotrope,andjasper.[22]

Amethyst

edit
Rock crystal
Amethyst
Blue quartz
Dumortierite quartz
Citrine quartz (natural)
Citrine quartz (heat-altered amethyst)
Milky quartz
Rose quartz
Smoky quartz
Prase

Amethystis a form of quartz that ranges from a bright vivid violet to a dark or dull lavender shade. The world's largest deposits of amethysts can be found in Brazil, Mexico, Uruguay, Russia, France, Namibia, and Morocco. Sometimes amethyst and citrine are found growing in the same crystal. It is then referred to asametrine.Amethyst derives its color from traces of iron in its structure.[35]

Blue quartz

edit

Blue quartz contains inclusions of fibrousmagnesio-riebeckiteorcrocidolite.[36]

Dumortierite quartz

edit

Inclusions of the mineraldumortieritewithin quartz pieces often result in silky-appearing splotches with abluehue. Shades ofpurpleorgreysometimes also are present. "Dumortierite quartz" (sometimes called "blue quartz" ) will sometimes feature contrasting light and dark color zones across the material.[37][38]"Blue quartz" is a minor gemstone.[37][39]

Citrine

edit

Citrine is a variety of quartz whose color ranges from pale yellow to brown due to a submicroscopic distribution of colloidalferrichydroxide impurities.[40]Natural citrines are rare; most commercial citrines are heat-treatedamethystsorsmoky quartzes.However, a heat-treated amethyst will have small lines in the crystal, as opposed to a natural citrine's cloudy or smoky appearance. It is nearly impossible to differentiate between cut citrine and yellowtopazvisually, but they differ inhardness.Brazil is the leading producer of citrine, with much of its production coming from the state ofRio Grande do Sul.The name is derived from the Latin wordcitrinawhich means "yellow" and is also the origin of the word "citron".Sometimes citrine and amethyst can be found together in the same crystal, which is then referred to asametrine.[41]Citrine has been referred to as the "merchant's stone" or "money stone", due to a superstition that it would bring prosperity.[42]

Citrine was first appreciated as a golden-yellow gemstone in Greece between 300 and 150 BC, during theHellenistic Age.Yellow quartz was used prior to that to decorate jewelry and tools but it was not highly sought after.[43]

Milky quartz

edit

Milk quartz or milky quartz is the most common variety of crystalline quartz. The white color is caused by minutefluid inclusionsof gas, liquid, or both, trapped during crystal formation,[44]making it of little value for optical and quality gemstone applications.[45]

Rose quartz

edit
"Rose Quartz" redirects here. For other uses, seeRose Quartz (disambiguation).

Rose quartz is a type of quartz that exhibits a pale pink to rose red hue. The color is usually considered as due to trace amounts oftitanium,iron,ormanganesein the material. Some rose quartz contains microscopicrutileneedles that produceasterismin transmitted light. RecentX-ray diffractionstudies suggest that the color is due to thin microscopic fibers of possiblydumortieritewithin the quartz.[46]

Additionally, there is a rare type of pink quartz (also frequently called crystalline rose quartz) with color that is thought to be caused by trace amounts ofphosphateoraluminium.The color in crystals is apparently photosensitive and subject to fading. The first crystals were found in apegmatitefound nearRumford,Maine,US, and inMinas Gerais,Brazil.[47]The crystals found are more transparent and euhedral, due to the impurities of phosphate and aluminium that formed crystalline rose quartz, unlike theironand microscopicdumortieritefibers that formed rose quartz.[48]

Smoky quartz

edit

Smoky quartzis a gray, translucent version of quartz. It ranges in clarity from almost complete transparency to a brownish-gray crystal that is almost opaque. Some can also be black. The translucency results from natural irradiation acting on minute traces of aluminum in the crystal structure.[49]

Prase

edit

Prase is a green variety of quartz.[50]The green color is caused by inclusions ofamphibole.[51]

Prasiolite

edit
Not to be confused withPraseolite.

