Renga

Renga(Liên ca,linked poem) is a genre^[1]of Japanese collaborative poetry in which alternating stanzas, orku (Cú ), of 5-7-5 and 7-7mora(sound units, not to be confused with syllables) per line are linked in succession by multiple poets. Known astsukuba no michi(Trúc ba の đạoThe Way of Tsukuba) after the famousTsukuba Mountainin theKantō region,the form of poetry is said to have originated in a two-verse poetry exchange byYamato Takeruand later gave birth to the genreshaikai(Bài hài) andhaiku(Bài cú).^[2]

The genre was elevated to a literary art byNijō Yoshimoto(Nhị điều lương cơ,1320–1388), who compiled the first imperial renga anthologyTsukubashū(Thố cửu ba tập) in 1356. The most famous renga master wasSōgi(Tông chỉ,1421–1502), andMatsuo Bashō(Tùng vĩ ba tiêu,1644–1694) after him became the most famoushaikaimaster. Renga sequences were typically composed live during gatherings of poets, transcribed oral sessions known asrengakai(Liên ca hội), but could also be composed by single poets as mainly textual works.

History

Classical and early medieval

The "origin" ofrengais traditionally associated with a passage in theKojiki,wherein PrinceYamato Takeruspeaks to an old man and inquires, by way of akatautapoem, how many nights he had slept since passingNabariandTsukuba,to which the old man responds by way of anotherkata-utapoem, which combined form a singlesedōka.^[3]Later medievalrengapoets, out of reverence for this exchange, would refer to their art as "the Way of Tsukuba",^[3]and the first imperialrengaanthology, theTsukubashū,alludes to it in the title.^[4]

The earliest extant renga appears in theManyoshu(Vạn diệp tập), with its 5-7-5 morajōku(Thượng cúfirst stanza) written byŌtomo no Yakamochi(Đại bạn gia trì,718-785) and its 7-7 morageku(Hạ cúlast stanza) written by a Buddhist nun (Niama) in an exchange of poems.^[5]This two-stanza form is now calledtanrenga(Đoản liên ca) to differentiate it fromchōrenga(Trường liên ca), thehyakuinrenga (Bách vận liên ca100-stanzarenga) to which the general term renga refers.

Thetanrengaform was popular from the beginning of the Heian Period until the end ofcloistered rule(Viện chínhinsei) and would sometimes appear in imperial anthologies ofwaka,which it closely resembled at a glance. It was during theinseiperiod that the form began take shape and evolve intochōrenga.TheKin'yōshū(Kim diệp tập) was the firstimperial waka anthologyto include an explicit section on renga thanks to its compilerMinamoto no Toshiyori(Nguyên tuấn lại,also Minamoto no Shunrai; ~1055–1129), who was the first to write about renga theory in his poetic treatiseToshiyori Zuinō(Tuấn lại tủy 脳).

Astanrengagained traction and began to feature more intricate and technically complex links between its two stanzas, the genre gained popularity as a game, and events were held to create the best links. Participants began going beyond the original two stanzas oftanrenga,leading to the creation of achōrengaform more formal than games likeiroharenga, in which 47 stanzas beginning with each of the 47 characters of thehiraganawriting system were linked. Around the same time, a more straightforward style of linking developed, which also helped to spur the lengthening of the form. Eventually, this 100-stanza renga, which alternated 5-7-5 and 7-7 mora verses (known astankuĐoản cúandchōkuTrường cúrespectively), became the basis for what we know as renga today.

The vocabulary ofhyakuinrenga was largely limited to the standard poetic diction(Ca ngôn diệp,utakotoba)that had been established in theKokinshū.At this time, poets considered the use ofutakotobaas the essence of creating a perfectwaka,and use of any other words was considered to be unbecoming of true poetry.

