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Republic of Sudan (1985–2019)

This article covers the period of thehistory of Sudanbetween 1985 and 2019 when the SudaneseDefense MinisterAbdel Rahman Swar al-Dahabseized power from Sudanese PresidentGaafar Nimeiryin the1985 Sudanese coup d'état.Not long after,Lieutenant GeneralOmar al-Bashir,backed by anIslamistpolitical party, theNational Islamic Front,overthrew the short lived government in acoup in 1989where he ruled as President until hisfall in April 2019.During Bashir's rule, also referred to asBashirist Sudan,or as they called themselves theal-Ingazregime, he was re-elected three times while overseeing the independence ofSouth Sudanin 2011. His regime was criticized forhuman rights abuses,atrocities and genocide in Darfurandallegations of harboring and supporting terrorist groups(most notably during the residency ofOsama bin Ladenfrom 1992 to 1996) in the region while being subjected toUnited Nationssanctions beginning in 1995, resulting in Sudan's isolation as aninternational pariah.

Republic of the Sudan
جمهورية السودان(Arabic)
Jumhūrīyat as-Sūdān
1985–2019
Map of Sudan before South Sudanese independence on July 9, 2011
Map of Sudan before South Sudanese independence on July 9, 2011
Capital
and largest city
Khartoum
15°38′N032°32′E/ 15.633°N 32.533°E/15.633; 32.533
Official languages
Common languagesArabic,English
Ethnic groups
Religion
Islam(official)
Demonym(s)Sudanese
GovernmentUnitaryprovisional governmentunder amilitary junta(1985–1986)
Unitaryparliamentary republic(1986–1989)

Unitaryone-partyIslamic Republic(1989–1998)
under a

Unitarydominant-partypresidential republicunder anauthoritariandictatorship (1998–2019)
President
• 1985–1986
Abdel Rahman Swar al-Dahab
• 1986–1989
Ahmed al-Mirghani
• 1989–2019
Omar al-Bashir
Prime minister
• 1985–1986
Al-Jazuli Daf'allah
• 1986–1989
Sadiq al-Mahdi
• 1989–2017
Post abolished
• 2017–2018
Bakri Hassan Saleh
• 2018–2019
Motazz Moussa
• 2019
Mohamed Tahir Ayala
LegislatureNational Legislature
•Upper house
Council of States
•Lower house
National Assembly
Historical eraCold War,War on Terror
6 April 1985
April 1986
30 June 1989
23 April 1990
27 May 1998
9 January 2005
January 2011
2018–2019
11 April 2019
Area
19852,530,397 km2(976,992 sq mi)
20111,886,086 km2(728,222 sq mi)
CurrencySudanese pound(to 1992)
Sudanese dinar(1992–2007)
Sudanese pound(from 2007)
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Democratic Republic of the Sudan
Sudanese Transition to democracy
South Sudan
Today part of

History

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Al Mahdi government

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In June 1986,Sadiq al-Mahdiformed a coalition government with theNational Umma Party(NUP), theDemocratic Unionist Party(DUP), theNational Islamic Front(NIF), and four southern parties. Party factionalism, corruption, personal rivalries, scandals, and political instability characterized the Sadiq regime. After less than a year in office, Sadiq dismissed the government because it had failed to draft a new penal code to replaceSharia law,reach an agreement with the IMF, end the civil war in the south, or devise a scheme to attract remittances from Sudanese expatriates. To retain the support of the DUP and the southern political parties, Sadiq formed another ineffective coalition government.

