Wikipedia

Ragnarök

For other uses, seeRagnarök (disambiguation).

InNorse mythology,Ragnarök(/ˈræɡnərɒk/ⓘRAG-nə-rokor/ˈrɑːɡ-/RAHG-;[2][3][4]Old Norse:Ragnarǫk[ˈrɑɣnɑˌrɒk]) is a foretold series of impending events, including a great battle in which numerous great Norse mythological figures will perish (including thegodsOdin,Thor,Týr,Freyr,Heimdall,andLoki);[5]it will entail a catastrophic series of natural disasters, including the burning of the world, and culminate in the submersion of the world underwater. After these events, the world will rise again, cleansed and fertile, the surviving and returning gods will meet, and the world will be repopulated by two human survivors,Líf and Lífþrasir.Ragnarökis an important event in Norse mythology and has been the subject of scholarly discourse and theory in the history ofGermanic studies.

The north portal of the 12th-centuryUrnes stave churchhas been interpreted as containing depictions of snakes and dragons that representRagnarök.[1]

The event is attested primarily in thePoetic Edda,compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, and theProse Edda,written in the 13th century bySnorri Sturluson.In theProse Eddaand in a single poem in thePoetic Edda,the event is referred to asRagnarøkkr(Old Norsefor 'Twilight of the Gods'), a usage popularised by 19th-century composerRichard Wagnerwith the title of the last of hisDer Ring des Nibelungenoperas,Götterdämmerung(1876), which is "Twilight of the Gods" in German.

Etymology

edit

TheOld Norsecompound wordragnarokhas a long history of interpretation. Its first element is clear:ragna,thegenitiveplural ofregin(n. pl.) 'the ruling powers, gods.' The second element is more problematic, as it occurs in two variants,-rökand-røkkr.Writing in the early 20th century,philologistGeir Zoëga treats the two forms as two separate compounds, glossingragnarökas 'the doom or destruction of the gods' andragnarøkkras 'the twilight of the gods.'[6]The plural nounrökhas several meanings, including 'development', 'origin', 'cause', 'relation', 'fate.'[7]The wordragnarökas a whole is then usually interpreted as the 'final destiny of the gods.'[8]

The singular formragnarøk(k)ris found in a stanza of thePoetic EddapoemLokasenna,and in theProse Edda.The nounrøk(k)rmeans 'twilight' (from the verbrøkkva'to grow dark'), suggesting a translation 'twilight of the gods.' This reading was widely considered a result offolk etymology,or a learned reinterpretation of the original term due to the merger of/ɔ/(spelled ǫ) and/ø/(spelled ø) in Old Icelandic afterc. 1200[9] (nevertheless giving rise to thecalqueGötterdämmerung'Twilight of the Gods' in the German reception of Norse mythology[10]).

Other terms used to refer to the events surroundingRagnarökin thePoetic Eddaincludealdar rök(aldarmeans age, 'end of an age') from a stanza ofVafþrúðnismál,tíva rökfrom two stanzas ofVafþrúðnismál,þá er regin deyja('when the gods die') fromVafþrúðnismál,unz um rjúfask regin('when the gods will be destroyed') fromVafþrúðnismál,Lokasenna,andSigrdrífumál,aldar rof('destruction of the age') fromHelgakviða Hundingsbana II,regin þrjóta('end of the gods') fromHyndluljóð,and, in theProse Edda,þá er Muspellz-synir herja('when the sons ofMuspellmove into battle') can be found in chapters 18 and 36 ofGylfaginning.[8]

Presence in literature

edit

Poetic Edda

edit

ThePoetic Eddacontains various references toRagnarök:

Völuspá

edit
Then the Awful Fight Began(byGeorge Wright,1908)
Odin and Fenrir,FreyrandSurt(byEmil Doepler,1905)
Thor and the Midgard Serpent(by Emil Doepler, 1905)
Battle of the Doomed Gods(byFriedrich Wilhelm Heine,1882)
The twilight of the gods(byWilly Pogany,1920)