A comparable, though less evolved, tradition of 'linked verse' (lián jùLiên cú—the same characters as 'renku')—evolved inQin dynastyChina,^[6]and this Chinese form may have influenced Japaneserengaduring its formative period.^[7]However, there are major differences between the two, the Chinese having a unity of subject and a general lightheartedness of tone, neither of which characteristic is present in Japaneserenga;furthermore, the history of Japanese poetry showsrengaas an apparently natural evolution.^[8]

Around the time of theShin Kokin Wakashū(Tân cổ kim hòa ca tập,1205) during the rule ofEmperor Go-Tōba,hyakuinrenga developed enough to gain its first real independence from waka. In the courts,ushin mushin renga(Hữu tâm vô tâm liên ca) sessions were held in which poets and non-poets were divided intoushinandmushinrespectively to link stanzas. Theushinside would offer orthodox elegant stanzas while themushinside would offer comical or aesthetically "wilder" stanzas (Cuồng cakyōka), and while submissions from both sides were accepted as appropriate links, theushinwere favored. While this practice ended with theJōkyū Disturbance(1221), it served as an important foundation for the further development ofhyakuinrenga, which placed more emphasis on the skill of poets, and stanzas by many major renga participants of the Go-Tōba court such asFujiwara no Teika(1162–1241) were later anthologized in theTsukubashū.

After the Jōkyū Disturbance, renga moved out of the courts. In the popularhana no motorenga (Hoa の hạ liên ca"renga under flowers" ), commoners would gather for renga sessions under the flowering trees in spring, a tradition that is estimated to have been around for about 100 years by the start of theNanboku-chō Period.Some of the later resulting works were anthologized in the Tsukubashū.Jigerenga (Địa hạ liên ca"underground renga" ) was born out ofhana no motorenga and was pervasive through theMongol invasions of Japan(1274–1281) and after. Thejigerenga poets were led by Priest Zen’a (Thiện a pháp sư,??–1312), who built upon the rules ofhana no motorenga but also deviated from them, creating new versions of forms such as 1-day 1000-stanza renga (Nhất nhật thiên cú liên caichi nichi senku renga)—telling of the genre's wide scale. Renga continued to flourish in the courts as well, and the era saw splendid renga gatherings of even 10,000 verses a day, as well as prominent women poets such as the Buddhist nun Nijō (Nhị điều ninijō no ama).

It was during theKamakura Periodthat the rules (Thức mụcshikimoku) of renga began to develop.^[9]At the time, one of the most important rules wasfushimono(Phú vật), titular prompts that had to be followed by every stanza in the entire sequence. For instance, a white-blackfushimonowould call for each verse to alternate between including a white object and a black object. Othersfushimonomight be more linguistic, such as requiring odd verses to include three-mora phrases that became a different word upon removal of the middle mora, and even verses to include four-mora phrases that became a different word upon removal of the first and last mora.

Late medieval

In theNanboku-cho Period,renga began to take form and establish itself as a literary genre, largely owing to the efforts ofNijō Yoshimoto(Nhị điều lương cơ,1320–1388), who compiled the first imperial renga anthologyTsukubashū(Thố cửu ba tập) in 1356. As reflected in the collection, aesthetic and linguistically polishedhyakuinrenga that embodied the spirit of the renga session became the foundation for the genre as it is known today.

Yoshimoto was a disciple of Gusai (Cứu tế,also Kyūsei or Kyūzei; 1281–1376), who was taught by Zen’a. Gusai, a commoner priest, was a leadingjigerenga poet and key collaborator in the compilation of the Tsukubashū. Yoshimoto was an aristocrat who served in theNorthern Courtof the Ashikaga Shogunate. He was originally a waka poet, and his relationship with Gusai, who also had training in courtly literature, brought together common and courtly renga traditions. Yoshimoto was the first to write extensively on renga theory, creating many works laying out the genre’s structure, aesthetic standards,shikimoku,and more. One major change he made was to thefushimono,which remained part of the title but now only applied to the first verse rather than the whole sequence. Other important rules delineated the maximum numbers of stanzas in which certain topics could appear in a row, and maximum numbers of stanzas in which certain topics could appear across the whole sequence. Many of his aesthetic treatises became important pedagogical artifacts for future renga poets. Through his theoretical work and compilation of the Tsukubashū, Yoshimoto elevated renga to the status of an independent literary genre, setting a crucial foundation for its golden age.

The golden age of renga is widely regarded as the Muromachi Period, during which many of the greatest renga masters were active. The era is epitomized by the poetSōgi(Tông chỉ,1421–1502) and his compilation of the renga anthology Shintsukubashū (Tân thố cửu ba tập,lit. "New Tsukubashū).