Instead of removing the ministers who had been associated with the failures of the first coalition government, Sadiq retained thirteen of them, of whom eleven kept their previous portfolios. As a result, many Sudanese rejected the second coalition government as being a replica of the first. To make matters worse, Sadiq and DUP leaderAhmed al-Mirghanisigned an inadequate memorandum of understanding that fixed the new government's priorities as affirming the application of the Sharia toMuslims,consolidating theIslamic bankingsystem, and changing thenational flagandnational emblem.Furthermore, the memorandum directed the government to remove former leader Nimeiry's name from all institutions and dismiss all officials appointed by Nimeiry to serve in international and regional organizations. As expected, anti-government elements criticized the memorandum for not mentioning the civil war, famine, or the country's disintegrating social and economic conditions.[citation needed]

In August 1987, the DUP brought down the government because Sadiq opposed the appointment of a DUP member,Ahmad as Sayid,to the Supreme Commission. For the next nine months, Sadiq and al-Mirghani failed to agree on the composition of another coalition government. During this period, Sadiq moved closer to the NIF. However, the NIF refused to join a coalition government that included leftist elements. Moreover,Hassan al-Turabi,leader of the NIF indicated that the formation of a coalition government would depend on numerous factors, the most important of which were the resignation or dismissal of those serving in senior positions in the central and regional governments, the lifting of the state of emergency reimposed in July 1987, and the continuation of the Constituent Assembly.[citation needed]

Because of the endless debate over these issues, it was not until May 15, 1988, that a new coalition government emerged headed by Sadiq al Mahdi. Members of this coalition included the Umma, the DUP, the NIF, and some southern parties. As in the past, however, the coalition quickly disintegrated because of political bickering among its members. Major disagreements included the NIF's demand that it be given the post of commissioner ofKhartoum,the inability to establish criteria for the selection of regional governors, and the NIF's opposition to the replacement of senior military officers and the chief of staff of the executive branch.

In August 1988,severe flooding occurred in Khartoum.

In November 1988, another more explosive political issue emerged when Mirghani and theSudan People's Liberation Movement(SPLM) signed an agreement in Addis Ababa that included provisions for a cease-fire, the freezing of Sharia law, the lifting of the state of emergency, and the abolition of all foreign political and military pacts. The two sides also proposed to convene a constitutional conference to decide Sudan's political future. The NIF opposed this agreement because of its stand on Sharia. When the government refused to support the agreement, the DUP withdrew from the coalition. Shortly thereafter armed forces commander in chief Lieutenant General Fathi Ahmad Ali presented an ultimatum, signed by 150 senior military officers, to Sadiq al-Mahdi demanding that he make the coalition government more representative and that he announce terms for ending the civil war.

Fall of al-Mahdi and brief NIF regime

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Main article:1989 Sudanese coup d'état
Omar al-Bashirin 1989

On March 11, 1989, Sadiq al-Mahdi responded to this pressure by dissolving the government. The new coalition had included the Umma, the DUP, and representatives of southern parties and the trade unions. The NIF refused to join the coalition because the coalition was not committed to enforcing Sharia law. Sadiq claimed his new government was committed to ending thesouthern civil warby implementing the November 1988 DUP-SPLM agreement. He also promised to mobilize government resources to bring food relief to famine areas, reduce the government's international debt, and build a national political consensus.

Sadiq's inability to live up to these promises eventually caused[citation needed]his downfall. On June 30, 1989, Colonel (later Lieutenant General)Umar Hassan Ahmad al-Bashiroverthrew Sadiq and established theRevolutionary Command Council for National Salvationto rule Sudan. Bashir's commitment to imposing theShariaon the non-Muslim south and to seeking a military victory over theSudan People's Liberation Army(SPLA), however, seemed likely to keep the country divided for the foreseeable future and hamper resolution of the same problems faced by Sadiq al-Mahdi. Moreover, the emergence of the NIF as a political force made compromise with the south more unlikely.

The Revolutionary Command Council dissolved itself in October 1993. Its powers were devolved to the President (al-Bashir declared himself the President) and the Transitional National Assembly.

