Reduplication

Inlinguistics,reduplicationis amorphologicalprocess in which therootorstemof aword,part of that, or the whole word is repeated exactly or with a slight change.

Occurrence of reduplication across world languages

The classic observation on the semantics of reduplication isEdward Sapir's:"Generally employed, with self-evident symbolism, to indicate such concepts as distribution, plurality, repetition, customary activity, increase of size, added intensity, continuance."It is used ininflectionsto convey a grammatical function, such as plurality or intensification, and inlexicalderivationto create new words. It is often used when a speaker adopts a tone more expressive or figurative than ordinary speech and is also often, but not exclusively,iconicin meaning. It is found in a wide range of languages and language groups, though its level oflinguistic productivityvaries. Examples can be found in language as old asSumerian,where it was used in forming somecolor terms,e.g.babbar"white",kukku"black".

Reduplicationis the standard term for this phenomenon in the linguistics literature. Other occasional terms includecloning,doubling,duplication,repetition,andtautonym(when it is used inbiological taxonomies,such asBison bison).

Typological description

Form

Reduplication is often describedphonologicallyin one of two ways: either (1) as reduplicatedsegments(sequences ofconsonants/vowels) or (2) as reduplicatedprosodicunits(syllablesormoras). In addition to phonological description, reduplication often needs to be describedmorphologicallyas a reduplication of linguisticconstituents(i.e.words,stems,roots). As a result, reduplication is interesting theoretically as it involves the interface between phonology and morphology.

Thebaseis the word (or part of the word) that is to be copied. The reduplicated element is called thereduplicant,often abbreviated asREDor sometimes justR.

In reduplication, the reduplicant is most often repeated only once. In some languages, it can occur more than once, resulting in a tripled form, and not adupleas in most reduplication.Triplicationis the term for this phenomenon of copying two times.Pingelapesehas both forms.In this article, English translations of words are shown in apostrophes:

Basic verb	Reduplication	Triplication
kɔul'to sing'	kɔukɔul'singing'	kɔukɔukɔul'still singing'
mejr'to sleep'	mejmejr'sleeping'	mejmejmejr'still sleeping'

Triplication occurs in other languages, e.g.Ewe,Shipibo,Twi,Mokilese,Min Nan(Hokkien),Stau.

Sometimesgemination(i.e. the doubling of consonants or vowels) is considered to be a form of reduplication. The termduplemehas been used (aftermorpheme) to refer to different types of reduplication that have the same meaning.

Full and partial

Full reduplicationinvolves a reduplication of the entire word. For example,Khamderives reciprocal forms fromreflexiveforms by total reduplication:

		[ɡin]	'ourselves'	→	[ɡinɡin]	'we (to) us'	(ɡin-ɡin)
		[jaː]	'themselves'	→	[jaːjaː]	'they (to) them'	(jaː-jaː)	(Watters 2002)

Another example is from MusqueamHalkomelem"dispositional"aspectformation:

		[kʼʷə́ɬ]	'to capsize'	→	[kʼʷə́ɬkʼʷəɬ]	'likely to capsize'	(kʼʷə́ɬ-kʼʷəɬ)
		[qʷél]	'to speak'	→	[qʷélqʷel]	'talkative'	(qʷél-qʷel)	(Shaw 2004)

Partial reduplicationinvolves a reduplication of only part of the word. For example,Marshalleseforms words meaning 'to wear X' by reduplicating the lastconsonant-vowel-consonant(CVC) sequence of a base, i.e.base+CVC:

		kagir	'belt'	→	kagirgir	'to wear a belt'	(kagir-gir)
		takin	'sock'	→	takinkin	'to wear socks'	(takin-kin)	(Moravsik 1978)

Many languages often use both full and partial reduplication, as in theMotuexample below:

Base verb	Full reduplication	Partial reduplication
mahuta'to sleep'	mahutamahuta'to sleep constantly'	mamahuta'to sleep (plural)'
	(mahuta-mahuta)	(ma-mahuta)

Reduplicant position

Reduplication may beinitial(i.e.prefixal),final(i.e.suffixal), orinternal(i.e.infixal), e.g.

Initialreduplication inAgta(CV- prefix):

		[ɸuɾab]	'afternoon'	→	[ɸuɸuɾab]	'late afternoon'	(ɸu-ɸuɾab)
		[ŋaŋaj]	'a long time'	→	[ŋaŋaŋaj]	'a long time (in years)'	(ŋa-ŋaŋaj)	(Healey 1960)

Finalreduplication inDakota(-CCV suffix):

		[hãska]	'tall (singular)'	→	[hãskaska]	'tall (plural)'	(hãska-ska)
		[waʃte]	'good (singular)'	→	[waʃteʃte]	'good (plural)'	(waʃte-ʃte)	(Shaw 1980, Marantz 1982, Albright 2002)

Internalreduplication inSamoan(-CV- infix):

		savali	'he/she walks' (singular)	→	savavali	'they walk' (plural)	(sa-va-vali)
		alofa	'he/she loves' (singular)	→	alolofa	'they love' (plural)	(a-lo-lofa)	(Moravcsik 1978, Broselow and McCarthy 1984)
		le tamaloa	'the man' (singular)	→	tamaloloa	'men' (plural)	(tama-lo-loa)

Internal reduplication is much less common than the initial and final types.

Copying direction

A reduplicant can copy from either the left edge of a word (left-to-rightcopying) or from the right edge (right-to-leftcopying). There is a tendency for prefixing reduplicants to copy left-to-right and for suffixing reduplicants to copy right-to-left:

InitialL → Rcopying in OykangandKunjen(aPama–Nyunganlanguage ofAustralia):

		[eder]	→	[ededer]	'rain'	(ed-eder)
		[alɡal]	→	[alɡalɡal]	'straight'	(alg-algal)

FinalR → Lcopying inSirionó:

		achisia	→	achisiasia	'I cut'	(achisia-sia)
		ñimbuchao	→	ñimbuchaochao	'to come apart'	(ñimbuchao-chao)	(McCarthy and Prince 1996)

Copying from the other direction is possible although less common:

InitialR → Lcopying inTillamook:

		[ɡaɬ]	'eye'	→	[ɬɡaɬ]	'eyes'	(ɬ-ɡaɬ)
		[təq]	'break'	→	[qtəq]	'they break'	(q-təq)	(Reichard 1959)

FinalL → Rcopying inChukchi:

		nute-	'ground'	→	nutenut	'ground (abs. sg.)'	(nute-nut)
		jilʔe-	'gopher'	→	jilʔejil	'gopher (abs. sg.)'	(jilʔe-jil)	(Marantz 1982)

Internal reduplication can also involve copying the beginning or end of the base. In Quileute, the first consonant of the base is copied and inserted after the first vowel of the base.

