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Rail gauge in Australia

Rail gauges in Australiadisplay significant variations, which has presented an extremely difficult problem forrail transport on the Australian continentsince the 19th century. As of 2022,there are 11,914 kilometres (7,403 mi) ofnarrow-gauge railways,18,007 kilometres (11,189 mi) ofstandard gaugerailways and 2,685 kilometres (1,668 mi) ofbroad gaugerailways.[1] In the 19th century, each of thecolonies of Australia[broken anchor]adopted their owngauges.

The three gauges of the Australian railway network as of 2022
Narrow gauge(1,067 mm)
Standard gauge(1,435 mm)
Broad gauge(1,600 mm)
Narrow gauge(1,067 mm)
Standard gauge(1,435 mm)
Broad gauge(1,600 mm)

WithFederationin 1901 and the removal of trade barriers, the short sightedness of three gauges became apparent. It would be 94 years before all mainland state capitals were joined by one standard gauge.

Rail gauges and route kilometres

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See also:Rail transport in AustraliaandRail transport in South Australia

A report by the Australian Government’s Bureau of Infrastructure, Transport and Regional Economics, and the Australasian Railway Association, estimated that as of September 2020, there were 32,868 km (20,423 mi) of heavy rail lines open and operational throughout the nation.[2]

The three main railway gauges in Australia arenarrow:1,067 mm(3 ft 6 in),standard:1,435 mm(4 ft8+1⁄2in), andbroad:1,600 mm(5 ft 3 in). A slow progression towards unification to standard gauge has taken place since the 1930s.[3]

See also:Narrow-gauge railways in Australia

About 4,000 km (2,500 mi) of610 mm(2 ft)light railways in Queenslandsupport thesugar-cane industry.[4]They are not included in the following table.

Estimate of route kilometres of operational heavy railways in Australia, September 2020[2][note 1]
State or territory Narrow Standard Broad Dual Other Total
Australian Capital Territory 6 6
New South Wales 7,128 73 1 7,202
Northern Territory 3 1,690 1,693
Queensland 8,146 117 36 4 8,303
South Australia 184 2,561 253 22 3,020
Tasmania 611 7 618
Victoria 16 1,904 2,309 32 30 4,317
Western Australia 2,970 4,558 207 7,735
Total 11,930 17,972 2,683 297 12 32,894

History

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The states and mainland territories of Australia. Their development as separate colonies in the 19th century resulted in three mainline gauges.

Pre-construction uniformity

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In 1845, aRoyal Commission on Railway Gaugesin the United Kingdom was formed to report on the desirability for a uniform gauge.[5]As a result, theRegulating the Gauge of Railways Act 1846was passed which prescribed the use of4 ft8+1⁄2in(1,435 mm) in England, Scotland and Wales (with the exception of theGreat Western Railway) and5 ft 3 in(1,600 mm) in Ireland.

In 1846, Australian newspapers discussed thebreak of gaugeproblem in the United Kingdom, especially for defence.[6][7][8]In 1847, South Australia adopted the4 ft8+1⁄2ingauge as law.[9]

In 1848, theGovernor of New South Wales,Charles Fitzroy,was advised by theSecretary of State for the Coloniesin London,Earl Grey,that one uniform gauge should be adopted in Australia, this being the British standard4 ft8+1⁄2ingauge. The recommendation was adopted by the then three colonies.[10][11][12]Grey notes in his letter that South Australia has already adopted this gauge.[13]

At this stage, Victoria and Queensland were still part of New South Wales.

Since theAustralian Overland Telegraph Lineand under-sea cable communications with England did not open until 1872, communications between Britain and Australia before then were hampered by having to be conducted via sailing ship. The journey varied from about seven months on slower ships to about two and a half months on fast clipper ships.[14]This had particular consequences for the selection of railway gauge in Australia.