The Popular Police Forces was created in 1989, they were estimated to have at least 35,000 members who technically were under the supervision of the director general of police, but it operated as a politicized militia that sought to enforce “moral standards” among the country's Islamic population.[4]The PPF had a poor human-rights record.[4]It was dissolved by the transitional government after theSudanese Revolution.[5]

Conflict in the south, Darfur conflict and conflict with Chad

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Main article:War in Darfur
Series ofdroughts in Darfurled to disputes over land between non-Arab sedentary farmers and ArabJanjaweednomads (see illustrative photo).

The civil war in the south had displaced more than 4 million southerners. Some fled into southern cities, such asJuba;others trekked as far north asKhartoumand even intoEthiopia,Kenya,Uganda,Egypt,and other neighboring countries. These people were unable to grow food or earn money to feed themselves, and malnutrition and starvation became widespread. The lack of investment in the south resulted in what international humanitarian organizations call a “lost generation” who lack educational opportunities, access to basic health care services, and little prospects for productive employment in the small and weak economies of the south or the north.

In early 2003 anew rebellionof theSudan Liberation Movement/Army(SLM/A) andJustice and Equality Movement(JEM) groups in the western region ofDarfurbegan. The rebels accused the central government of neglecting theDarfurregion, although there is uncertainty regarding the objectives of the rebels and whether they merely seek an improved position for Darfur within Sudan or outright secession. Both the government and the rebels have been accused of atrocities in this war, although most of the blame has fallen onArabmilitias (Janjaweed) allied with the government. The rebels have alleged that these militias have been engaging inethnic cleansingin Darfur, and the fighting has displaced hundreds of thousands of people, many of them seeking refuge in neighboringChad.There are various estimates onthe number of human casualties,ranging from under twenty thousand to several hundred thousand dead, from either direct combat or starvation and disease inflicted by the conflict.

In 2004 Chad brokered negotiations inN'Djamena,leading to theApril 8 Humanitarian Ceasefire Agreementbetween the Sudanese government, the JEM, and the SLA. However, the conflict continued despite the ceasefire, and theAfrican Union(AU) formed aCeasefire Commission(CFC) to monitor its observance. In August 2004, the African Union sent 150Rwandantroops in, to protect the ceasefire monitors. It, however, soon became apparent that 150 troops would not be enough, so they were joined by 150Nigeriantroops.

On September 18, 2004United Nations Security CouncilissuedResolution 1564declaring that the government of Sudan had not met its commitments, expressing concern at helicopter attacks and assaults by theJanjaweedmilitia against villages in Darfur. It welcomed the intention of the African Union to enhance its monitoring mission in Darfur and urged all member states to support such efforts. During 2005 theAfrican Union Mission in Sudanforce was increased to about 7,000.

TheChadian-Sudanese conflictofficially started on December 23, 2005, when thegovernment of Chaddeclared astate of warwithSudanand called for the citizens ofChadto mobilize themselves againstRally for Democracy and Liberty(RDL) militants (Chadian rebels backed by theSudanesegovernment) and Sudanese militiamen who attacked villages and towns in eastern Chad, stealing cattle, murdering citizens, and burning houses.

Peace talks between the southern rebels and the government made substantial progress in 2003 and early 2004, although skirmishes in parts of the south have reportedly continued. The two sides have agreed that, following a final peace treaty, southern Sudan will enjoy autonomy for six years, and after the expiration of that period, the people of southern Sudan will be able to vote in a referendum on independence. Furthermore, oil revenues will be divided equally between the government and rebels during the six-year interim period. The ability or willingness of the government to fulfill these promises has been questioned by some observers, however, and the status of three central and eastern provinces was a point of contention in the negotiations. Some observers wondered whether hard line elements in the north would allow the treaty to proceed.

A final peace treaty was signed on 9 January 2005 inNairobi.The terms of the peace treaty are as follows:

  • The south will have autonomy for six years, followed by a referendum on secession.
  • Both sides of the conflict will merge their armed forces into a 39,000-strong force after six years, if the secession referendum should turn out negative.
  • Income from oilfields is to be shared evenly between north and south.
  • Jobs are to be split according to varying ratios (central administration: 70 to 30,Abyei/Blue Nile State/Nuba mountains:55 to 45, both in favour of the government).
  • Islamic law is to remain in the north, while continued use of the Sharia in the south is to be decided by the elected assembly.