Prasiolite,also known asvermarine,is a variety of quartz that is green in color.[52]The green is caused by iron ions.[51]It is a rare mineral in nature and is typically found with amethyst; most "prasiolite" is not natural – it has been artificially produced by heating of amethyst.Since 1950[citation needed],almost all natural prasiolite has come from a smallBrazilianmine, but it is also seen inLower SilesiainPoland.Naturally occurring prasiolite is also found in theThunder Bayarea ofCanada.[52]

Piezoelectricity

edit

Quartz crystals havepiezoelectricproperties; they develop anelectric potentialupon the application ofmechanical stress.[53]Quartz's piezoelectric properties were discovered byJacquesandPierre Curiein 1880.[54][55]

Occurrence

edit
Quartz vein in sandstone, North Carolina

Quartz is a defining constituent ofgraniteand otherfelsicigneous rocks.It is very common insedimentary rockssuch assandstoneandshale.It is a common constituent ofschist,gneiss,quartziteand othermetamorphic rocks.[22]Quartz has the lowest potential forweatheringin theGoldich dissolution seriesand consequently it is very common as a residual mineral in stream sediments and residualsoils.Generally a high presence of quartz suggests a "mature"rock, since it indicates the rock has been heavily reworked and quartz was the primary mineral that endured heavy weathering.[56]

While the majority of quartz crystallizes from moltenmagma,quartz also chemically precipitates from hothydrothermalveinsasgangue,sometimes withoreminerals like gold, silver and copper. Large crystals of quartz are found in magmaticpegmatites.[22]Well-formed crystals may reach several meters in length andweighhundreds of kilograms.[57]

The largest documented single crystal of quartz was found nearItapore,Goiaz,Brazil; it measured approximately 6.1 m × 1.5 m × 1.5 m (20 ft × 5 ft × 5 ft) and weighed over 39,900 kg (88,000 lb).[58]

Mining

edit

Quartz is extracted fromopen pit mines.Miners occasionally use explosives to expose deep pockets of quartz. More frequently,bulldozersandbackhoesare used to remove soil and clay and expose quartz veins, which are then worked using hand tools. Care must be taken to avoid sudden temperature changes that may damage the crystals.[59][60]

edit
See also:Silica minerals
Pressure-temperature diagram showing the stability ranges for the two forms of quartz and some other forms of silica[61]

Tridymiteandcristobaliteare high-temperaturepolymorphsof SiO2that occur in high-silicavolcanicrocks.Coesiteis a denser polymorph of SiO2found in some meteorite impact sites and in metamorphic rocks formed at pressures greater than those typical of the Earth's crust.Stishoviteis a yet denser and higher-pressure polymorph of SiO2found in some meteorite impact sites.[62]Moganiteis a monoclinic polymorph.Lechatelieriteis anamorphoussilicaglassSiO2which is formed bylightningstrikes in quartzsand.[63]

Safety

edit

As quartz is a form of silica, it is a possible cause for concern in various workplaces. Cutting, grinding, chipping, sanding, drilling, and polishing natural and manufactured stone products can release hazardous levels of very small, crystalline silica dust particles into the air that workers breathe.[64]Crystalline silica of respirable size is a recognized humancarcinogenand may lead to other diseases of the lungs such assilicosisandpulmonary fibrosis.[65][66]

Synthetic and artificial treatments

edit
A synthetic quartz crystal grown by thehydrothermal method,about 19 centimetres (7.5 in) long and weighing about 127 grams (4.5 oz)

Not all varieties of quartz are naturally occurring. Some clear quartz crystals can be treated using heat orgamma-irradiationto induce color where it would not otherwise have occurred naturally. Susceptibility to such treatments depends on the location from which the quartz was mined.[67]

Prasiolite, an olive colored material, is produced by heat treatment;[68]natural prasiolite has also been observed in Lower Silesia in Poland.[69]Although citrine occurs naturally, the majority is the result of heat-treating amethyst or smoky quartz.[68]Carnelianhas been heat-treated to deepen its color since prehistoric times.[70]

Because natural quartz is oftentwinned,synthetic quartz is produced for use in industry. Large, flawless, single crystals are synthesized in anautoclavevia thehydrothermal process.[71][22][72]

Like other crystals, quartz may becoated with metal vaporsto give it an attractive sheen.[73][74]

Uses

edit

Quartz is the most common material identified as the mystical substancemabaninAustralian Aboriginal mythology.It is found regularly in passage tomb cemeteries in Europe in a burial context, such asNewgrangeorCarrowmoreinIreland.Quartz was also used inPrehistoric Ireland,as well as many other countries, forstone tools;both vein quartz and rock crystal wereknappedas part of thelithic technologyof the prehistoric peoples.[75]

Whilejadehas been since earliest times the most prized semi-precious stone for carving inEast AsiaandPre-ColumbianAmerica, in Europe and the Middle East the different varieties of quartz were the most commonly used for the various types ofjewelryandhardstone carving,includingengraved gemsandcameo gems,rock crystal vases,and extravagant vessels. The tradition continued to produce objects that were very highly valued until the mid-19th century, when it largely fell from fashion except in jewelry. Cameo technique exploits the bands of color in onyx and other varieties.