InternalL → Rcopying inQuileute:

		[tsiko]	'he put it on'	→	[tsitsko]	'he put it on (frequentative)'	(tsi-ts-ko)
		[tukoːjoʔ]	'snow'	→	[tutkoːjoʔ]	'snow here and there'	(tu-t-ko:jo’)	(Broselow and McCarthy 1984)

In Temiar, the last consonant of the root is copied and inserted before the medial consonant of the root.

InternalR → Lcopying inTemiar(anAustroasiaticlanguage ofMalaysia):

		[sluh]	'to shoot (perfective)'	→	[shluh]	'to shoot (continuative)'	(s-h-luh)
		[slɔɡ]	'to marry (perfective)'	→	[sɡlɔɡ]	'to marry (continuative)'	(s-ɡ-lɔɡ)	(Broselow and McCarthy 1984, Walther 2000)

A rare type of reduplication is found inSemai(an Austroasiatic language of Malaysia). "Expressive minor reduplication" is formed with an initial reduplicant that copies the first and last segment of the base:

		[kʉːʔ]	→	[kʔkʉːʔ]	'to vomit'	(kʔ-kʉːʔ)
		[dŋɔh]	→	[dhdŋɔh]	'appearance of nodding constantly'	(dh-dŋɔh)
		[cruhaːw]	→	[cwcruhaːw]	'monsoon rain'	(cw-cruhaːw)	Diffloth 1973

With other morphological processes

All the examples above consist of only reduplication, which also often occurs with other phonological and morphological processes, such asvowel alternation,deletionandaffixationof non-reduplicating material.

For instance, inTz'utujila new '-ish' adjective form is derived from other words by suffixing the reduplicated first consonant of the base followed by the segment[oχ].This can be written succinctly as-Coχ.Below are some examples:

• [kaq]'red' →[kaqkoχ]'reddish'(kaq-k-oχ)
• [qʼan]'yellow' →[qʼanqʼoχ]'yellowish'(qʼan-qʼ-oχ)
• [jaʔ]'water' →[jaʔjoχ]'watery'(jaʔ-j-oχ)(Dayley 1985)

Somalihas a similar suffix that is used in forming the plural of some nouns:-aC(whereCis the last consonant of the base):

• [toɡ]'ditch' →[toɡaɡ]'ditches'(toɡ-a-ɡ)
• [ʕad]'lump of meat' →[ʕadad]'lumps of meat'(ʕad-a-d)
• [wɪːl]'boy' →[wɪːlal]'boys'(wɪːl-a-l)(Abraham 1964)

This combination of reduplication and affixation is commonly referred to asfixed-segment reduplication.

InTohono O'odhaminitial reduplication also involvesgeminationof the first consonant in the distributive plural and in repetitive verbs:

• [nowiu]'ox' →[nonnowiu]'ox (distributive)' (no-n-nowiu)
• [hódai]'rock' →[hohhodai]'rock (distributive)' (ho-h-hodai)
• [kow]'dig out of ground (unitative)' →[kokkow]'dig out of ground (repetitive)' (ko-k-kow)
• [ɡɨw]'hit (unitative)' →[ɡɨɡɡɨw]'hit (repetitive)'(ɡɨ-ɡ-ɡɨw)(Haugen forthcoming)

Sometimes gemination can be analyzed as a type of reduplication.

Phonological processes, environment, and reduplicant-base relations

• overapplication
• underapplication
• backcopying – A putative phenomenon of over-application in the reduplicant of a process triggered by the reduplicant in the base
• base-reduplicant "identity" (OTterminology: BR-faithfulness)
• tonal transfer/non-transfer

Function and meaning

In theMalayo-Polynesianfamily, reduplication is used to form plurals (among many other functions):

• Malayrumah"house",rumah-rumah"houses".

In pre-1972IndonesianandMalaysianorthography,2was shorthand for the reduplication that forms plurals:orang"person",orang-orangororang2"people".This orthography has resurfaced widely in text messaging and other forms of electronic communication.

TheNama languageuses reduplication to increase the force of averb:go,"look;",go-go"examine with attention".

ChineseandJapanesedo not make morphological use of reduplication, but some words are formed this way, often with a collective sense:Nhânrén"person",Nhân nhânrénrén"everybody";Thờitoki"time",tokidokiThời 々"sometimes, from time to time". Theiteration mark々can be used to indicate reduplication, although in Chinese the iteration mark is no longer used in standard writing and is often found only incalligraphy.

Indo-European languagesformerly used reduplication to form a number ofverbforms, especially in thepreteriteorperfect.In the older Indo-European languages, many such verbs survive:

• spondeo,spopondi(Latin,"I vow, I vowed" )
• λείπω, λέλοιπα(Greek,"I leave, I left" )
• δέρκομαι, δέδορκα(Greek, "I see, I saw"; these Greek examples exhibitablautas well as reduplication)
• háitan,haíháit(Gothic,"to name, I named" )

Those forms do not survive in Modern English but existed in its parentGermanic languages.Many verbs in the Indo-European languages exhibit reduplication in thepresentstem, rather than the perfect stem, often with a different vowel from that used for the perfect: Latingigno, genui( "I beget, I begat" ) and Greek τίθημι, ἔθηκα, τέθηκα (I place, I placed, I have placed). Other Indo-European verbs used reduplication as a derivational process: compare Latinsto( "I stand" ) andsisto( "I remain" ). All of those Indo-European inherited reduplicating forms are subject to reduction by other phonological laws.

Reduplication can be used to refer to the most prototypical instance of a word's meaning. In such a case, it is calledcontrastive focus reduplication.Finnish colloquial speech uses the process; nouns can be reduplicated to indicate genuinity, completeness, originality and being uncomplicated, as opposed to being fake, incomplete, complicated or fussy. It can be thought as compound word formation. For example,Söin jäätelöä ja karkkia, sekä tietysti ruokaruokaa."I ate ice cream and candy, and of course food-food". Here, "food-food" is contrasted to "junk-food". One may say, "En ollut eilen koulussa, koska olin kipeä. Siis kipeäkipeä" ( "I wasn't at school yesterday because I was sick. Sick-sick, that is" ); that means that one was actually suffering from an illness instead of making up excuses, as usual.

