Wikipedia

Russians

This article is about the people of Russia. For other meanings, seeRussian.

The termRussiansmay refer to the largest ethnic group inRussianative toEastern Europe,but is may also denote the people of the multi-ethnic Russian state. TheRussianword for the former meaning isрусские(russkiye), for the second meaning it isроссияне(rossiyane). The Russian language is the most spokenSlavic language;Orthodox Christianityhas been the majority religion of the Russians since the formation of a Russian identity in theMiddle Ages.They are the largestSlavicnation and thelargest European nation.

Russians
Russian:русские
Total population
c. 135 million[citation needed]
Regions with significant populations
Russia105,620,179 (2021)[1]
Diaspora
Ukraine7,170,000 (2018) (includingCrimea)[2]
Kazakhstan2,983,317 (2024)[3]
Uzbekistan720,324 (2019)[4]
Belarus706,992 (2019)[5]
Canada622,445 (2016)
(Russian ancestry, excluding Russian Germans)[6]
Other countries
Latvia454,350 (2022)[7]
Kyrgyzstan352,960 (2018)[8]
Estonia315,252 (2021)[9]
Argentina300,000 (2018)[10]
Moldova201,218 (2014)[11]
France200,000[12]to 500,000[12][13]
Turkmenistan150,000 (2012)[14]
Lithuania129,797 (2017)[15]
Italy120,459[16]
Azerbaijan119,300 (2009)[17]
Finland90,801 (2020)[18]
Spain72,234 (2017)[19]
Australia67,055 (2006)[20]
Turkey50,000–100,000
(2019)[21][22]
Poland40,000 (2019)[23]
Romania36,397 (2002)
(Lipovans)[24]
Czech Republic35,759 (2016)[25]
Tajikistan35,000 (2010)[26]
South Korea30,098 (2016)[27]
Georgia26,453 (2014)[28]
Hungary21,518 (2016)[29]
Sweden20,187 (2016)[30]
China15,609 (2000)[31]
Bulgaria15,595 (2002)[32]
Armenia14,076 (2022)[33]
Greece13,635 (2002)<[34]
Slovakia8,116 (2021)[35][36]
India6,000–15,000 (2011)[37]
Denmark7,686 (2019)[38]
New Zealand5,979 (2013)<[39]
Languages
Russian(Russian Sign Language)
Religion
PredominantlyEastern Orthodoxy(Russian Orthodoxy), minorityirreligion
Related ethnic groups
OtherEast Slavs(Belarusians,Ukrainians,Rusyns)[40]

Genetic studies show that Russians are closely related toPoles,Belarusians,Ukrainians,as well asEstonians,LatviansandLithuanians.[40][41][42][43]They were formed from East Slavic tribes, and their cultural ancestry is based inKievan Rus'.The Russian word for the Russians is derived from thepeople of Rus' and the territory of Rus'.The Russians share many historical and cultural traits with other European peoples, and especially with other East Slavic ethnic groups, specificallyBelarusiansandUkrainians.

The vast majority of Russians live in native Russia, but notable minorities are scattered throughout otherpost-Soviet statessuch asBelarus,Kazakhstan,Moldova,Ukraine,and theBaltic states.A largeRussian diaspora(sometimes including Russian-speaking non-Russians), estimated at 25 million people,[44]has developed all over the world, with notable numbers in theUnited States,Germany,Brazil,andCanada.