Origins of the gauge muddle

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At that time, the privateSydney Railway Companyhad begun planning its railway line toParramatta.The chief engineer of the company was Irish-bornFrancis Webb Sheilds.After his appointment in 1849, Sheilds initially stated a preference for5 ft 6 in(1,676 mm)[15]but in 1850 he persuaded the company, which in turn asked the NSW legislature, to change to the Irish standard gauge of5 ft 3 in(1,600 mm). This decision was endorsed by the NSW Governor, and Colonial Secretary Earl Grey in London agreed in 1851.[16]

However, Sheilds and his three subordinates resigned in December 1850 when the company cut their salaries for financial reasons. After the interim appointment ofHenry Maisin July 1852, the company selected a new Scottish engineer, James Wallace, who preferred the British standard gauge. The government was persuaded to make the change back to4 ft8+1⁄2inand in January 1853 they advised the company that theActrequiring5 ft 3 in(1,600 mm) would be repealed.

In February 1853, the other colonies (Victoria having separated from New South Wales in 1851) were sent a memorandum advising them of the pending change and recommended they likewise adopt4 ft8+1⁄2in.[17]In Victoria, the memorandum was distributed to three railway companies and their responses were sought, with two replying and only one showing a distinct preference for5 ft 3 in(1,600 mm). However, theMelbourne and Hobson's Bay Railway Companyasked for a determination from the government as it had prepared plans for both gauges and was due to send an order for locomotives and rolling stock to England by boat at the start of April. In reply at the end of March, the companies were told the colonial Victorian government preferred5 ft 3 in(1,600 mm) and the order was subsequently placed.

In July 1853, theGovernment of Victoriaadvised New South Wales that it would use the broader gauge and later appealed to the British Government to force a reversal of New South Wales' decision.[18]Subsequently, the Melbourne and Hobson's Bay Railway Company opened the first railway in Australia in 1854, as a5 ft 3 in(1,600 mm) broad gauge line, and theSouth Australian Railwaysused the same gauge on its first steam-hauled railway in 1856.

Despite a request by theSecretary of State for the Coloniesto reconsider this alteration, in 1855, the NSW GovernorWilliam Denisongave the go-ahead for the4 ft8+1⁄2inSydney to Parramatta railway,which opened in September of that year.[19][20]

Concerns over the gauge difference began to be raised almost immediately. At a Select Committee called in Victoria in September 1853, a representative of the railway company which had not replied toCharles La Trobe's earlier memorandum, reported a preference for5 ft 3 in(1,600 mm), but when asked if Victoria should follow NSW he answered: "We must, I conclude of necessity, do so".[21]In 1857, the NSW railway engineerJohn Whittonsuggested that the short length of railway then operating in New South Wales be altered from4 ft8+1⁄2ingauge to5 ft 3 in(1,600 mm) to conform with Victoria but, despite being supported by the NSW Railway Administration, he was ignored.[22]At that time, there were only 23 miles (37 km) of track, four engines and assorted cars and wagons on the railway. However, by 1889, New South Wales, under engineer Whitton, had built almost 1,950 miles (3,500 km) of standard gauge line.[19]

Extension of the gauge muddle

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The alignments of adjacent narrow-gauge and standard-gauge railway lines in the same topography. The meandering narrow-gauge line was built in 1878 to stimulate local agricultural development at the least possible cost. The straighter standard gauge line was built on a big budget in 1970 to allow long, heavy standard-gauge trains to travel at faster speeds. (Click to enlarge.)

The3 ft 6 in(1,067 mm) narrow gauge was introduced to Australia in 1865, when theQueensland Railwaysopened itsfirst railwayfromIpswichtoGrandchester.The gauge was chosen on the supposition that it would be constructed more cheaply, faster and on tighter curves than the wider gauges.[23]This was the first narrow gauge main line in the world.

South Australiafirst adopted this gauge in 1867 with its line fromPort WakefieldtoHoyleton.[24]The main reasons for choosing this were reduced cost, and the expectation that the narrow gauge would never connect to broad gauge lines. Overbuilt English railways were criticised. The Wakefield line was also envisaged as a horse-drawn tramway.[25]

Later narrow gauge lines went towardsBroken Hilland toOodnadatta[26]and fromMount Gambier.ThePort Lincolnsystem was always isolated by geography.