In thePoetic EddapoemVöluspá,references toRagnarökbegin from stanza 40 until 58, with the rest of the poem describing the aftermath. In the poem, avölva(a female seer) recites information toOdin.In stanza 41, thevölvasays:

Thevölvathen describes threeroosterscrowing: In stanza 42, thejötunnherdsmanEggthérsits on amoundand cheerfully plays hisharpwhile the crimson rooster Fjalar (Old Norse"hider, deceiver"[12]) crows in the forestGálgviðr.The golden roosterGullinkambicrows to theÆsirinValhalla,and the third, unnamed soot-red rooster crows in the halls of the underworld location ofHelin stanza 43.[13]

After these stanzas, thevölvafurther relates that the houndGarmrproduces deep howls in front of the cave ofGnipahellir.Garmr's bindings break and he runs free. Thevölvadescribes the state of humanity:

The "sons ofMím"are described as being" at play, "though this reference is not further explained in surviving sources.[15]Heimdall raises theGjallarhorninto the air and blows deeply into it, and Odin converses with Mím's head. The world treeYggdrasilshudders and groans. ThejötunnHrymcomes from the east, his shield before him. TheMidgardserpentJörmungandrfuriously writhes, causing waves to crash. "Theeagleshrieks, pale-beaked he tears the corpse, "and the shipNaglfarbreaks free thanks to the waves made by Jormungandr and sets sail from the east. The firejötnarinhabitants ofMuspelheimcome forth.[16]

Thevölvacontinues thatJötunheimr,the land of thejötnar,is aroar, and that the Æsir are in council. Thedwarfsgroan by their stone doors.[14]Surtradvances from the south, his sword brighter than the sun. Rocky cliffs open and thejötnarwomen sink.[17]

The gods then do battle with the invaders:Odinis swallowed whole and alive fighting the wolfFenrir,causing his wifeFriggher second great sorrow (the first being the death of her son, the godBaldr).[18]Odin's sonVíðarravenges his father by rending Fenrir's jaws apart and stabbing it in the heart with his spear, thus killing the wolf. The serpentJörmungandropens its gaping maw, yawning widely in the air, and is met in combat byThor.Thor, also a son of Odin and described here as protector of the earth, furiously fights the serpent, defeating it, but Thor is only able to take nine steps afterwards before collapsing dead from the Serpent's venom. The godFreyrfightsSurtrand loses. After this, people flee their homes, and the sun becomes black while the earth sinks into the sea, the stars vanish, steam rises, and flames touch the heavens.[19]

Thevölvasees the earth reappearing from the water and an eagle over a waterfall hunting fish on a mountain. The surviving Æsir meet together at the field ofIðavöllr.They discuss Jörmungandr, great events of the past, and therunic alphabet.In stanza 61, in the grass, they find the golden game pieces that the gods are described as having once happily enjoyed playing games with long ago (attested earlier in the same poem). The reemerged fields grow without needing to be sown. The godsHöðrandBaldrreturn from Hel and live happily together.[20]

Thevölvasays that the godHœnirchooses wooden slips for divination and that the sons of two brothers will widely inhabit the windy world. She sees a hall thatched with gold inGimlé,where nobility will live and spend their lives pleasurably.[20]Stanzas 65, found in theHauksbókversion of the poem, refers to a "powerful, mighty one" that "rules over everything" and who will arrive from above at the court of the gods (Old Norseregindómr),[21]which has been interpreted as aChristianaddition to the poem.[22]In stanza 66, thevölvaends her account with a description of the dragonNíðhöggr,corpses in his jaws, flying through the air. Thevölvathen "sinks down."[23]It is unclear if stanza 66 indicates that thevölvais referring to the present time or if this is an element of the post-Ragnarökworld.[24]

Vafþrúðnismál

edit
An illustration of Víðarr stabbing Fenrir while holding his jaws apart (byW. G. Collingwood,inspired by theGosforth Cross,1908)
Fenrir and Odin(byLorenz Frølich,1895)