Efforts to synthesize quartz began in the mid-nineteenth century as scientists attempted to create minerals under laboratory conditions that mimicked the conditions in which the minerals formed in nature: German geologistKarl Emil von Schafhäutl(1803–1890) was the first person to synthesize quartz when in 1845 he created microscopic quartz crystals in apressure cooker.[76]However, the quality and size of the crystals that were produced by these early efforts were poor.[77]

Elemental impurity incorporation strongly influences the ability to process and utilize quartz. Naturally occurring quartz crystals of extremely high purity, necessary for the crucibles and other equipment used for growingsiliconwafersin thesemiconductorindustry, are expensive and rare. These high-purity quartz are defined as containing less than 50 ppm of impurity elements.[78]A major mining location for high purity quartz is the Spruce Pine Gem Mine inSpruce Pine, North Carolina,United States.[79]Quartz may also be found inCaldoveiro Peak,inAsturias,Spain.[80]

By the 1930s, the electronics industry had become dependent on quartz crystals. The only source of suitable crystals was Brazil; however,World War IIdisrupted the supplies from Brazil, so nations attempted to synthesize quartz on a commercial scale. German mineralogist Richard Nacken (1884–1971) achieved some success during the 1930s and 1940s.[81]After the war, many laboratories attempted to grow large quartz crystals. In the United States, the U.S. Army Signal Corps contracted withBell Laboratoriesand with theBrush Development Companyof Cleveland, Ohio to synthesize crystals following Nacken's lead.[82][83](Prior to World War II, Brush Development produced piezoelectric crystals for record players.) By 1948, Brush Development had grown crystals that were 1.5 inches (3.8 cm) in diameter, the largest at that time.[84][85]By the 1950s,hydrothermal synthesistechniques were producing synthetic quartz crystals on an industrial scale, and today virtually all the quartz crystal used in the modern electronics industry is synthetic.[72]

An early use of the piezoelectricity of quartz crystals was inphonographpickups. One of the most common piezoelectric uses of quartz today is as acrystal oscillator.Thequartz oscillatoror resonator was first developed byWalter Guyton Cadyin 1921.[86][87]George Washington Piercedesigned and patentedquartz crystal oscillatorsin 1923.[88][89][90]Thequartz clockis a familiar device using the mineral. Warren Marrison created the first quartz oscillator clock based on the work of Cady and Pierce in 1927.[91]The resonant frequency of a quartz crystal oscillator is changed by mechanically loading it, and this principle is used for very accurate measurements of very small mass changes in thequartz crystal microbalanceand inthin-film thickness monitors.[92]

  • Rock crystal jug with cut festoon decoration byMilanworkshop from the second half of the 16th century,National MuseuminWarsaw.The city of Milan, apart fromPragueandFlorence,was the mainRenaissancecentre for crystal cutting.[93]
  • Synthetic quartz crystals produced in the autoclave shown inWestern Electric's pilot hydrothermal quartz plant in 1959
  • Fatimidewer in carved rock crystal (clear quartz) with gold lid,c. 1000

Almost all the industrial demand for quartz crystal (used primarily in electronics) is met with synthetic quartz produced by the hydrothermal process. However, synthetic crystals are less prized for use as gemstones.[94]The popularity ofcrystal healinghas increased the demand for natural quartz crystals, which are now often mined indeveloping countriesusing primitive mining methods, sometimes involvingchild labor.[95]