TheWestern Australian Government Railwaysadopted it in 1879 for itsfirst linefromGeraldtontoNorthampton.[19]

TheTasmanian Government Railwaysopened its first railway fromLauncestontoDelorainein 1871 using5 ft 3 in(1,600 mm) broad gauge, butconvertedto3 ft 6 in(1,067 mm) narrow gauge in 1888.[19]

Towards a continental network

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Until the 1880s, the gauge issue was not a major problem, as there were no connections between the separate systems. The focus of railway traffic was movement from the hinterland to the ports and cities on the coast, so governments were not concerned about the future need for either inter-city passenger or freight services.[27]It was not until 1883 when the broad and standard gauge lines fromMelbourneandSydneymet atAlbury,and in 1888, narrow and standard gauge fromBrisbaneand Sydney met atWallangarrathat thebreak of gaugebecame an issue.[28]

The issue of rail gauge was mentioned in an 1889 military defence report authored by British army officer Major GeneralJames Bevan Edwards,who said that the full benefit of the railways would not be attained until a uniform gauge was established. Until the turn of the 20th century, the benefits of a uniform gauge were not immediately apparent, since passengers had to pass through customs and immigration at the intercolonial border, meaning that all goods would have to be removed for customs inspection. It was only withFederationin 1901 and its introduction of free trade between the states that the impediment of different gauges became apparent.

Post Federation

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At the time of Federation, standard gauge was used only in NSW, but was favoured[by whom?]for future construction. Work on gauge conversion was assisted by section 51 (xxxiii) of theConstitution of Australia,which made specific provisions for theCommonwealth Parliamentto make laws with respect to railway acquisition and construction. An agreement was made with theSouth AustralianandWestern Australianstate governments for theTrans-Australian RailwayfromPort AugustatoKalgoorlie,with work started in 1911 and completed in 1917.[28]However, with the different gauges, to transport goods from Queensland to Perth required four transhipments.

Western Australia Pilbara railway track gauges
Western Australia South West railway track gauges

1921 royal commission

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In October 1921, aroyal commissioninto uniform rail gauge recommended gauge conversion of large areas of the country and that:

  • the gauge of 4 feet 81⁄2 inches be adopted as the standard
  • no mechanical, third rail, or other device would meet the situation
  • uniformity could be secured by one means only, viz., by conversion of the gauges other than 4 ft 81⁄2in.[29]

The subject was discussed at a conference of the Prime Minister with the Premiers in November 1921, when it was decided to adopt 4 ft 81⁄2in as the standard gauge for Australia and it was resolved that adoption of a uniform gauge was essential to the development and safety of the nation.[30]

Following the royal commission, agreements were made for the standard gaugeNSW North Coast lineto be extended fromKyogletoSouth Brisbane(completed in 1930) and for the Trans-Australian Railway to be extended from Port Augusta toPort Pirie(completed 1937).[28]

By the outbreak ofWorld War IIin 1939, there were still 14break-of-gaugelocations, with upwards of 1600 service personnel and many more civilians employed to transfer 1.8 million tons of freight during the conflict. The breaks of gauge were at the following places:[28]

Location State Gauge
Narrow Standard Broad
South Brisbane Queensland x x
Wallangarra Queensland x x
Albury New South Wales x x
Oaklands New South Wales x x
Tocumwal New South Wales x x
Broken Hill New South Wales x x
Mount Gambier South Australia x x
Serviceton Victoria x x
Terowie South Australia x x
Peterborough South Australia x x x
Gladstone South Australia x x x
Port Pirie South Australia x x x
Port Augusta South Australia x x
Kalgoorlie Western Australia x x
  • Hamley Bridgeceased to be a break of gauge point in 1927 when the broad gauge was extended toGladstone.[31]
  • South Brisbaneceased to be a break of gauge point when theNSW North Coast linewas extended over theMerivale BridgetoRoma Streetin 1986.
  • Acacia Ridgewas developed as a break-of-gauge yard in Brisbane in the 1970s to relieve overcrowding at Clapham goods station, which is opposite the Moorooka passenger station.
  • The NSW North Coast line from Acacia Ridge toBromeltonwas dual gauged in 2009 as part of the Nucleus Transmodal Hub to relieve overcrowding at Acacia Ridge.[32]