TheVanirgodNjörðris mentioned in relation toRagnarökin stanza 39 of the poemVafþrúðnismál.In the poem, Odin, disguised asGagnráðr,faces off with the wisejötunnVafþrúðnirin a battle of wits. Vafþrúðnismál references Njörðr's status as a hostage during the earlierÆsir–Vanir War,and that he will "come back home among the wise Vanir" at "the doom of men."[25]

In stanza 44, Odin poses the question to Vafþrúðnir as to who of mankind will survive the "famous"Fimbulwinter( "Mighty Winter"[26]). Vafþrúðnir responds in stanza 45 that those survivors will beLíf and Lífþrasirand that they will hide in the forest ofHoddmímis holt,that they will consume the morning dew, and will produce generations of offspring. In stanza 46, Odin asks what sun will come into the sky after Fenrir has consumed the sun that exists. Vafþrúðnir responds thatSólwill bear a daughter before Fenrir assails her and that afterRagnarökthis daughter will continue her mother's path.[27]

In stanza 51, Vafþrúðnir states that, after Surtr's flames have been sated, Odin's sonsVíðarrandVáliwill live in the temples of the gods, and that Thor's sonsMóði and Magniwill possess the hammer Mjolnir. In stanza 52, the disguised Odin asks thejötunnabout his fate. Vafþrúðnir responds that "the wolf" will consume Odin, and that Víðarr will avenge him by sundering its cold jaws in battle. Odin ends the duel with one final question: what did Odin say tohis sonbefore preparing his funeral pyre? With this, Vafþrúðnir realizes that he is dealing with none other than Odin, whom he refers to as "the wisest of beings," adding that Odin alone could know this.[28]Odin's message has been interpreted as a promise of resurrection to Baldr afterRagnarök.[29]

Helgakviða Hundingsbana II

edit

Ragnarökis briefly referenced in stanza 40 of the poemHelgakviða Hundingsbana II.Here, thevalkyrieSigrún's unnamed maid is passing the deceased heroHelgi Hundingsbane'sburial mound.Helgi is there with a retinue of men, surprising the maid. The maid asks if she is witnessing a delusion since she sees dead men riding, or ifRagnarökhas occurred. In stanza 41, Helgi responds that it is neither.[30]

Prose Edda

edit

Snorri Sturluson'sProse Eddaquotes heavily fromVöluspáand elaborates extensively in prose on the information there, though some of this information conflicts with that provided inVöluspá.

Gylfaginningchapters 26 and 34

edit
Loki breaks free at the onset ofRagnarök(by Ernst H. Walther, 1897)

In theProse EddabookGylfaginning,various references are made toRagnarök.Ragnarökis first mentioned in chapter 26, where the throned figure ofHigh,king of the hall, tellsGangleri(KingGylfiin disguise) some basic information about the goddessIðunn,including that her apples will keep the gods young untilRagnarök.[31]

In chapter 34, High describes the binding of the wolf Fenrir by the gods, causing the godTýrto lose his right hand, and that Fenrir remains there untilRagnarök.Gangleri asks High why, since the gods could only expect destruction from Fenrir, they did not simply kill Fenrir once he was bound. High responds that "the gods hold their sacred places and sanctuaries in such respect that they chose not to defile them with the wolf's blood, even though the prophecies foretold that he would be the death of Odin."[32]

As a consequence of his role in the death of the god Baldr, Loki (described as father of Fenrir) is bound on top of three stones with the internal organs of his sonNarfi(which are turned into iron) in three places. There,venomdrops onto his face periodically from a snake placed by thejötunnSkaði.Loki's wifeSigyncollects the venom into a bucket, but whenever she leaves to empty it, the drops reach Loki's face, and the pain he experiences causes convulsions, resulting inearthquakes.Loki is further described as being bound this way until the onset ofRagnarök.[33]