See also

edit

References

edit
  1. ^"Quartz".A Dictionary of Geology and Earth Sciences.Oxford University Press. 19 September 2013.ISBN978-0-19-965306-5.
  2. ^Warr, L.N. (2021)."IMA–CNMNC approved mineral symbols".Mineralogical Magazine.85(3): 291–320.Bibcode:2021MinM...85..291W.doi:10.1180/mgm.2021.43.S2CID235729616.
  3. ^abcDeer, W. A.; Howie, R.A.; Zussman, J. (1966).An introduction to the rock-forming minerals.New York: Wiley. pp. 340–355.ISBN0-582-44210-9.
  4. ^Antao, S. M.; Hassan, I.; Wang, J.; Lee, P. L.; Toby, B. H. (1 December 2008). "State-Of-The-Art High-Resolution Powder X-Ray Diffraction (HRPXRD) Illustrated with Rietveld Structure Refinement of Quartz, Sodalite, Tremolite, and Meionite".The Canadian Mineralogist.46(6): 1501–1509.doi:10.3749/canmin.46.5.1501.
  5. ^Kihara, K. (1990). "An X-ray study of the temperature dependence of the quartz structure".European Journal of Mineralogy.2(1): 63–77.Bibcode:1990EJMin...2...63K.doi:10.1127/ejm/2/1/0063.hdl:2027.42/146327.
  6. ^QuartzArchived14 December 2005 at theWayback Machine.Mindat.org. Retrieved 2013-03-07.
  7. ^Anthony, John W.; Bideaux, Richard A.; Bladh, Kenneth W.; Nichols, Monte C., eds. (29 January 1990)."Quartz"(PDF).Handbook of Mineralogy.Vol. III (Halides, Hydroxides, Oxides). Chantilly, VA: Mineralogical Society of America.ISBN0962209724.Archived(PDF)from the original on 1 April 2010.Retrieved21 October2009.
  8. ^QuartzArchived12 November 2006 at theWayback Machine.Webmineral.com. Retrieved 2013-03-07.
  9. ^Hurlbut, Cornelius S.; Klein, Cornelis (1985).Manual of Mineralogy(20 ed.). Wiley.ISBN0-471-80580-7.
  10. ^Anderson, Robert S.; Anderson, Suzanne P. (2010).Geomorphology: The Mechanics and Chemistry of Landscapes.Cambridge University Press. p. 187.ISBN978-1-139-78870-0.
  11. ^"Quartz".Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary.Retrieved9 January2024.
  12. ^Digitales Wörterbuch der deutschen SpracheArchived1 December 2017 at theWayback Machine(in German)
  13. ^"Quartz | Definition of quartz by Lexico".Archived fromthe originalon 1 December 2017.Retrieved26 November2017.
  14. ^Mineral AtlasArchived4 September 2007 at theWayback Machine,Queensland University of Technology. Mineralatlas.com. Retrieved 2013-03-07.
  15. ^Tomkeieff, S.I. (1942). "On the origin of the name 'quartz'".Mineralogical Magazine.26(176): 172–178.Bibcode:1942MinM...26..172T.doi:10.1180/minmag.1942.026.176.04.
  16. ^Tomkeieff, S.I. (1942)."On the origin of the name 'quartz'"(PDF).Mineralogical Magazine.26(176): 172–178.Bibcode:1942MinM...26..172T.doi:10.1180/minmag.1942.026.176.04.Archived(PDF)from the original on 4 September 2015.Retrieved12 August2015.
  17. ^Morgado, Antonio; Lozano, José Antonio; García Sanjuán, Leonardo; Triviño, Miriam Luciañez; Odriozola, Carlos P.; Irisarri, Daniel Lamarca; Flores, Álvaro Fernández (December 2016). "The allure of rock crystal in Copper Age southern Iberia: Technical skill and distinguished objects from Valencina de la Concepción (Seville, Spain)".Quaternary International.424:232–249.Bibcode:2016QuInt.424..232M.doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2015.08.004.
  18. ^Nesse, William D. (2000).Introduction to mineralogy.New York: Oxford University Press. p. 205.ISBN9780195106916.
  19. ^Pliny the Elder,The Natural History,Book 37, Chapter 9. Available on-line at:Perseus.Tufts.eduArchived9 November 2012 at theWayback Machine.
  20. ^Tutton, A.E. (1910). "Rock crystal: its structure and uses".RSA Journal.59:1091.JSTOR41339844.