Ethnonym

There are twoRussianwords which are commonly translated into English as "Russians". One isрусские(russkiye), which in modern Russia most often means "ethnic Russians". The other one isроссияне(rossiyane), derived fromРоссия(Rossiya,Russia), which denotes "people of Russia", regardless of ethnicity or religious affiliation. In daily usage, those terms are often mixed up, and sinceVladimir Putinbecame president, the ethnic term русские has supplanted the non-ethnic term.[45]: 26 

The name of the Russians derives from the early medievalRus' people,a group ofNorsemerchants and warriors who relocated from across theBaltic Seaand played an important part in the foudation of the firstEast Slavicstate that later became theKievan Rus'.[46][47]

The idea of a single "all-Russian nation"encompassing theEast Slavic peoples,or a "triune nation" of three brotherly "Great Russian","Little Russian"(i.e.Ukrainian), and "White Russian"(i.e.Belarusian) peoples became the official doctrine of theRussian Empirefrom the beginning of the 19th century onwards.[45]: 25–26 

History

Ancient history

Further information:Rus' peopleandOld Russians
East Slavictribes and peoples, 8th–9th century

Russian historiography normally portrays modern Russia as the direct successor to theKievan Rus'.[45]: 29 That notion denies the existence of a separate Ukrainian people and is heavily contested by Ukrainian historians.[45]: 34 HistorianSerhii Plokhyagrees that Russian religion, written language and arts, system of laws and ruling dynasty originated inKyiv.He points out however that linking Russian ethnicity, spoken language and culture to those of Kyiv is "problematic".[48]

The ancestors of modern Russians are theSlavic tribes,whose original home is thought by some scholars to have been the wooded areas of thePinsk Marshes,one of the largestwetlandsin Europe.[49]The East Slavs gradually settled Western Russia withMoscowincluded in two waves: one moving fromKievtoward present-daySuzdalandMuromand another fromPolotsktowardNovgorodandRostov.[50]Prior to the Slavic migration in the 6-7th centuries, the Suzdal-Murom and Novgorod-Rostov areas were populated byFinnic peoples,[51]including theMerya,[52]theMuromians,[53]and theMeshchera.[54]

From the 7th century onwards, the East Slavs slowly assimilated the native Finnic peoples,[55]so that by year 1100, the majority of the population in Western Russia was Slavic-speaking.[50][51]Recent genetic studies confirm the presence of a Finnic substrate in modern Russian population.[56]

Outside archaeological remains, little is known about the predecessors to Russians in general prior to 859 AD, when thePrimary Chroniclestarts its records.[57]By 600 AD, theSlavsare believed to have split linguistically intosouthern,western,and eastern branches.[citation needed]

Medieval history

Main articles:Kievan Rus',Grand Duchy of Moscow,andTsardom of Russia
TheBaptism of Kievans,byKlavdy Lebedev

The Rus' state was established in northern Russia in the year 862,[58]which was ruled by theVarangians.[59]Staraya LadogaandNovgorodbecame the first major cities of the new union of immigrants fromScandinaviawith the Slavs andFinns.[60]In 882, the princeOlegseizedKiev,thereby uniting the northern and southern lands of theEast Slavsunder one authority. The stateadopted Christianityfrom theByzantine Empirein 988.Kievan Rus'ultimately disintegrated as a state as a result of in-fighting between members of the princely family that ruled it collectively.[61]

After the 13th century,Moscowbecame a political and cultural center. Moscow has become a center for theunification of Russian lands.[62]By the end of the 15th century, Moscow united the northeastern and northwestern Russian principalities, overthrew the "Mongol yoke" in 1480,[63]and would be transformed into theTsardom of RussiaafterIvan IVwas crowned tsar in 1547.[64]

Modern history

Main articles:Russian Empire,Soviet Union,andRussia
Grandma's Fairy Tales,byVassily Maximov

In 1721, TsarPeter the Greatrenamed his state as theRussian Empire,hoping to associate it with historical and cultural achievements of ancient Rus' – in contrast to his policies oriented towards Western Europe. The state now extended from the eastern borders of thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealthto thePacific Ocean,and became agreat power;and one of the most powerful states in Europe after thevictory over Napoleon.Peasant revolts were common, and all were fiercely suppressed. The EmperorAlexander IIabolishedRussian serfdomin 1861, but the peasants fared poorly and revolutionary pressures grew. In the following decades, reform efforts such as theStolypin reformsof 1906–1914, theconstitution of 1906,and theState Duma(1906–1917) attempted to open and liberalize the economy and political system, but the Emperors refused to relinquishautocratic ruleand resisted sharing their power.