Gylfaginningchapter 51

edit
A scene from the last phase ofRagnarök,after Surtr has engulfed the world with fire (by Emil Doepler, 1905)

Chapter 51 provides a detailed account ofRagnarökinterspersed with various quotes fromVöluspá,while chapters 52 and 53 describe the aftermath of these events. In Chapter 51, High states that the first sign ofRagnarökwill beFimbulwinter,during which time three winters will arrive without a summer, and the sun will be useless. High details that, before these winters, three earlier winters will have occurred, marked with great battles throughout the world. During this time, greed will cause brothers to kill brothers, and fathers and sons will suffer from the collapse of kinship bonds. High then quotes stanza 45 ofVöluspá.Next, High describes thatthe wolfwill swallow the sun, thenhis brotherwill swallow the moon, and mankind will consider the occurrence as a great disaster resulting in much ruin. The stars will disappear. The earth and mountains will shake so violently that the trees will come loose from the soil, the mountains will topple, and all restraints will break, causing Fenrir to break free from his bonds.[34]

High relates that the great serpentJörmungandr,also described as a child of Loki in the same source, will breach land as the sea violently swells onto it. The ship Naglfar, described in theProse Eddaas being made from thehuman nailsof the dead, is released from itsmooringand sets sail on the surging sea, steered by ajötunnnamedHrym.At the same time, Fenrir, eyes and nostrils spraying flames, charges forward with his mouth wide open, his upper jaw reaching to the heavens, and his lower jaw touching the earth. At Fenrir's side, Jörmungandr sprays venom throughout the air and the sea.[35]

During all of this, the sky splits into two. From the split, the "sons ofMuspell"ride forth.Surtrrides first, surrounded by flames, his sword brighter than the sun. High says that "Muspell's sons" will ride acrossBifröst,described inGylfaginningas a rainbow bridge, and that the bridge will then break. The sons of Muspell (and their shining battle troop) advance to the field ofVígríðr,described as an expanse that reaches "a hundred leagues in each direction," where Fenrir, Jörmungandr, Loki (followed by "Hel's own" ), and Hrym (accompanied by all frostjötnar) join them. While this occurs, Heimdallr stands and blows theGjallarhornwith all his might. The gods awaken at the sound, and they meet. Odin rides toMímisbrunnrin search of counsel from Mímir. Yggdrasil shakes, and everything, everywhere fears.[35]

High relates that the Æsir and theEinherjardress for war and head to the field. Odin, wearing a gold helmet and an intricatecoat of mail,carries his spearGungnirand rides before them. Odin advances against Fenrir, while Thor moves at his side, though Thor is unable to assist Odin because he has engaged Jörmungandr in combat. According to High,Freyrfights fiercely with Surtr, but falls because he lacks the sword he once gave to his messenger,Skírnir.The houndGarmr(described here as the "worst of monsters" ) breaks free from his bonds in front ofGnipahellir,and fights the god Týr, resulting in both of their deaths.[36]

Thor kills Jörmungandr but is poisoned by the serpent, and manages to walk only nine steps before falling to the earth dead. Fenrir swallows Odin, though immediately afterwards his sonVíðarrkicks his foot into Fenrir's lower jaw, grips the upper jaw, and rips apart Fenrir's mouth, killing the great wolf. Loki fights Heimdallr and the two kill each other. Surtr covers the earth in fire, causing the entire world to burn. High quotes stanzas 46 to 47 ofVöluspá,and additionally stanza 18 ofVafþrúðnismál(the latter relating information about the battlefield Vígríðr).[37]

Gylfaginningchapters 52 and 53

edit

At the beginning of chapter 52, Gangleri asks "what will be after heaven and earth and the whole world are burned? All the gods will be dead, together with the Einherjar and the whole of mankind. Didn't you say earlier that each person will live in some world throughout all ages?"[38]