  21. ^Nicolaus Steno (Latinized name of Niels Steensen) with John Garrett Winter, trans.,The Prodromus of Nicolaus Steno's Dissertation Concerning a Solid Body Enclosed by Process of Nature Within a Solid(New York, New York: Macmillan Co., 1916). Onpage 272Archived4 September 2015 at theWayback Machine,Steno states his law of constancy of interfacial angles: "Figures 5 and 6 belong to the class of those which I could present in countless numbers to prove that in the plane of the axis both the number and the length of the sides are changed in various ways without changing the angles;…"
  22. ^abcdefHurlbut & Klein 1985.
  23. ^Nesse 2000,p. 202–204.
  24. ^Sinkankas, John (1964).Mineralogy for amateurs.Princeton, N.J.: Van Nostrand. pp. 443–447.ISBN0442276249.
  25. ^Tarr, W. A (1929)."Doubly terminated quartz crystals occurring in gypsum".American Mineralogist.14(1): 19–25.Retrieved7 April2021.
  26. ^Crystal Data, Determinative Tables, ACA Monograph No. 5, American Crystallographic Association, 1963
  27. ^Nesse 2000,p. 201.
  28. ^Johnson, Scott E.; Song, Won Joon; Cook, Alden C.; Vel, Senthil S.; Gerbi, Christopher C. (1 January 2021)."The quartz α↔β phase transition: Does it drive damage and reaction in continental crust?".Earth and Planetary Science Letters.553:116622.doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2020.116622.ISSN0012-821X.
  29. ^Knapek, Michal; Húlan, Tomáš; Minárik, Peter; Dobroň, Patrik; Štubňa, Igor; Stráská, Jitka; Chmelík, František (January 2016). "Study of microcracking in illite-based ceramics during firing".Journal of the European Ceramic Society.36(1): 221–226.doi:10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2015.09.004.
  30. ^Tomás, R.; Cano, M.; Pulgarín, L. F.; Brotóns, V.; Benavente, D.; Miranda, T.; Vasconcelos, G. (1 November 2021)."Thermal effect of high temperatures on the physical and mechanical properties of a granite used in UNESCO World Heritage sites in north Portugal".Journal of Building Engineering.43:102823.doi:10.1016/j.jobe.2021.102823.hdl:10045/115630.ISSN2352-7102.
  31. ^Johnson, Scott E.; Song, Won Joon; Cook, Alden C.; Vel, Senthil S.; Gerbi, Christopher C. (January 2021)."The quartz α↔β phase transition: Does it drive damage and reaction in continental crust?".Earth and Planetary Science Letters.553:116622.Bibcode:2021E&PSL.55316622J.doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2020.116622.S2CID225116168.
  32. ^"Quartz Gemstone and Jewelry Information: Natural Quartz – GemSelect".www.gemselect.com.Archivedfrom the original on 29 August 2017.Retrieved29 August2017.
  33. ^"Quartz: The gemstone Quartz information and pictures".www.minerals.net.Archivedfrom the original on 27 August 2017.Retrieved29 August2017.
  34. ^Heaney, Peter J. (1994)."Structure and Chemistry of the low-pressure silica polymorphs".Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry.29(1): 1–40.Archivedfrom the original on 24 July 2011.Retrieved26 October2009.
  35. ^Lehmann, G.; Moore, W. J. (20 May 1966). "Color Center in Amethyst Quartz".Science.152(3725): 1061–1062.Bibcode:1966Sci...152.1061L.doi:10.1126/science.152.3725.1061.PMID17754816.S2CID29602180.
  36. ^"Blue Quartz".Mindat.org.Archivedfrom the original on 24 February 2017.Retrieved24 February2017.
  37. ^abOldershaw, Cally (2003).Firefly Guide to Gems.Firefly Books. pp.100.ISBN9781552978146.Retrieved19 February2017.
  38. ^"The Gemstone Dumortierite".Minerals.net.Archivedfrom the original on 6 May 2017.Retrieved23 April2017.
  39. ^Friedman, Herschel."THE GEMSTONE DUMORTIERITE".Minerals.net.Retrieved28 November2020.
  40. ^Deer, Howie & Zussman 1966,p. 350.
  41. ^CitrineArchived2 May 2010 at theWayback Machine.Mindat.org (2013-03-01). Retrieved 2013-03-07.