Percentage of ethnic Russians byfederal subjectsof Russia according to the2010 census:[65]
above 80%

A combination of economic breakdown,war-weariness,and discontent with the autocratic system of government triggeredrevolution in Russia in 1917.Theoverthrow of the monarchyinitially brought into office a coalition of liberals and moderate socialists, but their failed policies led toseizure of powerby thecommunistBolshevikson 25 October 1917 (7 NovemberNew Style). In 1922, Soviet Russia, along withSoviet Ukraine,Soviet Belarus,and theTranscaucasian SFSRsigned theTreaty on the Creation of the USSR,officially merging all four republics to form the Soviet Union as a country. Between 1922 and 1991, the history of Russia became essentially thehistory of the Soviet Union,effectively an ideologically based state roughly conterminous with the Russian Empire before the 1918Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.From its first years, government in the Soviet Union based itself on the one-party rule of the Communists, as the Bolsheviks called themselves, beginning in March 1918. The approach to the building of socialism, however, varied over different periods in Soviet history: from themixed economyand diverse society and culture of the 1920s through thecommand economy and repressionsof theJoseph Stalinera to the"era of stagnation"from the 1960s to the 1980s. The actions of the Soviet government caused the death of millions of citizens in thefamine of 1930–1933and theGreat Purge.TheattackbyNazi Germanyand the ensuingwar,together withthe Holocaust,again claimedmillions of lives.Millions of Russian civilians andprisoners of warwere killed or starved to death during Nazi Germany's genocidal policies called theHunger Planand theGeneralplan Ost,including one million civilian casualties during theSiege of Leningrad.After the victory of theSoviet Unionand theWestern Allies,the Soviet Union became asuperpoweropposing Western countries during theCold War.

By the mid-1980s, with Soviet economic and political weaknesses becoming acute, Soviet leaderMikhail Gorbachevembarked on major reforms; these culminated in thedissolution of the Soviet Union,leaving Russia again alone and marking the beginning of thepost-SovietRussian period. TheRussian Soviet Federative Socialist Republicrenamed itself theRussian Federationand became one ofseveral successors to the Soviet Union.

Geographic distribution

Main articles:Ethnic Russians in post-Soviet statesandRussian diaspora
Ethnic Russians in former Soviet Union states in 1994

Ethnic Russians historically migrated within the areas of the formerRussian EmpireandSoviet Union,though they were sometimes encouraged to re-settle in borderland areas by the Tsarist and later Soviet government.[66]Sometimes ethnic Russian communities, such as theLipovanswho settled in theDanube deltaor theDoukhoborsinCanada,emigrated as religious dissidents fleeing the central authority.[67]

Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois Russian Cemeteryin Paris, the resting place of many eminentRussian émigrésafter 1917

There are also small Russian communities in theBalkans— includingLipovansin the Danube delta[68]— Central European nations such asGermanyandPoland,as well as Russians settled inChina,Japan,South Korea,Mexico,Brazil,ArgentinaandAustralia.These communities identify themselves to varying degrees as Russians, citizens of these countries, or both.[citation needed]

Significant numbers of Russians emigrated toCanada,Australiaand theUnited States.Brighton Beach, BrooklynandSouth Beach, Staten IslandinNew York Cityare examples of large communities of recent Russian andRussian-Jewishimmigrants. Other examples areSunny Isles Beach,a northern suburb ofMiami,andWest Hollywoodof theLos Angelesarea.[citation needed]

After theRussian Revolutionin 1917, many Russians who were identified with theWhite armymoved toChina— most of them settling inHarbinandShanghai.[69]By the 1930s, Harbin had 100,000 Russians. Many of these Russians moved back to the Soviet Union afterWorld War II.Today, a large group in northern China still speak Russian as a second language.Russians (eluosizu)are one of the56 ethnic groupsofficially recognized by thePeople's Republic of China(asthe Russ); there are approximately 15,600 Russian Chinese living mostly in northernXinjiang,and also inInner MongoliaandHeilongjiang.[citation needed]