The figure of Third, seated on the highest throne in the hall, responds that there will be many good places to live, but also many bad ones. Third states that the best place to be isGimléin the heavens, where a place exists calledOkolnirthat houses a hall calledBrimir—where one can find plenty to drink. Third describes a hall made ofred goldlocated inNiðafjöllcalledSindri,where "good and virtuous men will live."[38]Third further relates an unnamed hall inNáströnd,the beaches of the dead, that he describes as a large repugnant hall facing north that is built from the spines of snakes, and resembles "a house with walls woven from branches"; the heads of the snakes face the inside of the house and spew so much venom that rivers of it flow throughout the hall, in which oath breakers and murderers must wade. Third here quotesVöluspástanzas 38 to 39, with the insertion of original prose stating that the worst place of all to be is inHvergelmir,followed by a quote fromVöluspáto highlight that the dragon Níðhöggr harasses the corpses of the dead there.[39]

Chapter 53 begins with Gangleri asking if any of the gods will survive and if there will be anything left of the earth or the sky. High responds that the earth will appear once more from the sea, beautiful and green, where self-sown crops grow. The field Iðavöllr exists where Asgard once was, and, there, untouched by Surtr's flames, Víðarr andVálireside. Now possessing their father's hammerMjölnir,Thor's sonsMóði and Magniwill meet them there, and, coming fromHel,Baldr and Höðr also arrive. Together, they all sit and recount memories, later finding the gold game pieces the Æsir once owned.Völuspástanza 51 is then quoted.[40]

High reveals that two humans,Líf and Lífþrasir,will have also survived the destruction by hiding in the woodHoddmímis holt.These two survivors consume the morning dew for sustenance, and from their descendants, the world will be repopulated.Vafþrúðnismálstanza 45 is then quoted. The personified sun, Sól, will have a daughter at least as beautiful as she, and this daughter will follow the same path as her mother.Vafþrúðnismálstanza 47 is quoted, and so ends the foretelling ofRagnarökinGylfaginning.[41]

Archaeological record

edit
Thorwald's Cross, on the grounds of Kirk Andreas, Isle of Man

Various objects have been identified as depicting events fromRagnarök.

Thorwald's Cross

edit

Thorwald's Cross,a partially survivingrunestoneerected at KirkAndreason theIsle of Man,depicts a bearded human holding a spear downward at a wolf, his right foot in its mouth, while a large bird sits at his shoulder.[42]Rundatadates it to 940,[43]while Pluskowski dates it to the 11th century.[42]This depiction has been interpreted as Odin, with aravenor eagle at his shoulder, being consumed by Fenrir atRagnarök.[42][44]On the other side of the stone is a depiction of a large cross and another image parallel to the Odin figure that has been described as Christ triumphing over Satan.[45]These combined elements have led to the cross as being described as "syncretic art,"a mixture ofpaganand Christian beliefs.[42]

Gosforth Cross

edit

TheGosforth Cross(920–950), inCumbria,England, is a standing cross of a typical Anglo-Saxon form, carved on all sides of the long shaft, which is nearly square in section. Apart from panels of ornament, the scenes include a Christiancrucifixion,and possibly another scene in Hell, but the other scenes are generally interpreted as narrative incidents from theRagnarökstory,[46]even by a scholar as cautious of such interpretations asDavid M. Wilson.[42][47]TheRagnarökbattle itself may be depicted on the north side.[48]The cross features various figures depicted inBorre style,including a man with a spear facing a monstrous head, with one foot thrust into the beast's forked tongue and on its lower jaw, and the other is against its upper jaw, a scene interpreted as Víðarr fighting Fenrir.[42]

Ledberg stone

edit
A composite image of three different angles of the Ledberg stone

The 11th-centuryLedberg stoneinSweden,similarly to Thorwald's Cross, features a figure with his foot at the mouth of a four-legged beast, and this may also be a depiction of Odin being devoured by Fenrir atRagnarök.[44]Below the beast and the man is a depiction of a legless, helmeted man, with his arms in a prostrate position.[44]TheYounger Futharkinscription on the stone bears a commonly seen memorial dedication, but is followed by an encodedrunicsequence that has been described as "mysterious,"[49]and "an interesting magic formula which is known from all over the ancient Norse world."[44]