Break-of-gauge devices

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Track layout diagram of Terowie break-of-gauge station (South Australian Railways), 1913

In 1922, 273 inventions to solve thebreak-of-gaugehad been proposed, and none adopted.[33]In 1933, as many as 140 devices were proposed by inventors to solve the break-of-gauge problem, none of which was adopted.[34]

Evendual gaugewith a third rail for combiningIrish gaugeandstandard gaugewas rejected as too reckless, as the gap between these gauges of 6.5 inches (165 mm) was considered to be too small.[35]Dual gauge combining Irish gauge andnarrow gaugewhere the gap was 21 in (530 mm) was also rejected.[36]

Opposition to a third rail

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AlthoughPrime MinisterBilly Hugheshad expressed support for the idea of a third rail solving the break of gauge difficulty, the predominant opinion of senior officers of the railways was to oppose it.[37]

Clapp Report

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A map (reconstructed) of the 1945 Clapp Report proposals for standardisation of Australia's railways. (Click to enlarge.)

After the wartime experience, a report into the Standardisation of Australia's rail gauges was completed by formerVictorian RailwaysChief CommissionerHarold Clappfor the Commonwealth Land Transport Board in March 1945. It included three main proposals:[28]

The report wrote that if only main trunk lines were converted, it would introduce a multitude of break of gauge terminals and result in greatly increased costs. It also recommended abandoning part of the existingPerth to Kalgoorlie narrow gauge line,and build a flatter and straighter route using third raildual gauge,as modernisation was just as important as standardisation.[38]

South Australia was unhappy with the report, as the link to the Northern Territory would not run through its state. Western Australia and Queensland both saw no advantage in the report, as they already had a common gauge in their states, and only one main break of gauge. NSW entered into the agreement to advance gauge standardisation in Victoria and South Australia, but did not ratify it.[38]

Gauge conversion continued, with theSouth Australian Railways'Mount Gambier linefromWolseleytoMount Gambierand associated branches converted to broad gauge in the 1950s, on the understanding it would change again to standard gauge at a later date, which would have made it the first and only railway in Australia to have successfully been converted to all three gauges. It closed in 1995. Standard gauge lines were also built, with thelinebetweenStirling NorthandMarreeopened in July 1957.[38]

Wentworth Committee

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Dual gauge1,067 mm(3 ft 6 in) & (1,435 mm(4 ft8+1⁄2in) track on theEastern Railwayin December 2005
Dual gauge1,067 mm(3 ft 6 in) and (1,435 mm(4 ft8+1⁄2in)Eastern RailwayinPerthwith anIndian Pacificservice in December 2014

In 1956, a Government Members Rail Standardisation Committee was established, chaired byWilliam Wentworth MP.[39]It found that while there was still considerable doubt as to the justification for large scale gauge conversion, there was no doubt that work on some main trunk lines was long overdue. Both the committee and the government strongly supported three standardisation projects at a cost of £41.5 million:

The Commonwealth, NSW and Victorian governments were first to start work, with the first freight train operating on the convertedNorth East lineto Melbourne operating in January 1962 and the first through passenger train in April 1962. Over the next 12 months, net freight tonnage was up 32.5%. To 1973, there was an average increase of 8.6%.[39]

The work in Western Australia was predicated by an agreement entered into in November 1960 between the state government andBHPfor a standard gauge line to be built to allow iron ore fromKoolyanobbingto be shipped to a new steel mill atKwinana.A new dual gaugelinewas built through theAvon ValleyfromMidlandtoNorthamon 1 in 200 grades instead of 1 in 40.[22]A newlinewas built fromSouthern CrosstoKalgoorliethough Koolyanobbing.[39]