  42. ^Webster, Richard (8 September 2012). "Citrine".The Encyclopedia of Superstitions.p. 59.ISBN9780738725611.
  43. ^"Citrine Meaning".7 January 2016.Archivedfrom the original on 18 August 2017.Retrieved18 August2017.
  44. ^Hurrell, Karen; Johnson, Mary L. (2016).Gemstones: A Complete Color Reference for Precious and Semiprecious Stones of the World.Book Sales. p. 97.ISBN978-0-7858-3498-4.
  45. ^Milky quartz at Mineral GalleriesArchived19 December 2008 at theWayback Machine.Galleries.com. Retrieved 2013-03-07.
  46. ^"Rose Quartz".Mindat.org.Archivedfrom the original on 1 April 2009.Retrieved11 May2023.
  47. ^"Quartz and its colored varieties".California Institute of Technology. Archived fromthe originalon 19 July 2011.
  48. ^"Pink Quartz".The Quartz Page.Retrieved11 May2023.
  49. ^Fridrichová, Jana; Bačík, Peter; Illášová, Ľudmila; Kozáková, Petra; Škoda, Radek; Pulišová, Zuzana; Fiala, Anton (July 2016). "Raman and optical spectroscopic investigation of gem-quality smoky quartz crystals".Vibrational Spectroscopy.85:71–78.doi:10.1016/j.vibspec.2016.03.028.
  50. ^"Prase".mindat.org.Retrieved4 April2023.
  51. ^abKlemme, S.; Berndt, J.; Mavrogonatos, C.; Flemetakis, S.; Baziotis, I.; Voudouris, P.; Xydous, S. (2018)."On the Color and Genesis of Prase (Green Quartz) and Amethyst from the Island of Serifos, Cyclades, Greece".Minerals.8(11): 487.Bibcode:2018Mine....8..487K.doi:10.3390/min8110487.
  52. ^ab"Prasiolite".quarzpage.de. 28 October 2009.Archivedfrom the original on 13 July 2011.Retrieved28 November2010.
  53. ^Saigusa, Y. (2017). "Chapter 5 – Quartz-Based Piezoelectric Materials". In Uchino, Kenji (ed.).Advanced Piezoelectric Materials.Woodhead Publishing in Materials (2nd ed.). Woodhead Publishing. pp. 197–233.doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-102135-4.00005-9.ISBN9780081021354.
  54. ^Curie, Jacques; Curie, Pierre (1880)."Développement par compression de l'électricité polaire dans les cristaux hémièdres à faces inclinées"[Development, via compression, of electric polarization in hemihedral crystals with inclined faces].Bulletin de la Société minéralogique de France.3(4): 90–93.doi:10.3406/bulmi.1880.1564..Reprinted in:Curie, Jacques; Curie, Pierre (1880)."Développement, par pression, de l'électricité polaire dans les cristaux hémièdres à faces inclinées".Comptes rendus.91:294–295.Archivedfrom the original on 5 December 2012.Retrieved17 December2013.
  55. ^Curie, Jacques; Curie, Pierre (1880)."Sur l'électricité polaire dans les cristaux hémièdres à faces inclinées"[On electric polarization in hemihedral crystals with inclined faces].Comptes rendus.91:383–386.Archivedfrom the original on 5 December 2012.Retrieved17 December2013.
  56. ^Boggs, Sam (2006).Principles of sedimentology and stratigraphy(4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 130.ISBN0131547283.
  57. ^Jahns, Richard H. (1953)."The genesis of pegmatites: I. Occurrence and origin of giant crystals".American Mineralogist.38(7–8): 563–598.Retrieved7 April2021.
  58. ^Rickwood, P. C. (1981)."The largest crystals"(PDF).American Mineralogist.66:885–907 (903).Archived(PDF)from the original on 25 August 2013.Retrieved7 March2013.
  59. ^McMillen, Allen."Quartz Mining".Encyclopedia of Arkansas.Central Arkansas Library System.Retrieved28 November2020.
  60. ^Eleanor McKenzie (25 April 2017)."How Is Quartz Extracted?".sciencing.com.Retrieved28 January2020.
  61. ^"Mineral Science" by Cornelis Klein;ISBN0-471-25177-1
  62. ^Nesse 2000,pp. 201–202.
  63. ^"Lechatelierite".Mindat.org.Retrieved7 April2021.
  64. ^Hazard Alert - Worker Exposure to Silica during Countertop Manufacturing, Finishing and Installation(PDF).DHHS (NIOSH). p. 2.Retrieved27 November2019.