On 31 August 2006, the United Nations Security Council approvedResolution 1706to send a new peacekeeping force of 17,300 to Darfur. In the following months, however,UNMISwas not able to deploy to Darfur due to the Government of Sudan's steadfast opposition to a peacekeeping operation undertaken solely by the United Nations. The UN then embarked on an alternative, innovative approach to try to begin stabilize the region through the phased strengthening of AMIS, before transfer of authority to a joint African Union/United Nations peacekeeping operation. Following prolonged and intensive negotiations with the Government of Sudan and significant international pressure, the Government of Sudan finally accepted the peacekeeping operation in Darfur.

In 2009 theInternational Criminal Courtissued an arrest warrant for al-Bashir, accusing him of crimes against humanity and war crimes.

In 2009 and 2010 aseries of conflicts between rival nomadic tribesinSouth Kordofancaused a large number of casualties and displaced thousands.

An agreement for the restoration of harmony between Chad and Sudan, signed January 15, 2010, marked the end of a five-year war between them.[6]

The Sudanese government and the JEM signed a ceasefire agreement ending the Darfur conflict in February, 2010.

Partition and rehabilitation

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A South Sudanese girl at independence festivities

TheSudanese conflict in South Kordofan and Blue Nilein the early 2010s betweenthe Army of Sudanand theSudan Revolutionary Frontstarted as a dispute over the oil-rich region ofAbyeiin the months leading up toSouth Sudanese independencein 2011, though it is also related to civil war in Darfur that is nominally resolved, in January 2011 aSouth Sudanese independence referendumwas held, and the south voted overwhelmingly to secede later that year as theRepublic of South Sudan,with its capital atJubaandSalva Kiir Mayarditas its first president. Al-Bashir announced that he accepted the result, but violence soon erupted in the disputed region ofAbyei,claimed by both the north and the south.

On July 9, 2011, South Sudan became an independent country.[7]A year later in 2012 during theHeglig CrisisSudan would achieve victory against South Sudan, a war over oil-rich regions between South Sudan'sUnityand Sudan'sSouth Kordofanstates. The events would later be known as theSudanese Intifada,which would end only in 2013 after al-Bashir promised he would not seek re-election in 2015. He later broke his promise and sought re-election in 2015, winning through a boycott from the opposition who believed that the elections would not be free and fair. Voter turnout was at a low 46%.[8]

On 13 January 2017, US presidentBarack Obamasigned an Executive Order that lifted many sanctions placed against Sudan and assets of its government held abroad. On 6 October 2017, the following US presidentDonald Trumplifted most of the remaining sanctions against the country and its petroleum, export-import, and property industries.[9]

2019 Sudanese Revolution and the fall of the Al Bashir regime

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Main articles:Sudanese Revolutionand2019–2026 Sudanese transition to democracy
See also:Sovereignty Council of Sudan
Sudanese protestors celebrate the 17 August 2019 signing of theDraft Constitutional Declarationbetween military and civilian representatives.