According to the2021 Russian census,the number of ethnic Russians in theRussian Federationdecreased by nearly 5.43 million, from roughly 111 million people in 2010 to approximately 105.5 million in 2021.[70]

Ethnographic groups

Lipovansin theDanube Delta

Among the Russians, a number ofethnographic groupsstand out, such as: theNorthern Russians,theSouthern Russians,theCossacks,theGoryuns,theKamchadals,thePolekhs,thePomors,theRussian Chinese,theSiberians(Siberiaks),Starozhily,some groupings ofOld Believers(Kamenschiks,Lipovans,Semeiskie), and others.[71]

The main ones are the Northern and Southern Russian groups. At the same time, the proposal of the ethnographerDmitry Zeleninin his major work of 1927Russian (East Slavic) Ethnographyto consider them as separate East Slavic peoples[72]did not find support in scientific circles.[citation needed]

Russia's Arctic coastline had been explored and settled byPomors,Russian settlers fromNovgorod.[73]

Cossacksinhabited sparsely populated areas in theDon,Terek,andUralriver basins, and played an important role in the historical and cultural development of parts of Russia.[74]

Genetics

Main article:Genetic studies on Russians
See also:Comb Ceramic culture § Genetics,Yamnaya culture § Eastern Europe and Finland,andFatyanovo–Balanovo culture § Genetics
Russian people inSaint-Petersburg.

In accordance with the 2008 research results of Russian and Estonian geneticists, two groups of the Russians are distinguished: the northern and southern populations.[42][75]

The Central and Southern Russians, to which the majority of Russian populations belong, according toY chromosomeR1a, are included in the general "East European"gene clusterwith the restEastandWest Slavs(Poles, Czechs and Slovaks), as well as the non-SlavicHungariansandAromanians.[41][42][43]Genetically, East Slavs are quite similar to West Slavs; such genetic similarity is somewhat unusual for genetics with such a wide settlement of the Slavs, especially the Russians.[76]The high unity of theautosomalmarkers of the East Slavic populations and their significant differences from the neighboring Finnic, Turkic and Caucasian peoples were revealed.[42][41]

TheNorthern Russians,according tomtDNA,Y chromosome and autosomal marker CCR5de132, are included in the "North European" gene cluster (thePoles,theBalts,GermanicandBaltic Finnic peoples).[42][77]

Consequently, the already existing biologo-genetic studies have made all hypotheses about the mixing of the Russians with non-Slavic ethnic groups or their "non-Slavism" obsolete or pseudoscientific. At the same time, the long-standing identification of the Northern Russian and Southern Russian ethnographic groups by ethnologists was confirmed. The previous conclusions of physical anthropologists,[78]historians and linguists (see, in particular, the works of the academicianValentin Yanin) about the proximity of the ancientNovgorod Slavsand their language not to the East, but to westBaltic Slavs.As can be seen fromgenetic resources,the contemporary Northern Russians also are genetically close of all Slavic peoples only to the Poles and similar to the Balts. However, this does not mean the northern Russians origin from the Balts or the Poles, more likely, that all the peoples of the Nordic gene pool are descendants ofPaleo-Europeanpopulation, which has remained aroundBaltic Sea.[42][77]

Assimilation and immigration

Russians have sometimes found it useful to emphasize their self-perceived ability toassimilateother peopleto the Russian ethnicity- and as a historic great power with imperial expansionist tendencies the Russian state has sometimes encouraged Russian-centred monoculturalism. Steppe peoples, Tatars, Baltic Germans, Lithuanians and native Siberians inRus',Muscovyor theRussian Empirecould in theory become "Russians" (Russian:русские) simply by acceptingRussian Orthodoxyas their faith.[79][80] The attitude of ready inclusivity is summed up in the popular phrase (sometimes attributed to EmperorAlexander III of Russia) - Хочешь быть русским - будь им! (transl.  You want to be Russian - be that!).[81]