• ruoka"food",ruokaruoka"proper food", as opposed to snacks
• peli"game",pelipeli"complete game", as opposed to amod
• puhelin"phone",puhelinpuhelin"phone for talking", as opposed to a pocket computer
• kauas"far away",kauaskauas"unquestionably far away"
• koti"home",kotikoti"home of your parents", as opposed to one's current place of residence

Words can be reduplicated with their case morphemes, as inlomalla lomalla( "away, on vacation, on leave" ), where the adessive morpheme --llaappears twice.

InSwiss German,the verbsgahorgoh"go",cho"come",laorlo"let" andaafaoraafo"begin" reduplicate when they are combined with other verbs.

Si

she

chunt

comes

üse

our

Chrischtboum

Christmas tree

cho

come

schmücke.

adorn

Si chunt üse Chrischtboum cho schmücke.

she comes our {Christmas tree}comeadorn

She comes to adorn our Christmas tree.

Si

she

lat

lets

ne

him

nid

not

la

let

schlafe.

sleep

Si lat ne nid la schlafe.

she lets him notletsleep

She doesn't let him sleep.

In someSalishan languages,reduplication can mark both diminution and plurality, with one process being applied to each end of the word, as in the following example fromShuswap.Note that the transcription is not comparable to theIPA,but the reduplication of both initial and final portions of the root is clear:ṣōk!Emē'’n'knife' reduplicated asṣuk!ṣuk!Emen'’me’n'plural small knives' (Haeberlin 1918:159). Reduplication has been found to be a major part of Salish languages.

Babbling in child language acquisition

At 25–50 weeks after birth, typically developing infants go through a stage of reduplicated or canonicalbabbling(Stark 198, Oller, 1980). Canonical babbling is characterized by repetition of identical or nearly identical consonant-vowel combinations, such asnananaoridididi.It appears as a progression of language development as infants experiment with their vocal apparatus and home in on the sounds used in their native language. Canonical/reduplicated babbling also appears at a time when general rhythmic behavior, such as rhythmic hand movements and rhythmic kicking, appear. Canonical babbling is distinguished from earlier syllabic and vocal play, which has less structure.

Examples

Indo-European

Proto-Indo-European

TheProto-Indo-European languageused partial reduplication of a consonant andein manystative aspectverb forms. The perfect or preterite (past) tense of someAncient Greek,Gothic,Latin,Sanskrit,Old Irish,andOld Norseverbs preserve this reduplication:

• Ancient Greekλύωlúō'I free' vs.λέλυκαléluka"I have freed"
• Gothichald"I hold" vs.haíhald(hĕhald) "I/he held"
• Latincurrō"I run" vs.cucurrī"I ran" or "have run"
• Old Irishmaidid"it breaks" vs.memaid"it broke"
• Old Norserœ"I row" vs.rera(røra) "I rowed"
• Sanskritलिखतिlikhati'he writes' vs.लिलेखlilekha"he has written" or "he wrote"
• A rare modern English reflex isdovs.did

Proto-Indo-European also used reduplication for theimperfective aspect.Ancient Greek preserves this reduplication in the present tense of some verbs. Usually, but not always, this is reduplication of a consonant andi,and contrasts with e-reduplication in the perfect:

• δίδωμιdídōmi"I give" (present)
• δέδωκαdédōka"I have given" (perfect)
• *σίσδωsísdō→ἵζωhízō"I set" (present)
• *σέσδομαιsésdomai→ἕζομαιhézomai"I sit down" (present; from sd-,zero-gradeofrootin *sed-os → ἕδοςhédos"seat, abode" )

Reduplication in nouns was rare, the best example being Proto-Indo-European*kʷé-kʷl-os'wheel' (cf.Lithuaniankãklas'neck',Sanskritcakrá'wheel',Greekκύκλος(kýklos) 'circle'), which doubled *kʷel-o-(cf.Old Prussiankelan'wheel',Welshpêl'ball'),itself likely a deverbative of *kʷelh₁-'to turn'.

English

English has several types of reduplication, ranging from informal expressive vocabulary (the first four forms below) to grammatically meaningful forms (the last two below). See also thealliteration section of the irreversible binomial articlefor cases likeflip-flopanddribs and drabs.

• Rhyming reduplication:Artsy-fartsy,boogie-woogie,okey-dokey, easy-peasy, hanky-panky,hocus-pocus,hoity-toity, hokey-pokey,holy moly,hurdy-gurdy,itsy-bitsy, namby-pamby, raggle-taggle, ragtag, razzle-dazzle, super-duper, teenie-weenie, willy-nilly, wingding.
• Exact reduplications:Ack ack, aye-aye, back-to-back, blah-blah, boo-boo, bye-bye, chin-chin, choo-choo, chow-chow, dik-dik, doo-doo, fifty-fifty, gogo, ha ha, half-and-half, honk-honk, housey-housey, juju, klop-klop, mama,muumuu,night-night, no-no, papa, pee-pee, pip-pip,pom-pom,poo-poo, pooh-pooh,putt putt,so-so, ta-ta, there-there, tut-tut,tutu,wah-wah,wee-wee,yo-yo.While in many forms of English, exact reduplications can also be used to emphasise the strength of a word ( "He wants itnownow "), in South African English, 'now-now' means 'relatively soon'.
  • lexical reduplication: 'Each-each boy take one-one chair.'Indian English
• Ablaut reduplications:Inablautreduplications, the first vowel is almost always ahigh vowelorfront vowel(typically ɪ as in hit) and the reduplicated vowel is alow vowelorback vowel(typically æ as incator ɒ as intop). Examples include: bric-a-brac, chit-chat, clip-clop, ding-dong, flimflam,flip-flop,hip-hop,jibber-jabber, kitty-cat, knick-knack, mishmash,ping-pong,pitter-patter, riffraff, sing-song, slipslop, splish-splash, tick-tock, ticky-tacky, tip-top, whiff-whaff, wibble-wobble, wishy-washy, zig-zag. Three-part ablaut sequences are less numerous, but are attested, e.g.tic-tac-toe,bing-bang-boom, bish-bash-bosh, splish-splash-sploshand "Live, Laugh, Love".Spike Milligan's poem "On the Ning Nang Nong"achieves comic effect by varying the ordering of vowels in such triples:There's a Nong Nang Ning/Where the trees go Ping!.
• Shm-reduplicationcan be used with most any word; e.g.baby-shmaby,cancer-shmancerandfancy-shmancy.This process is a feature ofAmerican EnglishfromYiddish,starting among theAmerican JewsofNew York City,then theNew York dialectand then the whole country.