Prior to Sōgi,Ichijō Kaneyoshi(Nhất điều kiêm lương,also Kanera; 1402–1481) aimed to succeed his grandfather Nijō Yoshimoto with his compilation of the Aratamashū (Tân ngọc tập), which he worked on with the priest Sōzei (Tông thế). However, the anthology was lost and the creation of the next major anthology was completed instead by Sozei’s disciple, Sōgi. Sōzei was one of the "seven sages," a group of poets all active around that time. They consisted of Priest Chiun (Trí uẩn pháp sư,1448–1471), Priest Sōzei (Tông thế pháp sư,??–1455), High Priest Gyōjo (Pháp ấn hành trợ,1405–1469), Priest Nōa (Năng a pháp sư,1397–1471), Clergyman Shinkei (権 đại tăng đô tâm kính;1406–1475), High Priest Senjun (Pháp nhãn chuyên thuận1411–1476), and Priest Sōi (Tông y pháp sư,1418–1485). Their work was later anthologized by Sōgi in his anthology Chikurinshō (Trúc lâm sao), for which Kaneyoshi wrote the preface.

Sōgi, a commoner priest, studied literature extensively, learning renga from Sōzei and classical literature from Kaneyoshi among others. He spent much time travelling the country as a professional renga poet despite the tumultuous political context of his era. His works often feature the relationship between humans and nature. His anthology Shintsukubashū became the successor to theTsukubashū,and he also composed many other major works, the two most famous being "Three Poets at Minase" (Thủy vô lại tam ngâm bách vậnMinase Sangin Hyakuin) and "Three Poets at Yuyama" (Thang sơn tam ngâm bách vậnYuyama Sangin Hyakuin). Both sequences were composed by Sōgi and two of his disciples, the priests Shōhaku (Tiêu bách,1143–1527) and Sōchō (Tông trường,1448–1532), in 1488 and 1491 respectively. The former was created as an offering forEmperor Go-Toba,the compiler of the Shinkokinshū, making it a formal piece with ceremonial grandeur.^[10]"Three Poets at Yuyama," on the other hand, was created in a more relaxed setting and enjoyed greater popularity in its time. It did, however, maintain also many conventions of renga despite its greater flexibility. The two are now considered the most canonical renga sequences and were widely used pedagogically as standards for the genre.

Sōgi’s death in 1502 was followed by a peak in popularity and then decline of renga as the new genrehaikaideveloped. Sōgi’s lineage of disciples continued the renga tradition that ended with the death of Jōha (Thiệu ba,1524–1602), who is considered to be the final major renga poet.

One of Sōgi’s final disciples and also a previous disciple of Sōchō, the priest Sōseki (Tông thạc,1474–1533), continued the Sōgi line of disciples after the poet’s death. Sōhoku (Tông mục,??–1545) was a disciple of Sōchō and Sōseki, and after their deaths rose to the forefront of the renga world. Like his predecessors, he spent much of his time travelling and wrote many works on renga theory in addition to his compositions. His son Sōyō (Tông dưỡng,1526–1563) was raised renga poet as well and continued the tradition of travel. He became the top renga master after the death of all of the previous generation. His own death marked the end of the Sōgi tradition of renga, and his contemporary Satomura Jōha rose by default to the top position in the renga world.

Jōha came from another branch of the Sōgi lineage; he studied under Sōseki’s disciple Shūkei (Chu quế,1470–1544), and then Shūkei’s discipleSatomura Shōkyū(Lí thôn xương hưu,1511–1552) after Shūkei’s death, taking Satomura as his family name. Jōha was heavily involved with major political figures of his time, establishing connections with important people from various factions.^[11]His renga moved toward easy understandability and away from the depth and aesthetic standards of the previous tradition. After his death, renga’s period of widespread popularity ended as it was overtaken byhaikai,its child genre.Matsuo Bashō(1644–1694) became the most prominent haikai poet and was later also famous for his haiku.

Rengawas a popular form of poetry even in the confusion ofAzuchi–Momoyama period.Yet by the end of this era, theshikimokuhad become so complicated and systematic that they stifled the active imagination that had been a part of therenga's appeal. During the medieval and Edo periods,rengawas a part of the cultural knowledge required for high society.

Edo–Meiji

In theEdo period,as more and more ordinary citizens became familiar withrenga,shikimokuwere greatly simplified. The 36-verse Kasen became the most popular form ofrenga,and commonly spoken words as well as slang andChinese wordswere allowed. With this relaxation of the rules,rengawere able to express broader humor and wit. This style ofrengacame to be calledhaikai no renga( "comical linked verse" ) or simplyhaikai,andMatsuo Bashōis known as the greatesthaikaipoet.