Language

Main article:Russian language

Russianis theofficialand the predominantly spoken language in Russia.[82]It is the most-spoken native language in Europe,[83]the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia,[84]as well as the world's most widely spokenSlavic language.[84]Russian is the third-most used language on theInternetafterEnglishandSpanish,[85]and is one of two official languages aboard theInternational Space Station,[86]as well as one of the sixofficial languages of the United Nations.[87]

Culture

Main article:Culture of Russia
Russian artistBoris Kustodiev'sMaslenitsa,1916

Literature

Leo Tolstoy's (1828–1910) notable works include the novelsWar and PeaceandAnna Karenina,often cited as pinnacles ofrealistfiction.

Russian literatureis considered to be among the world's most influential and developed.[88]It can be traced to theMiddle Ages,when epics and chronicles inOld East Slavicwere composed.[89]By theAge of Enlightenment,literature had grown in importance, with works fromMikhail Lomonosov,Denis Fonvizin,Gavrila Derzhavin,andNikolay Karamzin.[90]From the early 1830s, during theGolden Age of Russian Poetry,literature underwent an astounding golden age in poetry, prose and drama.[91]Romanticismpermitted a flowering of poetic talent:Vasily Zhukovskyand later his protégéAlexander Pushkincame to the fore.[92]Following Pushkin's footsteps, a new generation of poets were born, includingMikhail Lermontov,Nikolay Nekrasov,Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy,Fyodor TyutchevandAfanasy Fet.[90]

The first great Russian novelist wasNikolai Gogol.[93]Then cameIvan Turgenev,who mastered both short stories and novels.[94]Fyodor DostoevskyandLeo Tolstoysoon became internationally renowned.Ivan Goncharovis remembered mainly for his novelOblomov.[95]Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrinwrote prose satire,[96]whileNikolai Leskovis best remembered for his shorter fiction.[97]In the second half of the centuryAnton Chekhovexcelled in short stories and became a leading dramatist.[98]Other important 19th-century developments included the fabulistIvan Krylov,[99]non-fiction writers such as the criticVissarion Belinsky,[100]and playwrights such asAleksandr GriboyedovandAleksandr Ostrovsky.[101][102]The beginning of the 20th century ranks as theSilver Age of Russian Poetry.This era had poets such asAlexander Blok,Anna Akhmatova,Boris Pasternak,Konstantin Balmont,[103]Marina Tsvetaeva,Vladimir Mayakovsky,andOsip Mandelshtam.It also produced some first-rate novelists and short-story writers, such asAleksandr Kuprin,Nobel Prize winnerIvan Bunin,Leonid Andreyev,Yevgeny Zamyatin,Dmitry MerezhkovskyandAndrei Bely.[90]

After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Russian literature split into Soviet andwhite émigréparts. In the 1930s,Socialist realismbecame the predominant trend in Russia. Its leading figure wasMaxim Gorky,who laid the foundations of this style.[104]Mikhail Bulgakovwas one of the leading writers of the Soviet era.[105]Nikolay Ostrovsky's novelHow the Steel Was Temperedhas been among the most successful works of Russian literature. Influential émigré writers includeVladimir Nabokov.[106]Some writers dared to oppose Soviet ideology, such as Nobel Prize-winning novelistAleksandr Solzhenitsyn,who wrote about life in the Gulag camps.[107]

Philosophy

Main article:List of Russian philosophers

Russian philosophyhas been greatly influential.Alexander Herzenis known as one of the fathers ofagrarianpopulism.[108]Mikhail Bakuninis referred to as the father ofanarchism.[109]Peter Kropotkinwas the most important theorist ofanarcho-communism.[110]Mikhail Bakhtin's writings have significantly inspired scholars.[111]Helena Blavatskygained international following as the leading theoretician ofTheosophy,and co-founded theTheosophical Society.[112]Vladimir Lenin,a major revolutionary, developed a variant of communism known asLeninism.Leon Trotsky,on the other hand, foundedTrotskyism.Alexander Zinovievwas a prominent philosopher in the second half of the 20th century.[113]