Of the above types, only shm-reduplication isproductive,meaning that examples of the first three are fixed forms and new forms are not easily accepted.

• Comparativereduplication:In the sentence "John's apple looked redder and redder," the reduplication of thecomparativeindicates that the comparative is becoming more true over time, meaning roughly "John's apple looked progressively redder as time went on." In particular, this construction doesnotmean that John's apple is redder than some other apple, which would be a possible interpretation in the absence of reduplication, e.g. in "John's apple looked redder." With reduplication, the comparison is of the object being compared to itself over time. Comparative reduplication always combines the reduplicated comparative with "and". This construction is common in speech and is used even in formal speech settings, but it is less common in formal written texts. Although English has simple constructs with similar meanings, such as "John's apple looked ever redder," these simpler constructs are rarely used in comparison with the reduplicative form. Comparative reduplication is fullyproductiveand clearly changes the meaning of any comparative to a temporal one, despite the absence of any time-related words in the construction. For example, the temporal meaning of "The frug seemed wuggier and wuggier" is clear: despite not knowing what a frug is or what wugginess is, it is easy to grasp that the apparent wugginess of the frug was increasing over time, as indicated by the reduplication of the comparative "wuggier".
• Contrastive focus reduplication:Exact reduplication can be used with contrastive focus (generally where the first noun isstressed) to indicate a literal, as opposed to figurative, example of a noun, or perhaps a sort ofPlatonic idealof the noun, as in "Is that carrotcheesecake or carrotcakecake? ".This is similar to the Finnish use mentioned above. Furthermore, it is used to contrast "real" or "pure" things against imitations or less pure forms. For example, at a coffee shop one may be asked, "Do you want soy milk?" and respond, "No, I wantmilkmilk. "This gives the idea that they want" real "milk.
• Intensificatory reduplication: Examples likea big, big problem,a long, long way,orvery very difficultare instances of intensificatory reduplication. This type of reduplication is used to intensify the meaning of the original word.It's a way of expressing that something is not just big or long, but very big or very long. This type of reduplication is typically used only with a narrow range of words, and the meaning can often be inferred even if the specific combination is not a standard idiomatic expression. The more common items includegradableadjectives (e.g.,big,great,deep,bad,old), along with intensificatory adverbs (e.g.,very,really,so) and determiners (e.g.,much). This is only possible for pre-headmodifiers,and not with othersyntactic functions.For example,a long long wayis fine, but*the way is long longis ungrammatical, andI really really want itbut not*I want it really really.

Thedouble is—such as "What I want is, is to go home" —is in some cases a type of reduplication, which may be regarded as non-standard or incorrect.

More can be learned about English reduplication inThun (1963),Cooper & Ross (1975),andNevins & Vaux (2003).

Dutch

While not common in Dutch, reduplication does exist. Most, but not all (e.g.,pipi,blauwblauw(laten),taaitaai(gingerbread)) reduplications in Dutch areloanwords(e.g.,koeskoes,bonbon,(ik hoorde het)via via) or imitative (e.g.,tamtam,tomtom).Another example is a former safe sex campaign slogan in Flanders:Eerst bla-bla, dan boem-boem(First talk, then have sex;lit.First blah-blah, then boom-boom). In Dutch the verb "gaan" (to go) can be used as an auxiliary verb, which can lead to a triplication:we gaan (eens) gaan gaan(we are going to get going). The use ofgaanas an auxiliary verb with itself is considered incorrect, but is commonly used in Flanders.Numerous examples of reduplication in Dutch (and other languages) are discussed by Daniëls (2000).

Afrikaans

Afrikaansmakes use of reduplication to emphasize the meaning of the word repeated and to denote a plural or event happening in more than one place. For example,krapmeans "to scratch one's self," whilekrap-krap-krapmeans "to scratch one's self vigorously",whereas "dit het plek-plek gereën" means "it rained here and there".Reduplication in Afrikaans has been described extensively in the literature – see for exampleBotha (1988),Van Huyssteen (2004)andVan Huyssteen & Wissing (2007).Further examples of this include: "koes" (to dodge) being reduplicated in the sentence "Piet hardloop koes-koes weg" (Piet is running away while constantly dodging / cringing); "sukkel" (to struggle) becoming "sukkel-sukkel" (making slow progress; struggling on); and "kierang" (to cheat) becoming "kierang-kierang" to indicate being cheated on repeatedly.

Romance

InItalianreduplication was used both to create new words or word associations (tran-tran,via via,leccalecca) and to intensify the meaning (piano piano"very softly" ).

Common inLingua Franca,particularly but not exclusively for onomatopoeic action descriptions: Spagnoli venir...boum boum...andar; Inglis venir...boum boum bezef...andar; Francés venir...tru tru tru...chapar.( "The Spaniards came, cannonaded, and left. The English came, cannonaded heavily, and left. The French came, trumpeted on bugles, and captured it." )

Common uses for reduplication inFrenchare the creation ofhypocoristicsfornames,wherebyLouisebecomesLoulou,andZinedine ZidanebecomesZizou;and in many nursery words, likedada'horsie' (vs.cheval'horse'),tati/tata'auntie' (vs.tante'aunt'), ortonton'unkie' (vs.oncle'uncle').

InRomanianandCatalan,reduplication is not uncommon and it has been used for both the creation of new words (including many fromonomatopoeia) and expressions, for example,

• Romanian:mormăi,țurțur,dârdâi,expressionstalmeș-balmeș,harcea-parcea,terchea-berchea,țac-pac,calea-valea,hodoronc-tronc.
• Catalan:així així, aixina aixana, balandrim-balandram, baliga-balaga, banzim-banzam, barliqui-barloqui, barrija-barreja, bitllo-bitllo, bub-bub, bum-bum, but-but, catric-catrac, cloc-cloc, cloc-piu, corre-corrents, de nyigui-nyogui, farrigo-farrago, flist-flast, fru-fru, gara-gara, gloc-gloc, gori-gori, leri-leri, nap-buf, ning-nang, ning-ning, non-non, nyam-nyam, nyau-nyau, nyec-nyec, nyeu-nyeu, nyic-nyic, nyigo-nyigo, nyigui-nyogui, passa-passa, pengim-penjam, pif-paf, ping-pong, piu-piu, poti-poti, rau-rau, ringo-rango, rum-rum, taf-taf, tam-tam, tau-tau, tic-tac, tol·le-tol·le, tric-trac, trip-trap, tris-tras, viu-viu, xano-xano, xau-xau, xerric-xerrac, xim-xim, xino-xano, xip-xap, xiu-xiu, xup-xup, zig-zag, ziga-zaga, zim-zam, zing-zing, zub-zub, zum-zum.