The most favored form ofrengain theEdo periodwas thekasen(Ca tiên),a chain consisting of 36 verses. As a rule,kasenmust refer to flowers (usuallycherry blossoms) twice, and three times to the moon. These references are termedhana no za(Hoa の tọa,"the seat of flowers" )andtsuki no za(Nguyệt の tọa,"the seat of the moon" ).

The first stanza of therengachain, thehokku,is the forebear of the modernhaiku.The stand-alone hokku was renamed haiku in theMeiji periodby the great Japanese poet and criticMasaoka Shiki.Shiki proposedhaikuas an abbreviation of the phrase "haikai no ku"meaning a verse ofhaikai.^[12]

For almost 700 years,rengawas a popular form of poetry, but its popularity was greatly diminished in the Meiji period. Masaoka Shiki, although himself a participant in severalrenga,^[13]claimed that "(Rengais) not literature "(“Văn học に phi ず”,Bungaku ni arazu).^[14]Therenga's appeal of working as a group to make a complete work was not compatible with the European style of poetry gaining popularity in Japan, where a single poet writes the entire poem.^{[citation needed]}

Structure of and conventions ofHyakuinrenga

Thehyakuinrenga sequence begins with thehokku(Phát cú), a 5-7-5 mora verse which was the origin of the latehaikugenre. Unlike the following verses, thehokkuin a renga session was expected to reflect the reality of theba—its geographical location, season, etc.—and was also the only verse expected to be able to stand independently as a poem. The composition of thehokkuwas usually left to a skilled poet, and professional renga poets would sometimes be commissioned to write them during their travels. Often, thehokkuwould be written by the guest of the session, with the host responding with the second verse.^[15]Two technical conventions that carried over to haiku were the seasonal wordkigo(Quý ngữ) and a "cutting word"kireji(Thiết tự). Thehokkuwas followed by thewakiku(Hiếp cú),daisan(Đệ tam), the names for the second and third verses respectively. Including these two, the rest of the linked verses were calledtsukeku(Phó cú), and verses 4-99 together were called thehiraku(Bình cú). The final verse was called theageku(Cử cú).^[16]

During a renga session, the verses were transcribed onto a paper known askaishi(Hoài chỉ), using four sheets, or eight sides of paper, total. The first side (Sơ chiếtsho-ori) and last side (Danh tàn chiếtnagori-no-ori) contained 8 verses each, and the rest of the sides contained 14 verses each. There were various structural rules based on the paper layout, the most important being the "four blossoms eight moons" rule (Tứ hoa bát nguyệt). Each sheet should include one verse that used the wordhana(Hoa), or blossoms, and each side should include one verse that used the wordtsuki(Nguyệt) to mean moon specifically (as opposed to "month" ). Sometimes the "moon" on the last page would be omitted, leaving seven "moons," making that half of rule more flexible than the number of "blossom" verses, which were considered more important and were usually composed by senior poets or those of higher social status.

In addition to the "four blossoms eight moons" rule, which served as a major structural pillar for the sequence, there were many other rules regarding topics or lexical categories and their usage in the context of the whole verse. As the vocabulary of renga largely followed the lexicon ofwaka,which used a limited number of words, there was a complex but clear system of what words fell under what category. For instance,ikkumono(Nhất cú vật) was a category of specific phrases could only be used once in the entire sequence due to their particularly strong impression, or because they were considered unrefined. Some of the most important topics were the four seasons, love, reminiscence (Thuật hoàijukkai;included topics like grief and nostalgia), travel, and Buddhism. Topics like these had to follow the rules ofrinne(Luân hồirecurrence), which dictated the maximum and/or minimum number of verses each topic could appear in a row. For instance, spring and autumn verses must repeat for at least three and at most five verses in a row. Love originally followed the same rule, but by Sōgi’s era the minimum had dropped to two, and a single verse was allowed by the Edo Period. Summer, winter, travel, and Buddhism, among many others, could repeat for a maximum of three verses and no minimum, as could reminiscence—here, the subtopic of transiency fell under reminiscence, although it did not for other rules.

There were also many conventions governing the flow of movement throughout the sequence. The term for the proper flow of rhythm, which was also used in other art forms such as Noh theatre, wasjōhakyū(Tự phá cấp), or "prelude, development, presto" in the manner of music. Thejōcontained the first ten verses, which should be graceful, smooth, and subtle. Thehaencompassed the 11th to 78th verses, which should be dynamic and exciting. The last 22 verses were thekyū,which should move quickly and easily, particularly the final 8 verses for a clean-cut finish. Another convention regarding the flow of the sequence was the alternation ofmon(Văn"pattern" ) andji(Địa"background" ) verses.Monverses contained more striking imagery that drew the audience’s attention, whilejiverses were relatively plainer and inconspicuous verses serving to bring out the vividness of themon.A good flow required skilled but subtle control of the pattern of the two types of verses.