Skarpåker stone

edit

On the early 11th-centurySkarpåker Stone,fromSödermanland,Sweden, a father grieving his dead son used the same verse form,fornyrðislag,as in thePoetic Eddain the following engraving:

Jansson (1987) notes that at the time of the inscription, everyone who read the lines would have thought ofRagnarökand the allusion that the father found fitting as an expression of his grief.[50]

Theories and interpretations

edit
Ragnarök(Motif from theHeysham Hogback) (byW. G. Collingwood,1908)
The Downfall of the ÆsirbyKarl Ehrenberg,1882

Cyclic time andHoddmímis holt

edit

Rudolf Simektheorizes that the survival of Líf and Lífþrasir at the end ofRagnarökis "a case of reduplication of theanthropogeny,understandable from thecyclic natureof theEddiceschatology."Simek says that Hoddmímis holt" should not be understood literally as a wood or even a forest in which the two keep themselves hidden, but rather as an alternative name for the world-treeYggdrasill.Thus, the creation of mankind from tree trunks (Askr, Embla) is repeated after theRagnarökas well. "Simek says that inGermanic regions,the concept of mankind originating from trees is ancient, and additionally points out legendary parallels in aBavarianlegend of ashepherdwho lives inside a tree, whose descendants repopulate the land after life there has been wiped out by plague (citing a retelling by F. R. Schröder). In addition, Simek points to an Old Norse parallel in the figure ofÖrvar-Oddr,"who is rejuvenated after living as a tree-man (Ǫrvar-Odds saga24–27). "[51]

Muspille,Heliand,and Christianity

edit

Theories have been proposed about the relation betweenRagnarökand the 9th-centuryOld High Germanepic poemMuspilliabout the ChristianLast Judgment,where the wordMuspilleappears, and the 9th-centuryOld Saxonepic poemHeliandabout the life ofChrist,where various other forms of the word appear. In both sources, the word is used to signify the end of the world through fire.[52]Old Norse forms of the term also appear throughout accounts ofRagnarök,where the world is also consumed in flames, and, though various theories exist about the meaning and origins of the term, its etymology has not been solved.[52]

Proto-Indo-European basis

edit

Parallels have been pointed out between theRagnarökofNorse religionand the beliefs of other relatedIndo-European peoples.Subsequently, theories have been put forth thatRagnarökrepresents a later evolution of aProto-Indo-Europeanbelief along with other cultures descending from the Proto-Indo-Europeans. These parallels include comparisons of a cosmic winter motif between the NorseFimbulwinter,theIranianBundahishnandYima.[53]Víðarr's stride has been compared to theVedicgodVishnuin that both have a "cosmic stride" with a special shoe used to tear apart a beastly wolf.[53]Larger patterns have also been drawn between "final battle" events in Indo-European cultures, including the occurrence of a blind or semi-blind figure in "final battle" themes, and figures appearing suddenly with surprising skills.[53]

Volcanic eruptions

edit

Hilda Ellis Davidsontheorizes that the events inVöluspáoccurring after the death of the gods (the sun turning black, steam rising, flames touching the heavens, etc.) may be inspired by the volcanic eruptions on Iceland. Records of eruptions in Iceland bear strong similarities to the sequence of events described inVöluspá,especially the eruption atLakithat occurred in 1783.[54]Bertha Phillpottstheorizes that the figure of Surtr was inspired by Icelandic eruptions and that he was a volcano demon.[55]Surtr's name occurs in some Icelandic place names, among them thelava tubeSurtshellir,a number of dark caverns in the volcanic central region of Iceland.[56]