In colloquial Mexican Spanish it is common to use reduplicated adverbs such asluego luego(then then) meaning "immediately", orcasi casi(almost almost) which intensifies the meaning of 'almost'.

Slavic

Thereduplication in the Russian languageserves for various kinds of intensifying of the meaning and exists in several forms: ahyphenatedor repeatedword(either exact or inflected reduplication), and forms similar toshm-reduplication.

Celtic

Reduplication is a common feature ofIrishand includes the examplesrírá,ruaille buailleboth meaning "commotion" andfite fuaitemeaning "intertwined".

Indo-Aryan

Typically all Indo-Aryan languages, likeHindi,Punjabi,GujaratiandBengaliuse partial orechoic reduplicationin some form or the other. It is usually used to sound casual, or in a suggestive manner. It is often used to meanetcetera.For example, in Hindi, chai-shai (chaimeans tea, while this phrase means tea or any other supplementary drink or tea along with snacks). Quite common in casual conversations are a few more examples like shopping-wopping, khana-wana. South Asian Indo Aryan languages are also rich in other forms of reduplication: morphological (expressives), lexical (distributives), and phrasal (aspectual).

• morphological:

मनात

manaa-t

mind-in

हूर हूर

hur-hur

longing

दाटून

daaT.un

choking

येते

yete

comes

मनात {हूर हूर} दाटून येते

manaa-t hur-hur daaT.un yete

mind-in longing choking comes

'Yearning desire floods into my heart.'Marathi

Reduplication also occurs in the 3rdgaṇa(verb class) of the Sanskrit language:bibheti"he fears",bibharti"he bears",juhoti"he offers",dadāti,"he gives". Even though the general idea is to reduplicate the verb root as a prefix, several sandhi rules change the outcome.

There are a number of constructions in Hindi and Urdu that are constructed by reduplication. Nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, pronouns, all have possibility of reduplications.

(1) Reduplication of numbers	(2) Reduplication of pronouns
baccõ ko children.DAT ek-ek one-one.REDUP tɔfī toffee do. give.IMP {baccõ ko} ek-ek tɔfī do. children.DAT one-one.REDUP toffee give.IMP giveatoffeeto eachchild,one toffee per child.	tumne you.ERG kyā-kyā what-what.REDUP dekhā? saw.MASC.PRF? tumne kyā-kyā dekhā? you.ERG what-what.REDUP saw.MASC.PRF? what (all things)did you see?
bacce-bacce ko child-child.DAT pacās-pacās fifty-fifty tɔfiyā̃ toffees milī̃. received.PRF.FEM.PL {bacce-bacce ko} pacās-pacās tɔfiyā̃ milī̃. child-child.DAT fifty-fifty toffees received.PRF.FEM.PL each and every childreceived50 toffees each	jo-jo who-who.NOM āẽge will-come unhẽ them.DAT kɛhnā. say.IMP.FUT jo-jo āẽge unhẽ kɛhnā. who-who.NOM will-come them.DAT say.IMP.FUT say towhoeverwill come(to all and every visitor)
(3) Reduplication of nouns	(4) Reduplication of adjectives
baccā-baccā child-child.NOM jāntā know.PTCP hai. be.3.PRES? baccā-baccā jāntā hai. child-child.NOM know.PTCP be.3.PRES? (each and) everychild knows.	ye this garm-garm hot-hot cāy tea piyo. drink.2.IMP ye garm-garm cāy piyo. this hot-hot tea drink.2.IMP drink thishottea. (emphasis on hotness)
cāy-śāy tea-tea.NOM ho jāye? happen.PRF.SG.SUBJ? cāy-śāy {ho jāye?} tea-tea.NOM happen.PRF.SG.SUBJ? shall we have a cup of tea? (emphasis on meetingover tea)	udhar tither/that way harī-harī green-green ghās grass hai. be.3.PRS udhar harī-harī ghās hai. {tither/that way} green-green grass be.3.PRS there is(so much)green grass that way/over there. (emphasis on the quantity)
(5) Reduplication of verbs	(6) Reduplication of adverbs
khāte-khāte eat-eat.PTCP.IPFV mat not bolo. talk.2.IMP khāte-khāte mat bolo. eat-eat.PTCP.IPFV not talk.2.IMP do not talkwhile eating.	kal-kal tomorrow-tomorrow.LOC mẽ happen.3.FUT.PRF hī ho jāyegā. kal-kal mẽ {hī ho jāyegā.} tomorrow-tomorrow.LOC happen.3.FUT.PRF {} It'll be donebefore tomorrow ends.
soye-soye sleep-sleep.PTCP.PRF mar gaye. die.PRF.MASC.PL soye-soye {mar gaye.} sleep-sleep.PTCP.PRF die.PRF.MASC.PL he diedwhile sleeping/ he diedin his sleep.	cillāyī shouted.PRF.SG.FEM zor-zor se. loud-loud.INST cillāyī {zor-zor se.} shouted.PRF.SG.FEM loud-loud.INST she shoutedloudly.(emphasis on the loudness)

Armenian

InArmenian,reduplication follows the same classification as in Turkish (see below), namely emphatic reduplication, echo reduplication,and doubling. Many appear as lexical entries in Armenian lexicographical sources.

1. Emphatic reduplication, one of two interpolated consonants (փ, ս), as inկարմիր(red), which becomesկասկարմիր(very red).
2. Echo Reduplication, as inսեղան-մեղան(table schmable).
3. Doubling, as inքիչ-քիչ(little [by] little)

Turkic

Turkish

InTurkish,there are three kinds of reduplication.

Emphatic reduplication, also calledintensification:A word can be reduplicated partially, such that an emphatic stem is created to be attached to the adjective. This is done by taking the first syllable of the adjective, dropping the syllable-final phoneme, and adding one of four interpolated consonants (p, s, m, r). For example,kırmızı(red) becomeskıpkırmızı(very red);mavi(blue) becomesmasmavi(very blue);yeşil(green) becomesyemyeşil(very green), andtemiz(clean) becomestertemiz( "spotless" ). The added consonant is unpredictable, grammatically speaking; phonological studies, such as Wedel (1999), shed light on the subject.

Echo reduplication: similar toecho wordin other languages, a word can be reduplicated while replacing the initial consonants (not beingm,and possibly missing) withm.The meaning of the original word is broadened. For example,tabakmeans "plate(s)", andtabak mabakthen means "plates, dishes and such". This can be applied to all kinds of words, as inyeşil meşilmeaning "green, greenish, whatever". Although not used in formal written Turkish, it is a standard accepted construction.