On 19 December 2018,massive protestsbegan after a government decision to triple the price of goods at a time when the country was suffering an acute shortage of foreign currency and inflation of 70 percent.[10]In addition, President al-Bashir, who had been in power for more than 30 years, refused to step down, resulting in the convergence of opposition groups to form a united coalition. The government retaliated by arresting more than 800 opposition figures and protesters, leading to the death of approximately 40 people according to the Human Rights Watch,[11]although the number was much higher than that according to local and civilian reports. The protests continued after the overthrow of his government on 11 April 2019 after a massive sit-in in front of theSudanese Armed Forcesmain headquarters, after which the chiefs of staff decided to intervene and they ordered the arrest of President al-Bashir and declared a three-month state of emergency.[12][13][14]Over 100 people died on 3 June after security forces dispersed the sit-in using tear gas and live ammunition in what is known as theKhartoum massacre,[15][16]resulting in Sudan's suspension from the African Union.[17]Sudan's youth had been reported to be driving the protests.[18]The protests came to an end when theForces for Freedom and Change(an alliance of groups organizing the protests) andTransitional Military Council(the ruling military government) signed the July 2019 Political Agreement and the August 2019 Draft Constitutional Declaration.[19][20] The transitional institutions and procedures included the creation of a joint military-civilianSovereignty Council of Sudanas head of state, a newChief Justice of Sudanas head of the judiciary branch of power,Nemat Abdullah Khair,and a new prime minister. The former Prime Minister,Abdalla Hamdok,a 61-year-old economist who worked previously for the UNEconomic Commission for Africa,was sworn in on 21 August 2019.[21]He initiated talks with theIMFandWorld Bankaimed at stabilising the economy, which was in dire straits because of shortages of food, fuel and hard currency. Hamdok estimated that US$10bn over two years would suffice to halt the panic, and said that over 70% of the 2018 budget had been spent on civil war-related measures. The governments ofSaudi Arabiaand theUnited Arab Emirateshad invested significant sums supporting the military council since Bashir's ouster.[22]On 3 September, Hamdok appointed 14 civilian ministers, including the first female foreign minister and the first Coptic Christian, also a woman.[23][24]As of August 2021, the country was jointly led by Chairman of the Transitional Sovereign Council,Abdel Fattah al-Burhan,and Prime Minister Abdallah Hamdok.[25]

Foreign policy

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Bashir and U.S. Deputy Secretary of StateRobert Zoellick,2005

From the early 1990s, after al-Bashir assumed power, Sudan backedIraqin itsinvasion of Kuwait[26][27]and was accused of harboring and providing sanctuary and assistance to Islamic terrorist groups.Carlos the Jackal,Osama bin Laden,Abu Nidaland others labeled "terrorist leaders" by the United States and its allies resided in Khartoum. Sudan's role in thePopular Arab and Islamic Congress(PAIC), spearheaded byHassan al-Turabi,represented a matter of great concern to the security of American officials and dependents in Khartoum, resulting in several reductions and evacuations of American personnel from Khartoum in the early to mid 1990s.[28]

Sudan's Islamist links with international terrorist organizations represented a special matter of concern for the American government, leading to Sudan's 1993 designation as a state sponsor of terrorism and a suspension of U.S. Embassy operations in Khartoum in 1996. In late 1994, in an initial effort to reverse his nation's growing image throughout the world as a country harboring terrorists, Bashir secretly cooperated with French special forces to orchestrate the capture and arrest on Sudanese soil ofCarlos the Jackal.[29]

Sudan's offer of and request for counter-terrorism assistance, April 1997

In early 1996, al-Bashir authorized his Defense Minister at the time, El Fatih Erwa, to make a series of secret trips to the United States[30]to hold talks with American officials, including officers of theCIAandUnited States Department of Stateabout American sanctions policy against Sudan and what measures might be taken by the Bashir regime to remove the sanctions. Erwa was presented with a series of demands from the United States, including demands for information aboutOsama bin Ladenand other radical Islamic groups. The US demand list also encouraged Bashir's regime to move away from activities, such as hosting the Popular Arab and Islamic Congress, that impinged on Sudanese efforts to reconcile with the West. Sudan's Mukhabarat (central intelligence agency) spent half a decade amassing intelligence data on bin Laden and a wide array of Islamists through their periodic annual visits for the PAIC conferences.[31]In May 1996, after the series of Erwa secret meetings on US soil, theClinton Administrationdemanded that Sudan expel Bin Laden. Bashir complied.[32]