Bergbúa þáttr

edit

Parallels have been pointed out between a poem spoken by ajötunnfound in the 13th-centuryþáttrBergbúa þáttr( "the tale of the mountain dweller" ). In the tale, Thórd and his servant get lost while travelling to church in winter, and so take shelter for the night within a cave. Inside the cave they hear noises, witness a pair of immense burning eyes, and then the being with burning eyes recites a poem of 12 stanzas. The poem the being recites contains references to Norse mythology (including a mention of Thor) and also prophecies (including that "mountains will tumble, the earth will move, men will be scoured by hot water and burned by fire" ). Surtr's fire receives a mention in stanza 10.John Lindowsays that the poem may describe "a mix of the destruction of the race of giants and of humans, as inRagnarök"but that" many of the predictions of disruption on earth could also fit the volcanic activity that is so common in Iceland. "[57]

Modern influences

edit

The events of Ragnarok are dramatized, albeit briefly, in Hans Christian Andersen's fairy tale "The Marsh King's Daughter".

In late 2013 and early 2014, English-language media outlets widely reported thatRagnarökwas foretold to occur on 22 February 2014.[58]Apparently patterned after the2012 phenomenon,the claim was at times attributed to a "Viking Calendar". No such calendar is known to have existed, and the source was a "prediction" made to media outlets by theJorvik Viking CentreinYork,England, intended to draw attention to an event that the institution was to hold on that date. The Jorvik Viking Centre was criticized for misleading the public to promote the event. In a 2014 article on the claims, philologist Joseph S. Hopkins perceives the media response as an example of a broad revival of interest in the Viking Age and ancient Germanic topics.[59]

The Norwegian fantasy adventure filmGåten Ragnarokwas released in 2013 and centres on the discovery of the mythical serpent in contemporaryFinnmark.

The myth is central to the 2017Marvel Cinematic UniversefilmThor: Ragnarok,[60]at whose climax the demonSurturdestroysAsgardas its people flee into space under the guidance ofThor,Valkyrie,Loki,Heimdall,Hulk,andKorg.

A. S. Byattpublished a novel entitledRagnarok: The End of the Godsin 2011.

Ragnarök is set up at the end of the 2018 video gameGod of War,which is rooted inNorse mythology,after the protagonistKratoskillsBaldr.The 2022 sequel,God of War Ragnarök,deals with the aftermath of this event and covers the in-game version of Ragnarök.

Norse mythology and climate change inspired the eponymous TV seriesRagnarok.[61]The town of Edda in Western Norway is plagued by climate change and industrial pollution caused by the factories owned by the Jutul family, a group ofjötunn.They are challenged by a teenage boy, Magne, the reincarnation of Thor. Thus begins the event Ragnarok ( "twilight of the gods" ), the fight against those who are destroying the planet.

In the 2020 video gameAssassin's Creed Valhalla,which is partially inspired by Norse mythology, the Æsir are depicted as members of the Isu, who within the series' fictional lore, are an advanced civilization that predate humanity, and Ragnarök refers to a series of events revolving around theToba Catastrophe,or the "Great Catastrophe", which was asolar flarethat hit the Earth, killing most of the Isu. In one of the game's story arcs, the protagonist Eivor Varinsdottir assumes the role ofOdin(later revealed to be herprevious life), who searches for a way for himself and the other Æsir to survive beyond Ragnarök, during which they are all foretold to perish. One of the game'sdownloadable contentpacks, titledDawn of Ragnarök,builds upon this, as it follows Odin just as the events of Ragnarök are about to begin.