  65. ^"Silica (crystalline, respirable)".OEHHA.California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment.Retrieved27 November2019.
  66. ^Arsenic, Metals, Fibres and Dusts. A Review of Human Carcinogens(PDF)(100C ed.). International Agency for Research on Cancer. 2012. pp. 355–397.ISBN978-92-832-1320-8.Retrieved27 November2019.
  67. ^Liccini, Mark,Treating Quartz to Create ColorArchived23 December 2014 at theWayback Machine,International Gem Societywebsite. Retrieved 22 December 2014
  68. ^abHenn, U.; Schultz-Güttler, R. (2012)."Review of some current coloured quartz varieties"(PDF).J. Gemmol.33:29–43.doi:10.15506/JoG.2012.33.1.29.Retrieved7 April2021.
  69. ^Platonov, Alexej N.; Szuszkiewicz, Adam (1 June 2015)."Green to blue-green quartz from Rakowice Wielkie (Sudetes, south-western Poland) – a re-examination of prasiolite-related color varieties of quartz".Mineralogia.46(1–2): 19–28.Bibcode:2015Miner..46...19P.doi:10.1515/mipo-2016-0004.
  70. ^Groman-Yaroslavski, Iris; Bar-Yosef Mayer, Daniella E. (June 2015). "Lapidary technology revealed by functional analysis of carnelian beads from the early Neolithic site of Nahal Hemar Cave, southern Levant".Journal of Archaeological Science.58:77–88.Bibcode:2015JArSc..58...77G.doi:10.1016/j.jas.2015.03.030.
  71. ^Walker, A. C. (August 1953). "Hydrothermal Synthesis of Quartz Crystals".Journal of the American Ceramic Society.36(8): 250–256.doi:10.1111/j.1151-2916.1953.tb12877.x.
  72. ^abBuisson, X.; Arnaud, R. (February 1994)."Hydrothermal growth of quartz crystals in industry. Present status and evolution"(PDF).Le Journal de Physique IV.04(C2): C2–25–C2-32.doi:10.1051/jp4:1994204.S2CID9636198.
  73. ^Robert Webster, Michael O'Donoghue (January 2006).Gems: Their Sources, Descriptions and Identification.Butterworth-Heinemann.ISBN9780750658560.
  74. ^"How is Aura Rainbow Quartz Made?".Geology In.2017.Retrieved7 April2021.
  75. ^"Driscoll, Killian. 2010. Understanding quartz technology in early prehistoric Ireland".Archivedfrom the original on 25 June 2017.Retrieved19 July2017.
  76. ^von Schafhäutl, Karl Emil (10 April 1845)."Die neuesten geologischen Hypothesen und ihr Verhältniß zur Naturwissenschaft überhaupt (Fortsetzung)"[The latest geological hypotheses and their relation to science in general (continuation)].Gelehrte Anzeigen.20(72).München:im Verlage der königlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften, in Commission der Franz'schen Buchhandlung: 577–584.OCLC1478717.From page 578: 5)Bildeten sich aus Wasser, in welchen ich im Papinianischen Topfe frisch gefällte Kieselsäure aufgelöst hatte, beym Verdampfen schon nach 8 Tagen Krystalle, die zwar mikroscopisch, aber sehr wohl erkenntlich aus sechseitigen Prismen mit derselben gewöhnlichen Pyramide bestanden.( 5) There formed from water in which I had dissolved freshly precipitated silicic acid in a Papin pot [i.e., pressure cooker], after just 8 days of evaporating, crystals, which albeit were microscopic but consisted of very easily recognizable six-sided prisms with their usual pyramids.)
  77. ^Byrappa, K. and Yoshimura, Masahiro (2001)Handbook of Hydrothermal Technology.Norwich, New York: Noyes Publications.ISBN008094681X.Chapter 2: History of Hydrothermal Technology.
  78. ^Götze, Jens; Pan, Yuanming; Müller, Axel (October 2021)."Mineralogy and mineral chemistry of quartz: A review".Mineralogical Magazine.85(5): 639–664.Bibcode:2021MinM...85..639G.doi:10.1180/mgm.2021.72.ISSN0026-461X.S2CID243849577.
  79. ^Nelson, Sue (2 August 2009)."Silicon Valley's secret recipe".BBC News.Archivedfrom the original on 5 August 2009.Retrieved16 September2009.