Controversy erupted about whether Sudan had offered to extradite bin Laden in return for rescinding American sanctions that were interfering with Sudan's plans to develop oil fields in southern areas of the country. American officials insisted the secret meetings were agreed only to pressure Sudan into compliance on a range of anti-terrorism issues. The Sudanese insisted that an offer to extradite bin Laden had been made in a secret one-on-one meeting at aFairfaxhotel between Erwa and the thenCIAAfrica Bureau chief on condition thatWashingtonend sanctions against Bashir's regime. AmbassadorTimothy M. Carneyattended one of the Fairfax hotel meetings. In a joint opinion piece in the Washington Post Outlook Section in 2003, Carney and Ijaz argued that in fact the Sudanese had offered to extradite bin Laden to a third country in exchange for sanctions relief.[33]

In August 1996, American hedge-fund managerMansoor Ijaztraveled to Sudan and met with senior officials including al-Turabi and al-Bashir. Ijaz asked Sudanese officials to share intelligence data with US officials on bin Laden and other Islamists who had traveled to and from Sudan during the previous five years. Ijaz conveyed his findings to US officials upon his return, includingSandy Berger,then Clinton's deputy national security adviser, and argued for the US to constructively engage the Sudanese and other Islamic countries.[34]In April 1997, Ijaz persuaded al-Bashir to make an unconditional offer of counterterrorism assistance in the form of a signed presidential letter that Ijaz delivered to CongressmanLee H. Hamiltonby hand.[35]

In late September 1997, months after the Sudanese overture (made by al-Bashir in the letter to Hamilton), the U.S. State Department, under Secretary of StateMadeleine Albright's directive, first announced it would return American diplomats to Khartoum to pursue counterterrorism data in theMukhabarat's possession. Within days, the U.S. reversed that decision[36]and imposed harsher and more comprehensive economic, trade, and financial sanctions against Sudan, which went into effect in October 1997.[37]In August 1998, in the wake of theEast Africa embassy bombings,the U.S. launchedcruise missile strikesagainst Khartoum.[38]U.S. Ambassador to Sudan, Tim Carney, departed post in February 1996[39]and no new ambassador was designated until December 2019, when U.S. presidentDonald Trump's administration reached an agreement with the new Sudanese government to exchange ambassadors.[40]

Al-Bashir announced in August 2015 that he would travel toNew Yorkin September to speak at theUnited Nations.It was unclear to date if al-Bashir would have been allowed to travel, due to previous sanctions.[41] in 1997, after the U.S. placed sanctions on Sudan, banning all American companies from engaging in its oil sector, after allegations that the government ofOmar al-Bashirwas supporting terrorists and committing human rights violations.[42]Bashir decided to travel to China in 1995 to request help in developing its oil sector and, this time, China agreed. This appeal came at an opportune moment since China had grown considerable interest in acquiring foreign oil reserves as its own oilfields had already surpassed peak production.[43]