Doubling: A word can be reduplicated totally, turning it into an adverb with a related meaning. For example,zaman zaman(time time) meaning "time to time" or "occasionally";uzun uzun(long long) meaning "at length." This type is used also in formal Turkish, especially in literature. There are a lot of reduplications in this category which do not, if used as one word, have a place in the Turkish language's vocabulary but is used solely in this way. These words are called mimetic in linguistics. An example is 'şırıl şırıl' (used for the sound of a waterfall). They try to give sounds to not only audible but also non-audible phenomena. For example, 'mışıl mışıl' is used for sleeping soundly.

Dravidian

Reduplication is also used inDravidian languageslikeTelugufor the same purpose.

• phrasal:

పిల్లవాడు

pillavāḍu

child

నడుస్తూ

naḍustū

walking

నడుస్తూ

naḍustū

walking

పడి

paḍi

fall

పోయాడు

pōyāḍu

went

పిల్లవాడు నడుస్తూ నడుస్తూ పడి పోయాడు

pillavāḍu naḍustū naḍustū paḍi pōyāḍu

child walking walking fall went

'The child fell down while walking.'Telugu

Bantu

Reduplication is a common phenomenon inBantu languagesand is usually used to form afrequentiveverb or for emphasis.

• Swahilipiga'to strike';pigapiga'to strike repeatedly'
• Gandaokukuba(oku-kuba) 'to strike';okukubaakuba(oku-kuba-kuba) 'to strike repeatedly, to batter'
• Chewatambalalá'to stretch one's legs';tambalalá-tambalaláto stretch one's legs repeatedly'

Popular names that have reduplication include

• Bafana Bafana
• Chipolopolo
• Eric Djemba-Djemba
• Lomana LuaLua
• Ngorongoro

Semitic

Semitic languagesfrequently reduplicate consonants, though often not the vowels that appear next to the consonants in some verb form.This can take the shape of reduplicating the antepenultimate consonant (usually the second of three),the last of two consonants, or the last two consonants.

Hebrew

InHebrew,reduplication is used in nouns, adjectives, adverbs and verbs for various reasons:

• For emphasis: inלאט לאט‎le'at le'at,where the adverbלאט‎ "slowly" is duplicated to mean "very slowly". In the slangismגבר גבר‎gever gever,the nounגבר‎ "man" is duplicated to mean a "very manly man".
• To mean "one by one":
  • יום יום‎yom yomis based onיום‎ "day", and means "every day, day by day".
  • פרה פרה‎para parais based onפרה‎ "cow", and literally means "cow by cow", referring to "one thing at a time". This is possibly a folk etymology, and a derivation from Spanish "para" meaning "stop" is possible.
• To create a diminutive: by reduplicating the last two consonants (bi-consonantal reduplication):
  • כלב‎kelev"dog"
    • כלבלב‎klavlav"puppy"
  • חתול‎khatul"cat"
    • חתלתול‎khataltul"kitten"
  • לבן‎lavan"white"
    • לבנבן‎levanban"whitish"
  • קטן‎katan"small"
    • קטנטן‎ktantan"tiny"
• To create secondary derivative verbs: by reduplicating the root or part of it:
  • dal(דל‎) "poor" >dilel(דלל‎) "to dilute", and alsodildel(דלדל‎) "to impoverish, weaken".
  • nad(נד‎) "to move, nod" >nadad(נדד‎) "to wander" but alsonidned(נדנד‎) "to swing" and - due tophono-semantic matchingof theYiddishlexical item נודיען nídyen / núdzhen "to bore, bother" - also "to bother, pest, nag, annoy".
  • tzakhak(צחק‎) "to laugh" >tzikhkek(צחקק‎) "to chuckle".
• For onomatopoeia:
  • שקשקshikshék"to make noise, rustle".
  • רשרשrishrésh"to make noise, rustle".

There are also numerous examples in the Torah, for example "אם שמוע תשמעו" which means "if you listen diligently".

Amharic

InAmharic,verb roots can be reduplicated three different ways. These can result in verbs, nouns, or adjectives (which are often derived from verbs).

From the rootsbr'break', antepenultimate reduplication producestäsäbabbärä'it was shattered'and biconsonantal reduplication producestäsbäräbbärä'it was shattered repeatedly' andsəbərbari'a shard, a shattered piece'.

From the rootkHb'pile stones into a wall', since the second radical is not fully specified, what some call "hollow", the antepenultimate reduplication process reduplicates thekinserting the vowelaalong with the consonant as a place holder for the hollow consonant, which is by some criteria antepenultimate, and producesakakabä'pile stones repeatedly'.

Japanese

A small number of nativeJapanesenouns havecollectiveforms produced by reduplication (possibly withrendaku), such as nhân 々hitobito"people" (h→bis rendaku) – these are written with theiteration mark"々" to indicate duplication. This formation is notproductiveand is limited to a small set of nouns. Similarly to Standard Chinese, the meaning is not that of a trueplural,but collectives that refer to a large, given set of the same object; for example, the formal English equivalent of nhân 々 would be "people" (collective), rather than "persons" (plural individuals).

Japanese also contains a large number ofmimetic wordsformed by reduplication of a syllable. These words include not onlyonomatopoeia,but also words intended to invoke non-auditory senses or psychological states, such as きらきらkirakira(sparkling or shining). By one count, approximately 43% of Japanese mimetic words are formed by full reduplication,and many others are formed by partial reduplication, as in がささ〜ga-sa-sa-(rustling)– compare English "a-ha-ha-ha ".

Austronesian

Austronesian languagesare known for their extensive use of reduplication in both nouns and verbs.

Malay (Indonesian and Malaysian)

In the Malay language, reduplication is a semi-productive process. It is used for expression of various grammatical functions (such as verbal aspect) and it is part in a number of complex morphological models. Simple reduplication of nouns and pronouns can express at least three meanings:

1. Diversity or non-exhaustive plurality:
   1. Burung-burung itu juga diekspor ke luar negeri= "All those birds are also exported out of the country".
2. Conceptual similarity:
   1. langit-langit= "ceiling; palate; etc." (langit= "sky" )
   2. jari-jari= "spoke; bar; radius; etc." (jari= "finger" etc.)
3. Pragmatic accentuation:
   1. Saya bukan anak-anak lagi!"I am not a child anymore!" (anak= "child" )

Reduplication of an adjective can express different things:

• Adverbialisation:Jangan bicara keras-keras!= "Don't speak loudly!" (keras= hard)
• Plurality of the corresponding noun:Rumah di sini besar-besar= "The houses here are big" (besar= "big" ).