Because in renga each verse is only related to its immediate neighbors, the sequence as a whole does not have very much semantic, stylistic, or thematic unity. Thus, what held the sequence together was the link between each verse, ortsukeai(Phó hợp). The most important rule of linking was that links could only exist between two adjacent verses, i.e. a verse could not be connected with any verses aside from the one it was being linked to. There was a wide range of types of links, from linguistic to semantic and direct to indirect; Nijō Yoshimoto listed thirteen types in his poetic treatise on renga,Renri Hishō(Liên lý bí sao).^[17]

The renga session

Renga was typically composed in sessions attended by a group of poets known as therenju(Liên chúng,alsorenjū)—usually 7-8, though the number could range widely—, a scribe (Chấp bútshuhitsu), and a master (Tông tượngsōshō). The setting of the session was called theba(Tràng), and was an integral part of the poetic sequence, providing aesthetic inspiration and often serving as the basis for thehokku.These sessions could take the form of more literary pedagogical events or more informal competitions that drew crowds of spectators.

The scribe sat at a low writing desk (Văn đàibundai), with the poets sitting facing the desk and the master beside it. The role of the scribe was not only to transcribe the renga sequence, but also to act as an enforcer of the rules of the genre. Once a poet was ready to offer a verse, he would make eye contact with and recite it to the scribe, who would then check to make sure that there were no infractions and write it down. The scribe was usually a younger, aspiring renga poet who would be able to gather experience and recognition through the session. The job required a remarkable memory, as he was required to not only remember all of the rules, but also to instantly recall all the previous verses in order to check the newest verse against them without wasting time looking through the transcription. In addition, the scribe needed both poetic and social skills in order to maintain the pace of the session. He had to decide when to enforce the rules and when to let infractions go for artistic or social reasons. Because renga sessions often gathered people from different social statuses, the scribe needed to facilitate the social dynamic and reject or accommodate verses without offending those of higher standing.

Unlike the scribe, the master was mainly in charge of the aesthetic progression of the sequence, maintaining thejōhakyūtempo,jiandmonpattern, theyukiyō,and other aspects of the flow by both judging verses and offering his own. He served as the senior poet who contributed many verses and helped other poets refine theirs, exercising a certain amount of authority over their compositions. Professional renga poets (Liên ca sưrengashi) such as Sōgi and his disciples would often be in high demand as masters during their travels.

At the start of the session, the scribe would receive the hokku and write it alongside thefushimonoto its right. Then he would continue to receive verses; a poet would recite his verse, the scribe would recite it back, and each verse approved by the master and him would be written and recited again. Once the scribe wrote the final verse, he would count the number of verses each participant had contributed and write the tallies at the end of the last page. Finally, he bound the four pages with a string.

Many treatises and handbooks delineated the proper etiquette and conventions for renga sessions, covering everything from behavior and preparation of individual poets to the setup and dynamic of theba.^[18]There was some variation between time periods and treatises regarding the ideal conditions of a renga session, and there were no doubt many amateur sessions across the country that did not adhere to the strict rules. As a whole, however, the renga session and its conventions played a crucial role in renga composition, and many extant renga today are products of those sessions where sequences were carefully recorded and preserved.^[15]

Outside Japan

An early attempt atrengain English appeared in 1968 inHaiku Magazine,^[19]and the same magazine published an issue in 1976 devoted torengaandhaibun.^[19]Since then, many English-language haiku journals have published renga, renku, and other linked poetry.