The first wheat train ran fromMerredinto Fremantle in November 1966. The first iron ore train ran from Koolyanobbing to Kwinana in April 1967. The line opened in full in August 1969. Kalgoorlie to Perth freight train times were reduced from 31 hours to 13 hours, and passenger train times from 14 hours to 8 hours. A new line was built fromWoodbridgeto Kwinana. One of the tracks on theFremantle lineconverted to dual track fromCockburnJunction toFremantle Harbour.[40]TheEastern Railwayin Perth was converted to dual gauge and a newterminus stationbuilt.

In November 1971, following the discovery of rich nickel deposits, work started on converting the 640 kilometre line fromLeonoratoEsperance,including 90 kilometres of track on a new alignment. The work was completed in September 1974.[40]

In South Australia, work onPort PirietoBroken Hillstarted in 1963. The narrow gauge lines fromGladstoneandPeterboroughwere not converted, with triple gauge yards provided. Standard gauge access to Adelaide was not provided.[39]FromCockburnto Broken Hill a new railway was built on an improved alignment, avoiding the privateSilverton Tramwayroute.[41]The completion of this link enabled the firstIndian Pacificto run across the nation in March 1970 from Sydney to Perth.

1970s

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A new line betweenTarcoolaandAlice Springswas given the go ahead by theWhitlam governmentin 1974. Built to replace the narrow gaugeCentral Australia Railway,the 831 kilometre longlinewas completed in 1980.[42]

1980s

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Dual gauge1,435 mm(4 ft8+1⁄2in) and1,600 mm(5 ft 3 in) track inGeelong

Work on standard gauge access toAdelaidestarted in 1982 with conversion of the broad gauge south of Red Hill. A new line went north of there toCrystal Brook,where it met thestandard gauge linefrom Port Pirie to Broken Hill. Freight trains began using the line in 1983, and passenger trains in 1984, whenAdelaide Parklands Terminalopened. With benefits exceeding the cost by 2.8 times over 25 years,Australian Nationalwas able to obtain a loan for the funding of the work.[41]

1990s

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As part of theKeating government'sOne Nationproject, theMelbourne-Adelaide railwayline was converted to standard gauge in 1995.[43][44]TheHopetoun,PortlandandYaapeetlines in Victoria, and thePinnaroo,LoxtonandApamurralines in South Australia were also gauge converted. The remaining isolated broad gauge and narrow gauge lines were closed, with theMount GambierandMount Barkerlines being the most controversial.[45]TheFisherman Islands linewas converted to dual gauge in 1997 to serve thePort of Brisbane.[43]

21st century projects

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Outer Harbor stationwith gauge convertiblesleepersin November 2005

Gauge conversionof 2,000 kilometres of track in Victoria was announced by the state government in May 2001 but did not proceed due to the difficulty of achieving any agreement with then track manager,Freight Australia.[44][46]In 2010, 200 kilometres of theNorth East linein Victoria was gauge converted betweenSeymourandAlbury.[47]In the same year, standard gauge access was provided to thePort of Geelong,13 years after the conversion to standard gauge of theWestern standard gauge linebetween Melbourne and Adelaide, which runs through the northern suburbs ofGeelong.[48]

TheOaklands branch linewas converted in 2009 to standard gauge as part of the project to standardise the North East line, to prevent that branch becoming isolated as an orphan.[49]

To allow the creation of the Nucleus Transmodal Hub atBromelton, Queensland,theAcacia Ridgeto Bromelton section of theNSW North Coast linewas converted to dual gauge in 2009, however it was not used until 2017.[32][50]

In November 2012,Brookfield Railcompleted an upgrade on theMorawatoGeraldtonline with gauge convertiblesleepersinstalled to allow for conversion in the future.[51][52]TheMildura railway lineand theMurrayville railway linesin Victoria were converted to standard gauge in 2018.[citation needed]