Reduplication of a verb can express various things:

• Simple reduplication:
  • Pragmatic accentuation:Kenapa orang tidak datang-datang?= "Why aren't people coming?"
• Reduplication withme-prefixation, depending on the position of the prefixme-:
  • Repetition or continuation of the action:Orang itu memukul-mukul anaknya:"That man continuously beat his child";
  • Reciprocity:Kedua-dua orang itu pukul-memukul= "Those two men would beat each other".

Notice that in the first case, the nasalisation of the initial consonant (whereby /p/ becomes /m/) is repeated, while in the second case, it only applies in the repeated word.

Māori

TheMāori language(New Zealand) uses reduplication in a number of ways.

Reduplication can convey a simple plural meaning, for instancewahine"woman",waahine"women",tangata"person",taangata"people". Biggs calls this "infixed reduplication". It occurs in a small subset of "people" words in most Polynesian languages.

Reduplication can convey emphasis or repetition, for examplemate"die",matemate"die in numbers"; and de-emphasis, for examplewera"hot" andwerawera"warm".

Reduplication can also extend the meaning of a word; for instancepaki"pat" becomespapaki"slap or clap once" andpakipaki"applaud";kimo"blink" becomeskikimo"close eyes firmly"

Mortlockese

TheMortlockese languageis a Micronesian language spoken primarily on theMortlock Islands.In the Mortlockese language, reduplication is used to show a habitual or imperfective aspect. For example, /jææjæ/ means "to use something" while the word /jæjjææjæ/ means "to use something habitually or repeatedly".Reduplication is also used in the Mortlockese Language to show extremity or extreme measures. One example of this can be seen in /ŋiimw alɛɛtɛj/ which means "hate him, her, or it". To mean "really hate him, her, or it," the phrase changes to /ŋii~mw al~mw alɛɛtɛj/.

Pingelapese

Pingelapeseis a Micronesian language spoken on the Pingelap atoll and on two of the eastern Caroline Islands, called the high island of Pohnpei. Pingelapese utilizes both duplication and triplication of a verb or part of a verb to express that something is happening for certain duration of time. No reduplication means that something happens. A reduplicated verb means that something IS happening, and a triplication means that something is STILL happening. For example,saengmeans 'to cry' in Pingelapese. When reduplicated and triplicated, the duration of this verb is changed:

• saeng– cries
• saeng-saeng– is crying
• saeng-saeng-saeng– is still crying

Few languages employ triplication in their language. In Micronesia, Pingelapese is one of only two languages that uses triplication, the other being Mokilese. Reduplication and triplication are not to be confused with tense. In order to make a phrase past, present, or future tense, a temporal phrase must be used.

Rapa

Rapais the French Polynesian language of the island ofRapa Iti.In terms of reduplication, the indigenous language known as Old Rapa uses reduplication consistent to other Polynesian languages. Reduplication of Old Rapa occurs in four ways: full, rightward, leftward, and medial. Full and rightward are generally more frequently used as opposed to the leftward and medial. Leftward and medial only occur as CV reduplication and partial leftward and medial usually denote emphasis.

Example of reduplication forms:

	Base form	Reduplicated form
Full reduplication	kini 'pinch' kati 'bite'	kinikini'pinch skin' katikati'nibble'
Rightward reduplication	māringi 'pour' taka'uri 'go backward' pātī 'bounce' ngaru 'wave'	māringiringi'pour continuously' taka'uri'uri'roll back and forth' pātītī'splash (of raindrops)' ngaruru'sea sick'
Leftward reduplication	komo 'sleep' kume 'drag'	kokomo 'deep sleep' kukume 'large, flat leaf seaweed'
Medial reduplication	maitaki 'good; well'	maitataki 'excellent; very well'

For the Rapa Language the implementation of reduplication has specific implications. The most evident of these are known as iterative, intensification, specification, diminutive, metaphorical, nominalizing, and adjectival.

Iterative:

• naku 'come, go' → nakunaku 'pass by frequently'
• ipuni 'hide' → ipunipuni 'hide and seek'

Intensification:

• mare 'cough' → maremare 'cough forcefully'
• roa 'much' → roroa 'very much'
• maki 'sick'makimaki 'really sick'

Specification:

• kini 'to pinch' → kinikini 'pinch skin'

Diminutive:

• paki 'slap, strike'pakipaki 'clap'
• kati 'bite' → katikati 'nibble'

Metaphorical (typically comparing an animal action with a human action):

• kapa 'mime with hands' → kapakapa 'flap wings (a bird)'
• mākuru 'detach oneself' → mākurukuru 'shed or molt'
• taŋi 'Yell' → taŋitaŋi 'chirp (a bird)'

Nominalizing:

• para 'finished' → parapara 'leftovers'
• Panga'a 'divide' → panaga'anga'a 'a break, a divide'

Adjectival:

• repo 'dirt, earth' → reporepo 'dirty'
• pake 'sun' → pakepake 'shining, bright'

Tagalog

Philippine languagesare characterized as having the most productive use of reduplication, especially inTagalog(the basis of theFilipino language). Reduplication in Tagalog is complex. It can be roughly divided into six types:

1. Monosyllabic; e.g.olol( "mad" )
2. Reduplication of the final syllable; e.g.himaymay( "separate meat from bones" ), fromhimay(same meaning)
3. Reduplication of the final syllable of a disyllabic word, where the added syllable is created from the first consonant of the first syllable and the last consonant of the second syllable; e.g.kaliskis( "[fish] scale" ), fromkalis( "to scrape" )
4. Reduplication of the initial syllable of the root; e.g.susulat( "will write" ), fromsulat( "to write" )
5. Full reduplication; e.g.araw-araw( "every day" ), fromaraw( "day" or "sun" )
6. Combined partial and full reduplication; e.g.babalibaligtad( "turning around continually", "tumbling" ), frombaligtad( "reverse" )

They can further be divided into "non-significant" (where its significance is not apparent) and "significant" reduplication. 1, 2, and 3 are always non-significant; while 5 and 6 are always significant. 4 can be non-significant when used for nouns (e.g.lalaki,"man" ).

Full or partial reduplication among nouns and pronouns can indicate emphasis, intensity, plurality, or causation; as well as a diminutive, superlative, iterative, restrictive, or distributive force.