See also

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References

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  1. ^People and Society CIA world factbook
  2. ^الجهاز المركزي للتعبئة العامة والإحصاء
  3. ^Sudanese Fulani in Sudan
  4. ^abCite error: The named referenceloc2015was invoked but never defined (see thehelp page).
  5. ^S/2020/614 - UNITAMS
  6. ^World Report 2011: Chad.Human Rights Watch.24 January 2011.Retrieved6 June2011.
  7. ^Martell, Peter (2011)."BBC News - South Sudan becomes an independent nation".BBC.Retrieved9 July2011.
  8. ^"Omar al-Bashir wins Sudan elections by a landslide".BBC News.27 April 2015.Retrieved24 April2019.
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  13. ^"Sudan's Omar al-Bashir vows to stay in power as protests rage | News".Al Jazeera. 9 January 2019.Retrieved24 April2019.
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  16. ^""Chaos and Fire" – An Analysis of Sudan's June 3, 2019 Khartoum Massacre – Sudan ".ReliefWeb.5 March 2020.
  17. ^"African Union suspends Sudan over violence against protestors – video".The Guardian.7 June 2019.ISSN0261-3077.Retrieved8 June2019.
  18. ^"'They'll have to kill all of us!'".BBC News.Retrieved30 June2019.
  19. ^"(الدستوري Declaration (العربية))"[(Constitutional Declaration)](PDF).raisethevoices.org(in Arabic).FFC,TMC.4 August 2019.Archived(PDF)from the original on 5 August 2019.Retrieved5 August2019.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: others (link)
  20. ^Reeves, Eric(10 August 2019)."Sudan: Draft Constitutional Charter for the 2019 Transitional Period".sudanreeves.org.FFC,TMC,IDEA.Archivedfrom the original on 10 August 2019.Retrieved10 August2019.
  21. ^"We recognize Hamdok as leader of Sudan's transition: EU, Troika envoys".Sudan Tribune.27 October 2021.Archivedfrom the original on 27 October 2021.Retrieved27 October2021.
  22. ^Abdelaziz, Khalid (24 August 2019)."Sudan needs up to $10 billion in aid to rebuild economy, new PM says".The Globe and Mail.
  23. ^"Sudan's PM selects members of first cabinet since Bashir's ouster".Reuters.3 September 2019.Retrieved4 September2019.
  24. ^"Women take prominent place in Sudanese politics as Abdalla Hamdok names cabinet".The National.4 September 2019.
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  26. ^Middleton, Drew (4 October 1982)."Sudanese Brigades Could Provide Key Aid for Iraq; Military Analysis".The New York Times.ISSN0362-4331.Archivedfrom the original on 8 December 2019.Retrieved16 December2019.
  27. ^Perlez, Jane (26 August 1998)."After the Attacks: The Connection; Iraqi Deal with Sudan on Nerve Gas Is Reported".The New York Times.ISSN0362-4331.Archivedfrom the original on 16 December 2019.Retrieved16 December2019.
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  30. ^"1996 CIA Memo to Sudanese Official".The Washington Post.3 October 2001.Archivedfrom the original on 19 October 2017.Retrieved22 August2017.
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  32. ^"Sudan Expels Bin Laden".History Commons.18 May 1996. Archived fromthe originalon 18 February 2014.Retrieved24 January2014.
  33. ^Carney, Timothy;Mansoor Ijaz(30 June 2002)."Intelligence Failure? Let's Go Back to Sudan".The Washington Post.Archived fromthe originalon 24 November 2011.Retrieved1 December2008.
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  35. ^Ijaz, Mansoor (30 September 1998)."Olive Branch Ignored".Los Angeles Times.Archivedfrom the original on 19 October 2017.Retrieved20 February2020.
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  37. ^Malik, Mohamed; Malik, Malik (18 March 2015). "The Efficacy of United States Sanctions on the Republic of Sudan".Journal of Georgetown University-Qatar Middle Eastern Studies Student Association.2015(1): 3.doi:10.5339/messa.2015.7.ISSN2311-8148.
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  39. ^Miniter, Richard (1 August 2003).Losing Bin Laden: How Bill Clinton's Failures Unleashed Global Terror.Regnery Publishing. pp.114,140.ISBN978-0-89526-074-1.
  40. ^Wong, Edward (4 December 2019)."Trump Administration Moves to Upgrade Diplomatic Ties With Sudan".The New York Times.ISSN0362-4331.Archivedfrom the original on 14 December 2019.Retrieved15 December2019.
  41. ^"Omar al-Bashir to speak at UN Summit in New York".Eyewitness News.Archivedfrom the original on 7 August 2015.Retrieved5 August2015.
  42. ^"Sudan, Oil, and Human Rights: THE UNITED STATES: DIPLOMACY REVIVED".www.hrw.org.Retrieved2020-05-05.
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Sources

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Further reading

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15°38′N32°32′E/ 15.633°N 32.533°E/15.633; 32.533

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