Science

Main article:Science and technology in Russia
Dmitri Mendeleev(1837–1906) is best known for formulating thePeriodic Lawand creating a version of theperiodic table of elements.
See also:Timeline of Russian inventions and technology records,List of Russian scientists,andList of Russian inventors

Mikhail Lomonosovproposed theconservation of massinchemical reactions,discovered theatmosphere of Venus,and founded moderngeology.[114]Since the times ofNikolay Lobachevsky,who pioneered thenon-Euclidean geometry,and a prominent tutorPafnuty Chebyshev,Russianmathematiciansbecame among the world's most influential.[115]Dmitry Mendeleevinvented thePeriodic table,the main framework of modernchemistry.[116]Sofya Kovalevskayawas a pioneer amongwomen in mathematicsin the 19th century.[117]Grigori Perelmanwas offered the first ever ClayMillennium Prize ProblemsAward for his final proof of thePoincaré conjecturein 2002, as well as the Fields Medal in 2006, both of which he declined.[118][119]

Alexander Popovwas among theinventors of radio,[120]whileNikolai BasovandAlexander Prokhorovwere co-inventors oflaserandmaser.[121]Zhores Alferovcontributed significantly to the creation ofmodern heterostructure physics and electronics.[122]Oleg Losevmade crucial contributions in the field ofsemiconductor junctions,and discoveredlight-emitting diodes.[123]Vladimir Vernadskyis considered one of the founders ofgeochemistry,biogeochemistry,andradiogeology.[124]Élie Metchnikoffis known for his groundbreaking research inimmunology.[125]Ivan Pavlovis known chiefly for his work inclassical conditioning.[126]Lev Landaumade fundamental contributions to many areas oftheoretical physics.[127]

Nikolai Vavilovwas best known for having identified thecentersof origin ofcultivatedplants.[128]Many famous Russian scientists and inventors wereémigrés.Igor Sikorskywas anaviation pioneer.[129]Vladimir Zworykinwas the inventor of theiconoscopeandkinescopetelevision systems.[130]Theodosius Dobzhanskywas the central figure in the field ofevolutionary biologyfor his work in shaping themodern synthesis.[131]George Gamowwas one of the foremost advocates of theBig Bangtheory.[132] Konstantin Tsiolkovskyis called the father of theoreticalastronautics,whose works had inspired leading Soviet rocket engineers, such asValentin Glushko,and many others.[133]: 6–7, 333 

In 1961, the first human trip into space was successfully made byYuri Gagarin.In 1963,Valentina Tereshkovabecame the first and youngestwoman in space,having flown a solo mission onVostok 6.[134]In 1965,Alexei Leonovbecame the first human to conduct aspacewalk,exiting thespace capsuleduringVoskhod 2.[135]

Music

Main articles:Music of RussiaandList of Russian composers
The classic ballet ofSwan Lakewas composed byPyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky(1840–1893)

Until the 18th century, music in Russia consisted mainly of church music and folk songs and dances.[136]In the 19th century, it was defined by the tension between classical composerMikhail Glinkaalong with other members ofThe Mighty Handful,and theRussian Musical Societyled by composersAntonandNikolay Rubinstein.[136]The later tradition ofPyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky,one of the greatest composers of theRomantic era,was continued into the 20th century bySergei Rachmaninoff,one of the last great champions of the Romantic style of European classical music.[137]World-renowned composers of the 20th century includeAlexander Scriabin,Alexander Glazunov,Igor Stravinsky,Sergei Prokofiev,Dmitri Shostakovich,Georgy SviridovandAlfred Schnittke.[136]