Adjectives and adverbs employ morphological reduplication for many different reasons such as number agreement when the adjective modifies a plural noun, intensification of the adjective or adverb, and sometimes because the prefix forces the adjective to have a reduplicated stem ".

Number agreement for adjectives is entirely optional in Tagalog (e.g., a plural noun does not have to have a plural article marking it):

• "Ang magandang puno" "the beautiful tree".
• "Ang magagandang puno "" the beautiful trees".

The entire adjective is repeated for intensification of adjectives or adverbs:

• Magandang maganda ang kabayo "the horse isverypretty "

In verbs, reduplication of the root, prefix or infix is employed to convey differentgrammatical aspects.In "Mag- verbs" reduplication of the root after the prefix "mag-" or "nag-" changes the verb from the infinitive form, or perfective aspect, respectively, to the contemplated or imperfective aspect.Thus:

• magluto inf/actor trigger-cook "to cook" or "cook!" (imperative)
• nagluto actor trigger-cook "cooked"
• nagluluto actor trigger-reduplication-cook "cook" (as in "I cook all the time) or" is/was cooking "
• magluluto inf/actor trigger-rdplc-cook (contemplated) "will cook"

Forergative verbs(frequently referred to as "object focus" verbs) reduplication of part the infix and the stem occur:

• lutuin cook-inf/object trigger-cook "to cook"
• niluto object trigger infix-cook (perf-cook) "cooked"
• niluluto object trigger infix-reduplication-cook "cook" / "is/was cooking"
• lulutuin rdp-cook-object trigger "will cook".

The complete superlative prefix pagka- demands reduplication of the first syllable of the adjective's stem:

• "Ang pagkagagandang puno "" Themostbeautiful tree (and there are none more beautiful anywhere) "

Wuvulu-Aua

Reduplication is not a productive noun derivation process inWuvulu-Auaas it is in other Austronesian languages. Some nouns exhibit reduplication, though they are considered to be fossilized.

Verb roots can undergo whole or partial reduplication to mark aspect. Actions that are continuous are indicated by a reduplicated initial syllable. A whole reduplication can also be used to indicate imperfective aspect.

• roni"to hurry"
• roroni"hurrying"
• rawani"good"
• rarawani"good" (continuous)
• ware"talk"
• wareware"talked" (durative)

The onomatopoeia in Wuvulu language also uses reduplication to describe the sound. These onomatopoeic words can be used as alienable nouns.

• "baʔa" or "baʔabaʔa" is a word for the sound of knocking.

Austroasiatic

Vietnamese

Main article:Vietnamese morphology § Reduplication

Sino-Tibetan

Burmese

As in manyTibeto-Burman languages,inBurmese,reduplication is used in verbs and adjectives to form adverbs.Many Burmese words, especially adjectives such asလှပ('beautiful'[l̥a̰pa̰]), which consist of two syllables (when reduplicated, each syllable is reduplicated separately), when reduplicated (လှပ→လှလှပပ'beautifully'[l̥a̰l̥a̰pa̰pa̰]) becomeadverbs.This is also true of many Burmese verbs, which become adverbs when reduplicated.

Some nouns are also reduplicated to indicate plurality. For instance,ပြည်,means "country," but when reduplicated toအပြည်ပြည်,it means "many countries" (as inအပြည်ပြည်ဆိုင်ရာ,"international" ). Another example isအမျိုး,which means "kinds," but the reduplicated formအမျိုးမျိုးmeans "multiple kinds."

A few measure words can also be reduplicated to indicate "one or the other":

• ယောက်(measure word for people) →တစ်ယောက်ယောက်(someone)
• ခု(measure word for things) →တစ်ခုခု(something)

Chinese

Reduplication is sometimes employed in verbs and adjectives to enhance the effect of them.

• Bang bang mangbāng bāng máng('Please help!') is a reduplicated form ofBang mangbāngmáng('to help')
• Bàn bàn đíchpàng pàng de('quite fat') fromBànpàng('fat')

Similar to other Sino-Tibetan languages, adjectives form adverbs by reduplication.

• Phiêu phiêu lượng lượngpiào piào liàng liàng('prettily') is a reduplicated form ofPhiêu lượngpiàoliàng('pretty')

Other than verbs and adjectives, some nouns can be reduplicated to express plurality or a collection in Chinese.

• Nhân nhânrén rén('everyone') is derived fromNhânrén('person').
• Thiên thiêntiān tiān('every day') is derived fromThiêntiān('day').

Old Proto-Basque

One of the puzzles of Basque is the large number of words that begin with vowels in which the initial and second vowels are the same. Joseba Lakarra proposes that in Pre-Proto-Basque there was extensive reduplicationand that later, certain initial consonants were deleted, leaving the VCV pattern of Proto-Basque:

Pre-Proto-Basque	Proto-Basque	Modern Basque	English
*dar→*da-dar	*adaR	adar	horn (anatomy)
*dats→*da-dats	*adats	adats	longhair
*der→*de-der	*edeR	eder	beautiful
*dol→*do-dol	*odoL	odol	blood
*gor→*go-gor	*gogoR	gogor	hard
*nal→*na-nal	*anaL	ahal	can, to be able
*nan→*na-nan	*anan-tz	ahantz	to forget
*nin→*ni-nin	*inin-tz	ihintz	dew
*nol→*no-nol	*onoL	ohol	board
*nur→*nu-nur	*unuR	hur	hazelnut
*zal→*za-zal	*azal	azal	bark
*zen→*ze-zen	*zezen	zezen	bull
*ten→*te-ten	*eten	eten	break
*ran→*ra-ran	*aran	aran	plum

See also

• Ideophone
• Augment (Bantu languages)
• Augment (Indo-European)
• Amredita
• Language acquisition
• Siamese twins (linguistics)
• Syntactic doubling
• Motherese
• For an example of a language with many types of reduplication see:St'at'imcets language#Reduplication.
• Contrastive focus reduplication
• Shm-reduplication
• Repetition (rhetorical device)
• Redundancy (linguistics)
• List of reduplicated place names
• Proto-Basque language

Notes

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External links

• Reduplication(Lexicon of Linguistics)
• What is reduplication?(SIL)
• Echo-Word Reduplication LexiconArchived2005-04-02 at theWayback Machine
• Exhaustive list of reduplications in English
• List of contrastive focus reduplications in English
• List of English reduplications in Wiktionary
• graz database on reduplication (gdr)Archived2012-03-13 at theWayback MachineInstitute of Linguistics,University of Graz
• La réduplication à m dans l’arabe parlé à Mardin