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  • Triple gauge–1067 mm(3 ft 6 in),1435 mm(4 ft8+1⁄2in) and1600 mm(5 ft 3 in) tracks atGladstone (SA)in 1986
  • Triple-gauge track on turntable,Gladstone,South Australia
  • South Australian Railways broad and narrow gauge turnout -- both depart, BG ahead -- Gladstone (KNorgrove)
  • Cross-section dimensions of triple-gauge track atGladstoneandPeterborough,South Australia(click to enlarge)
  • Triple Gauge Australia
  • Track layout diagram of Terowie break-of-gauge station (South Australian Railways), 1913
  • 1600 mm(5 ft 3 in)Craigieburn lineand1435 mm(4 ft8+1⁄2in)North East lineinMelbourne
  • South Australian Railways triple-gauge change-over trackwork, from one common rail to NG in middle

Notes

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  1. ^Excludeslight rail (tram lines)andsugar canelines.

References

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  1. ^"Trainline 9"(PDF).Bureau of Infrastructure, Transport and Regional Economics.Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development and Communications. 26 May 2022.Retrieved27 May2022.: 64 
  2. ^ab"Trainline 8"(PDF).Bureau of Infrastructure, Transport and Regional Economics.Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development and Communications; and the Australasian Railway Association. January 2021.Retrieved1 May2022.: 58 
  3. ^"Trainline 7 statistical report"(PDF).Bureau of Infrastructure, Transport and Regional Economics.Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development and Communications; and the Australasian Railway Association. December 2019.Retrieved23 March2020.: 58 
  4. ^Browning, John (2007)."Queensland sugar cane railways today".Light Railway Research Society of Australia Inc.Retrieved23 March2020.
  5. ^"The Proposed Railroad".The South Australian.Adelaide. 12 December 1845. p. 3.Retrieved6 November2014– via National Library of Australia.
  6. ^"Army and Navy".South Australian Register.Adelaide. 24 June 1846. p. 4.Retrieved25 October2014– via National Library of Australia.
  7. ^"The South Australian Register".South Australian Register.Adelaide. 8 August 1846. p. 2.Retrieved25 October2014– via National Library of Australia.
  8. ^"Court of Common Council".Sydney Morning Herald.21 August 1846. p. 3.Retrieved25 October2014– via National Library of Australia.
  9. ^"Proceedings of the Legislative Council".The South Australian.Adelaide. 8 October 1847. p. 3.Retrieved8 January2013– via National Library of Australia.
  10. ^"Break of Gauge".The Argus.Melbourne. 8 April 1911. p. 6.Retrieved30 November2010– via National Library of Australia.
  11. ^"Maitland Mercury".The Maitland Mercury and Hunter River General Advertiser.Maitland. 20 June 1849. p. 2.Retrieved6 November2014– via National Library of Australia.
  12. ^"Legislative Council".South Australian Register.Adelaide. 20 February 1850. p. 3.Retrieved27 August2011– via National Library of Australia.4' 8.5 "Gauge in Adelaide
  13. ^"Colonial Railways".Sydney Morning Herald.15 June 1849. p. 3.Retrieved19 October2013– via National Library of Australia.
  14. ^"The journey to Australia".Gold.Special Broadcasting Service Australia. 2018.Retrieved19 February2018.
  15. ^Mills 2007,p. 99.
  16. ^Laird 2001,p. 185
  17. ^Mills 2007,pp. 91–111.
  18. ^Mills 2007,pp. 125–129.
  19. ^abcdLaird 2001,p. 186
  20. ^Harrigan, Leo J. (1962).Victorian Railways to '62.Melbourne: Victorian Railways Public Relations and Betterment Board.
  21. ^Mills 2007,p. 127.