  80. ^"Caldoveiro Mine, Tameza, Asturias, Spain".mindat.org.Archivedfrom the original on 12 February 2018.Retrieved15 February2018.
  81. ^Nacken, R. (1950) "Hydrothermal Synthese als Grundlage für Züchtung von Quarz-Kristallen" (Hydrothermal synthesis as a basis for the production of quartz crystals),Chemiker Zeitung,74:745–749.
  82. ^Hale, D. R. (1948). "The Laboratory Growing of Quartz".Science.107(2781): 393–394.Bibcode:1948Sci...107..393H.doi:10.1126/science.107.2781.393.PMID17783928.
  83. ^Lombardi, M. (2011)."The evolution of time measurement, Part 2: Quartz clocks [Recalibration]"(PDF).IEEE Instrumentation & Measurement Magazine.14(5): 41–48.doi:10.1109/MIM.2011.6041381.S2CID32582517.Archived(PDF)from the original on 27 May 2013.Retrieved30 March2013.
  84. ^"Record crystal",Popular Science,154(2): 148 (February 1949).
  85. ^Brush Development's team of scientists included: Danforth R. Hale, Andrew R. Sobek, and Charles Baldwin Sawyer (1895–1964). The company's U.S. patents included:
    • Sobek, Andrew R. "Apparatus for growing single crystals of quartz",U.S. patent 2,674,520;filed: 11 April 1950; issued: 6 April 1954.
    • Sobek, Andrew R. and Hale, Danforth R. "Method and apparatus for growing single crystals of quartz",U.S. patent 2,675,303;filed: 11 April 1950; issued: 13 April 1954.
    • Sawyer, Charles B. "Production of artificial crystals",U.S. patent 3,013,867;filed: 27 March 1959; issued: 19 December 1961. (This patent was assigned to Sawyer Research Products of Eastlake, Ohio.)
  86. ^Cady, W. G. (1921)."The piezoelectric resonator".Physical Review.17:531–533.doi:10.1103/PhysRev.17.508.
  87. ^"The Quartz Watch – Walter Guyton Cady".The Lemelson Center, National Museum of American History,Smithsonian Institution.Archived fromthe originalon 4 January 2009.
  88. ^Pierce, G. W. (1923). "Piezoelectric crystal resonators and crystal oscillators applied to the precision calibration of wavemeters".Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.59(4): 81–106.doi:10.2307/20026061.hdl:2027/inu.30000089308260.JSTOR20026061.
  89. ^Pierce, George W. "Electrical system",U.S. patent 2,133,642,filed: 25 February 1924; issued: 18 October 1938.
  90. ^"The Quartz Watch – George Washington Pierce".The Lemelson Center, National Museum of American History,Smithsonian Institution.Archived fromthe originalon 4 January 2009.
  91. ^"The Quartz Watch – Warren Marrison".The Lemelson Center, National Museum of American History,Smithsonian Institution.Archived fromthe originalon 25 January 2009.
  92. ^Sauerbrey, Günter Hans(April 1959) [1959-02-21]."Verwendung von Schwingquarzen zur Wägung dünner Schichten und zur Mikrowägung"(PDF).Zeitschrift für Physik(in German).155(2).Springer-Verlag:206–222.Bibcode:1959ZPhy..155..206S.doi:10.1007/BF01337937.ISSN0044-3328.S2CID122855173.Archived(PDF)from the original on 26 February 2019.Retrieved26 February2019.(NB. This was partially presented at Physikertagung in Heidelberg in October 1957.)
  93. ^The International Antiques Yearbook.Studio Vista Limited. 1972. p. 78.Apart from Prague and Florence, the main Renaissance centre for crystal cutting was Milan.
  94. ^"Hydrothermal Quartz".Gem Select.GemSelect.com.Retrieved28 November2020.
  95. ^McClure, Tess (17 September 2019)."Dark crystals: the brutal reality behind a booming wellness craze".The Guardian.ISSN0261-3077.Retrieved25 September2019.
edit
Wikimedia Commons has media related toQuartz.
Look upquartzin Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikisourcehas original text related to this article:
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quartz&oldid=1243860016"