Soviet and Russian conservatories have turned out generations of world-renowned soloists. Among the best known are violinistsDavid OistrakhandGidon Kremer,[138][139]cellistMstislav Rostropovich,[140]pianistsVladimir Horowitz,[141]Sviatoslav Richter,[142]andEmil Gilels,[143]and vocalistGalina Vishnevskaya.[144]

During the Soviet times,popular musicalso produced a number of renowned figures, such as the twoballadeers—Vladimir VysotskyandBulat Okudzhava,[145]and performers such asAlla Pugacheva.[146]Jazz,even with sanctions from Soviet authorities, flourished and evolved into one of the country's most popular musical forms.[145]TheGanelin Triohave been described by critics as the greatest ensemble of free-jazz incontinental Europe.[147]By the 1980s,rock musicbecame popular across Russia, and produced bands such asAria,Aquarium,[148]DDT,[149]andKino.[150][151]Pop musicin Russia has continued to flourish since the 1960s, with globally famous acts such ast.A.T.u.[152]In the recent times,Little Big,araveband, has gained popularity in Russia and across Europe.[153]

Cinema

Main articles:Cinema of RussiaandCinema of the Soviet Union
Poster ofBattleship Potemkin(1925) by Sergei Eisenstein, which was named thegreatest film of all timeat theBrussels World's Fairin 1958.[154]

Russian and laterSoviet cinemawas a hotbed of invention, resulting in world-renowned films such asThe Battleship Potemkin.[155]Soviet-era filmmakers, most notablySergei EisensteinandAndrei Tarkovsky,would go on to become among of the world's most innovative and influential directors.[156][157]Eisenstein was a student ofLev Kuleshov,who developed the groundbreakingSoviet montage theoryof film editing at the world's firstfilm school,theAll-Union Institute of Cinematography.[158]Dziga Vertov's "Kino-Eye"theory had a huge impact on the development of documentary filmmaking and cinema realism.[159]Many Soviet socialist realism films were artistically successful, includingChapaev,The Cranes Are Flying,andBallad of a Soldier.[citation needed]

The 1960s and 1970s saw a greater variety of artistic styles in Soviet cinema. The comedies ofEldar RyazanovandLeonid Gaidaiof that time were immensely popular, with many of the catchphrases still in use today.[160][161]In 1961–68Sergey Bondarchukdirected anOscar-winningfilm adaptationof Leo Tolstoy's epicWar and Peace,which wasthe most expensive filmmade in the Soviet Union.[162]In 1969,Vladimir Motyl'sWhite Sun of the Desertwas released, a very popular film in a genre ofostern;the film is traditionally watched bycosmonautsbefore any trip into space.[163]In 2002,Russian Arkwas the first feature film ever to be shot in a single take.[164]Today, the Russian cinema industry continues to expand.[165]

Architecture

Main articles:Russian architectureandList of Russian architects
Saint Basil's Cathedral,built between 1555 and 1683, inMoscow

The history ofRussian architecturebegins with early woodcraft buildings of ancient Slavs,[166]and thearchitecture of Kievan Rus'.[167]Following theChristianization of Kievan Rus',for several centuries it was influenced predominantly by theByzantine Empire.[168]Aristotle Fioravantiand other Italian architects broughtRenaissancetrends into Russia.[169]The 16th century saw the development of the uniquetent-like churches;and theonion domedesign, which is a distinctive feature of Russian architecture.[170]In the 17th century, the "fiery style" of ornamentation flourished in Moscow andYaroslavl,gradually paving the way for theNaryshkin baroqueof the 1690s. After the reforms of Peter the Great, Russia's architecture became influenced by Western European styles.[171]The 18th-century taste forRococoarchitecture led to the splendid works ofBartolomeo Rastrelliand his followers.[172]During the reign of Catherine the Great, Saint Petersburg was transformed into an outdoor museum ofNeoclassical architecture.[173]DuringAlexander I's rule,Empire stylebecame thede factoarchitectural style, andNicholas Iopened the gate ofEclecticismto Russia. The second half of the 19th-century was dominated by theNeo-ByzantineandRussian Revivalstyle. In early 20th-century,Russian neoclassical revivalbecame a trend.[171]Prevalent styles of the late 20th-century were theArt Nouveau,Constructivism,[174]andSocialist Classicism.[175]