  22. ^ab"The Conversion to Standard Gauge".Technology in Australia 1788–1988.www.austehc.unimelb.edu.au. p. 380.Retrieved20 July2008.
  23. ^Pollard, Neville (February 2014). "Australian's Uniform Gauge Debacle, Part 1".Australian Railway History.Vol. 65, no. 916. p. 4.
  24. ^"THE PARLIAMENT".The South Australian Advertiser.9 January 1867. p. 3.Retrieved19 April2017– via National Library of Australia.
  25. ^"THE PARLIAMENT".The Express and Telegraph.Vol. V, no. 1, 214. South Australia. 13 December 1867. p. 2 (LATE EDITION.).Retrieved19 April2017– via National Library of Australia.
  26. ^Evans, John (April 2014). "The Uniform Gauge Question: A South Australian Perspective".Australian Railway History.Vol. 65, no. 918. p. 5.
  27. ^"Factors Impeding Developments".Technology in Australia 1788–1988.www.austehc.unimelb.edu.au. p. 375.Retrieved20 July2008.
  28. ^abcdeLaird 2001,p. 187
  29. ^"Railways - Break of Gauge Problem - Report of Royal Commission".Parliament of Australia. 12 October 1921.Retrieved15 April2024.
  30. ^"Standardisation of Railway Gauges".Year Book Australia, 1967.Australian Bureau of Statistics. 25 January 1967.Retrieved15 April2024.
  31. ^The Big PushThe Register1 August 1927
  32. ^abThe $55.8 million dual gauge rail line from Acacia Ridge to Bromelton remains unfinishedQuest Newspapers10 November 2014
  33. ^"Break of Gauge".The Daily News.Perth. 12 January 1922. p. 2.Retrieved26 October2013– via National Library of Australia.
  34. ^"Break of Gauge".The Brisbane Courier.Brisbane. 14 August 1933. p. 15.Retrieved27 August2011– via National Library of Australia.
  35. ^"Great Western Railway".The Argus.Melbourne. 11 March 1926. p. 7.Retrieved26 August2011– via National Library of Australia.
  36. ^"Standard Gauge Plan Postponed".The Argus.Melbourne. 17 February 1941. p. 5.Retrieved26 August2011– via National Library of Australia.
  37. ^"Uniform Gauge".The North Western Advocate and the Emu Bay Times.Tasmania. 1 June 1916. p. 3.Retrieved27 October2013– via National Library of Australia.
  38. ^abcLaird 2001,p. 188
  39. ^abcdLaird 2001,p. 189
  40. ^abWestrail A concise history.Westrail. 1981. pp. 8, 13.
  41. ^abLaird 2001,p. 190
  42. ^"Tarcoola-Alice Springs Railway".Technology in Australia 1788–1988.www.austehc.unimelb.edu.au. p. 379.Retrieved20 July2008.
  43. ^abLaird 2001,p. 191
  44. ^abJohn Hearsch (1 February 2007)."Victoria's Regional Railway Past, Present and Potential"(PDF).RTSA Regional Rail Symposium, Wagga Wagga.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 30 August 2007.Retrieved8 February2008.
  45. ^Evans, John (April 2014). "The Uniform Gauge Question: A South Australian Perspective".Australian Railway History.Vol. 65, no. 918. pp.3–10.
  46. ^Rail Gauge Standardisation ProjectAudito General Victoria August 2006
  47. ^"$500m rail link upgrade for Victoria".news.ninemsn.com.au. Archived fromthe originalon 5 June 2011.Retrieved30 May2008.
  48. ^"Corio Independent Goods Line Guide".Rail Geelong.www.railgeelong.com.Retrieved14 October2008.
  49. ^Rail Safety Investigation Report Derailment of El Zorro Grain Service 5CM7 Rennie 3 January 2013Archived29 February 2016 at theWayback MachineOffice of Rail Safety Investigations
  50. ^"The brand new Bromelton terminal received its very first freight train on 21 January 2017".Archived fromthe originalon 29 June 2020.Retrieved26 June2020.
  51. ^The MidWest Rail UpgradeBrookfield Rail
  52. ^Mixed fortunes for Western Australian projectsArchived6 June 2013 at theWayback MachineInternational Railway Journal16 November 2012

Further reading

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