Formats

Here follows a list of the most common formats in whichrengahave been written, bothushin(orthodox)renga,andmushin(renku)^[20]

Name of format	Number of stanzas	Number ofkaishi (writing sheets)	Number of sides	Originator	Date of origin
Hyakuin^[21]	100	4	8	unknown	13th century
Senku	1000	40	80	unknown
Gojūin	50	2	4	unknown
Yoyoshi	44	2	4	unknown
Kasen	36	2	4	unknown	1423^{[citation needed]}^[22]
Han-kasen (i.e. half-kasen)	18	1	2	unknown	17th century
Shisan	12	2	4	Kaoru Kubota	1970s
Jūnichō	12	1	1	Shunjin Okamoto	1989^[23]
Nijūin	20	2	4	Meiga Higashi	1980s
Triparshva^{[citation needed]}^[24]	22	1	3	Norman Darlington	2005
Rokku (akaon za rokku)^{[citation needed]}^[25]	variable	variable	variable	Haku Asanuma	2000

Terminology

hokku(Phát cú):The first stanza ofrengawith a 5-7-5 mora (sound unit) count. This stanza should be created by a special guest when present, and is considered a part of the greeting in arengagathering. It must include akigo(Quý ngữ,"seasonal word" ),as well as akireji(Thiết tự,"cutting word" —a break in the text, usually, but not always, at the end of a line).The kigo usually references the season therengawas created in. Hokku, removed from the context ofrenga,eventually became thehaikupoetry form.
waki(Hiếp):The second stanza of arengawith a 7-7 mora count. The person who helped to organize the gathering is honored with creating it.

daisan(Đệ tam):The third stanza of arengawith a 5-7-5 mora count. It must end with the-teform of a verb to allow the next poet greater freedom in creating the stanza.
hiraku(Bình cú):Refers to all verses other than thehokku,waki,daisan,andageku.
ageku(Cử cú):The last stanza of arenga.Care should be taken to wrap up therenga.
kuage(Cú thượng げ):A note made after theagekuto indicate how manykueach poet read.
kōgyō(Hưng hành):To hold arengagathering. May also be calledchōgyō(Trương hành).
wakiokori(Hiếp khởi り):To start with thehokkuof a famous poet such as Bashō and make a newwakiverse to follow on from there.
tsukeai(Phó hợp):May also be calledtsukekata(Phó け phương)ortsukeaji(Phó け vị).Refers to the mixing and matching of unlikely word combinations to spur imagination or evoke an image. One of the interesting features ofrenga.
maeku(Tiền cú):The verse in whichtsukeaihappens.
uchikoshi(Đả việt):The verse before themaeku.
shikimoku(Thức mục):A set of rules to lay out the stylistic requirements for change throughout the poem and to prevent arengafrom falling apart.
renku(Liên cú):Modernrengain Bashō's style.
kukazu(Cú sổ):Literally, "the number of verses". When the theme of a section is a popular topic such as "Love", "Spring", or "Fall", therengamust continue on that theme for at least two verses but not more than five verses. This theme may then be dropped with one verse on any other topic.
sarikirai(Khứ hiềm):A rule to prevent loops repeating the same image or a similar verse.
rinne(Luân hồi):The name for a loop where the same theme, image, or word is repeated. Term taken fromBuddhism.
kannonbiraki(Quan âm khai き):A type of loop where theuchikoshiandtsukekuhave an identical image or theme.
haramiku(Dựng み cú):A stanza prepared beforehand. Should be avoided as stanzas should be created on the spot.
asaru(Cầu thực る):To make two stanzas in a row. Happens frequently when thedegachirule is used. Should be avoided to let others join.
degachi(Xuất thắng ち):A rule to use the stanza of the first poet to create one.
hizaokuri(Tất tống り):A rule whereby each poet takes a turn to make a stanza.
renju(Liên chúng):The members of arengaorhaikaigathering. The members of arengagathering are also calledkaishū(Hội chúng).^[26]
ichiza(Nhất tọa):Literally, "one seating". Describes the group when therenjuare seated and therengahas begun.
sōshō(Tông tượng):May also be calledsabaki(Bát き).The coordinator of anichiza,he or she is responsible for the completion of arenga.Has the authority to dismiss an improper verse. The most experienced of therenjushould be thesōshōto keep therengainteresting.
kyaku(Khách):The main guest of theichizaand responsible for creating thehokku.
teishu(Đình chủ):The patron of arengagathering, who provides the place.
shuhitsu(Chấp bút):The "secretary" of therenga,as it were, who is responsible for writing downrengaverses and for the proceedings of therenga.
bunnin(Văn âm):Using letters (i.e. the post), telegraph, telephone, or even fax machines for making arenga.Using the internet is also considered a form ofbunnin.
yukiyō( hành dạng ): The flow of the sequence created by the patterns of links and the shifting of the verses.