Religion

Main articles:Russian Orthodox ChurchandReligion in Russia
Trinity Sundayin Russia; theRussian Orthodox Churchhas experienced a great revival since thedissolution of the Soviet Union,a country that had a policy ofstate atheism.

Russia's largest religion isChristianity—It has the world'slargest Orthodox population.[176][177]According to differing sociological surveys on religious adherence, between 41% to over 80% of the total population of Russia adhere to theRussian Orthodox Church.[178][179][180]

Non-religious Russians may associate themselves with the Orthodox faith for cultural reasons. Some Russian people areOld Believers:a relatively smallschismaticgroup of the Russian Orthodoxy that rejected the liturgical reforms introduced in the 17th century. Other schisms from Orthodoxy includeDoukhoborswhich in the 18th century rejected secular government, the Russian Orthodox priests, icons, all church ritual, the Bible as the supreme source of divine revelation and the divinity of Jesus, and later emigrated into Canada. An even earlier sect wereMolokanswhich formed in 1550 and rejected Czar'sdivine right to rule,icons, theTrinityas outlined by theNicene Creed,Orthodoxfasts,military service, and practices includingwater baptism.[citation needed]

Other world religions have negligible representation among ethnic Russians. The largest of these groups areIslamwith over 100,000 followers from national minorities,[181]andBaptistswith over 85,000 Russian adherents.[182]Others are mostlyPentecostals,Evangelicals,Seventh-day Adventists,LutheransandJehovah's Witnesses.[citation needed]

Since the fall of theSoviet Unionvarious new religious movements have sprung up and gathered a following among ethnic Russians. The most prominent of these areRodnovery,the revival of the Slavic native religion also common to otherSlavic nations.[183]

Sports

Main article:Sport in Russia

Footballis the most popular sport in Russia.[184]TheSoviet Union national football teambecame the first European champions by winningEuro 1960,[185]and reached the finals ofEuro 1988.[186]In 1956 and 1988, the Soviet Union won gold at theOlympic football tournament.Russian clubsCSKA MoscowandZenit Saint Petersburgwon theUEFA Cupin 2005 and 2008.[187][188]TheRussian national football teamreached the semi-finals ofEuro 2008.[189]Russia was the host nation for the2017 FIFA Confederations Cup,[190]and the2018 FIFA World Cup.[191]

Ice hockeyis very popular in Russia.[192]TheSoviet Union men's national ice hockey teamdominated the sport internationally throughout its existence,[193]and the modern-dayRussia men's national ice hockey teamis among the most successful teams in the sport.[192]Bandyis Russia's national sport, and it has historically been the highest-achieving country in the sport.[194]TheRussian national basketball teamwon theEuroBasket 2007,[195]and the Russian basketball clubPBC CSKA Moscowis among the most successful European basketball teams. The annualFormula OneRussian Grand Prixis held at theSochi Autodromin theSochi Olympic Park.[196]

Russia is the leading nation inrhythmic gymnastics;and Russiansynchronized swimmingis considered to be the world's best.[197]Figure skatingis another popular sport in Russia, especiallypair skatingandice dancing.[198]Russia has produced a number of famoustennisplayers,[199]such asMaria SharapovaandDaniil Medvedev.Chessis also a widely popular pastime in the nation, with many of the world's top chess players being Russian for decades.[200]The1980 Summer Olympic Gameswere held in Moscow,[201]and the2014 Winter Olympicsand the2014 Winter Paralympicswere hosted in Sochi.[202][203]

See also

References

Citations

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Bibliography

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