Citations

edit
  1. ^Fazio, Moffett & Wodehouse 2003,p. 201.
  2. ^"ragnarok".The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language(5th ed.). HarperCollins.Retrieved11 May2019.
  3. ^"Ragnarök".Collins English Dictionary.HarperCollins.Retrieved11 May2019.
  4. ^"Ragnarök"(US) and"Ragnarök".Oxford DictionariesUK English Dictionary.Oxford University Press.[dead link‍]
  5. ^Mark, Joshua J."Ragnarök".World History Encyclopedia.Retrieved16 December2023.
  6. ^Zoëga 2004,p. 345.
  7. ^"reason, ground, origin," "wonder, marvel,"tíva rök'the life and doings of the gods,'þjóða rök'origin, creation of mankind,'í aldar rök'at the end of the world' (Zoëga 2004,p. 345);Proto-Germanic:*rakō(Bjordvand & Lindeman 2007,pp. 856–857).
  8. ^abSimek 2007,p. 259.
  9. ^Bjordvand & Lindeman 2007,pp. 856–857, for example.
  10. ^Lindow 2001,p. 254.
  11. ^abDronke 1997,p. 18.
  12. ^Orchard 1997,p. 43.
  13. ^Larrington 1999,p. 9.
  14. ^abcDronke 1997,p. 19.
  15. ^Larrington 1999,p. 265.
  16. ^Larrington 1999,p. 10.
  17. ^Bellows 2004,p. 22.
  18. ^Larrington 1999,p. 266.
  19. ^Bellows 2004,p. 23.
  20. ^abLarrington 1999,p. 12.
  21. ^Simek 2007,p. 262.
  22. ^Lindow 2001,p. 257.
  23. ^Larrington 1999,p. 13.
  24. ^Larrington 1999,p. 3.
  25. ^Larrington 1999,p. 46.
  26. ^Lindow 2001,p. 115.
  27. ^Larrington 1999,p. 47.
  28. ^Larrington 1999,pp. 48–49.
  29. ^Larrington 1999,p. 269.
  30. ^Larrington 1999,p. 139.
  31. ^Byock 2005,p. 36.
  32. ^Byock 2005,p. 42.
  33. ^Byock 2005,p. 70.
  34. ^Byock 2005,pp. 71–72.
  35. ^abByock 2005,p. 72.
  36. ^Byock 2005,p. 73.
  37. ^Byock 2005,pp. 73–75.
  38. ^abByock 2005,p. 76.
  39. ^Byock 2005,pp. 76–77.
  40. ^Byock 2005,p. 77.
  41. ^Byock 2005,pp. 77–78.
  42. ^abcdefPluskowski 2004,p. 158.
  43. ^Entry Br Olsen;185A in Rundata 2.0
  44. ^abcdJansson 1987,p. 152.
  45. ^Hunter & Ralston 1999,p. 200.
  46. ^Bailey 2002,pp. 15–23.
  47. ^Wilson 1984,p. 149–150.
  48. ^Orchard 1997,p. 13.
  49. ^MacLeod & Mees 2006,p. 145.
  50. ^Jansson 1987,p. 141.
  51. ^Simek 2007,p. 189. For Schröder, see Schröder (1931).
  52. ^abSimek 2007,pp. 222–224.
  53. ^abcMallory & Adams 1997,pp. 182–183.
  54. ^Davidson 1990,pp. 208–209.
  55. ^Phillpotts 1905,pp. 14 ff., inDavidson (1990,p. 208)
  56. ^Patel, Samir S. (2017)."The Blackener's Cave".Archaeology.70(3): 36–41.JSTOR26348924.
  57. ^Lindow 2001,pp. 73–74.
  58. ^Richards, Chris (17 February 2014)."Will the world END next week? Viking apocalypse 'Ragnarok' due to arrive on February 22".Daily Mirror.
  59. ^Hopkins 2014,pp. 7–12.
  60. ^Strom, Marc (28 October 2014)."Thor Brings Ragnarok to the Marvel Cinematic Universe in 2017".Marvel.com.Archivedfrom the original on 28 October 2014.Retrieved28 October2014.
  61. ^Thorvik, Hannah Bull (28 January 2020)."Like dårlig som det høres ut".Dagbladet(in Norwegian).Retrieved3 February2020.

General references

edit
edit
  • Quotations related toRagnarökat Wikiquote
  • The dictionary definition ofRagnarokat Wiktionary
  • Media related toRagnarökat Wikimedia Commons
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ragnarök&oldid=1256096799"