References

Citations

^Carter, Steven D.Three Poets at Yuyama,University of California, 1983,ISBN 0-912966-61-0p.3
^Kaneko, Kinjirō.Rengashū, Haikaishū.Tōkyō: Shōgakkan, 2001. Print.
^^a ^bKeene 1999,p. 921.
^Keene 1999,p. 959, note 4.
^Keene, Donald,The Comic Tradition in Renga,inJapan in the Muromachi Age,edited by John Hall and Takeshi Toyoda. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1977. p. 244.
^Reckert, Stephen,Beyond Chrysanthemums: Perspectives on Poetry East and West,Oxford University Press, 1993,ISBN 0-19-815165-9,p.43
^Sato, Hiroaki.One Hundred Frogs, fromrengato haiku to English,Weatherhill 1983,ISBN 0-8348-0176-0p.11
^Keene, Donald, Japanese Literature: an Introduction for Western Readers, (New York: Grove Press, 1955) p. 33–34.
^Carter, Steven D.The Road to Komatsubara,Harvard University Press, 1987,ISBN 0-674-77385-3,pp. 33–72.
^Carter, Steven D. "Three Poets at Yuyama. Sōgi and Yuyama Sangin Hyakuin, 1491."Monumenta Nipponica,vol. 33, no. 3, Sophia University, 1978, pp. 241–83. JSTOR,JSTOR,doi:10.2307/2383991.
^Keene, Donald. "Joha, a Sixteenth-Century Poet of Linked Verse."Warlords, Artists and Commoners : Japan in the Sixteenth Century. Edited by George Elison and Bardwell L. Smith. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii, 1987. pp. 113-133.
^Miner, Earl.Japanese Linked Poetry.Princeton University Press, 1980.ISBN 0-691-01368-3pbk.
^Higginson, William J.The Haiku Seasons,Kodansha, 1996,ISBN 4-7700-1629-8p.55
^Liên ca ・ liên cú (Renga,Renku).Japan Dictionary(Nhật bổn từ điển,Nihon-Jiten).Retrieved23 December2012.
^^a ^bHorton, H. Mack. "Renga Unbound: Performative Aspects of Japanese Linked Verse."Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies,vol. 53, no. 2, Harvard-Yenching Institute, 1993, pp. 443–512. JSTOR,JSTOR,doi:10.2307/2719455.
^Jin’Ichi, Konishi, et al. "The Art of Renga."Journal of Japanese Studies,vol. 2, no. 1, The Society for Japanese Studies, 1975, pp. 29–61. JSTOR,JSTOR,doi:10.2307/132038.
^Jin’Ichi, Konishi, et al. "The Art of Renga."Journal of Japanese Studies,vol. 2, no. 1, The Society for Japanese Studies, 1975, pp. 53–59. JSTOR,JSTOR,doi:10.2307/132038.
^Horton, H. Mack. "Renga Unbound: Performative Aspects of Japanese Linked Verse."Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies,vol. 53, no. 2, Harvard-Yenching Institute, 1993, pp. 506–512. JSTOR,JSTOR,doi:10.2307/2719455.
^^a ^bVan den Heuvel, Cor.The Haiku Anthology,2nd edition. Simon & Schuster, 1986.ISBN 0671628372p12
^Miner, Earl. Japanese Linked Poetry, Princeton University Press, 1979,ISBN 0-691-06372-9.
^Carter, Steven D.The Road to Komatsubara,Harvard University Press, 1987,ISBN 0-674-77385-3.
^Drake, Chris. "Bashō's" Cricket Sequence "as English Literature".Journal of Renga & Renku(2): 8.
^"Shorter Renku".www.2hweb.net.Retrieved2024-04-08.
^Darlington, Norman (2005). "Triparshva, A trilateral pattern for renku".simply Haiku.3(2).
^Yachimoto, Eiko (2008). "October Rain, the first English-language Rokku Renku, a Tomegaki".Simply Haiku.6(3).
^"Daijirinentry forrenju".Archived fromthe originalon 18 February 2013.Retrieved16 January2013.
^Kumei, Teruko (2006).""A Record of Life and a Poem of Sentiments": Japanese Immigrant "Senryu," 1929-1945 ".Amerikastudien.51(1): 29–49.

Works cited

Keene, Donald(1999) [1993].A History of Japanese Literature, Vol. 1: Seeds in the Heart – Japanese Literature from Earliest Times to the Late Sixteenth Century(paperback ed.). New York, NY:Columbia University Press.ISBN 978-0-231-11441-7.