Saeculum obscurum(Ecclesiastical Latin:[ˈsɛː.ku.lu.mobsˈkuː.rum],"the dark age/century" ), also known as thePornocracyor theRule of the Harlots,was a period in thehistory of the papacyduring the first two thirds of the10th century,following the chaos after the death ofPope Formosusin 896 which saw seven or eight papal elections in as many years. It began with the installation ofPope Sergius IIIin 904 and lasted for 60 years until the death ofPope John XIIin 964. During this period, thepopeswere influenced strongly by a powerful and allegedly corruptaristocraticfamily, theTheophylacti,and their relatives and allies. The era is seen as one of the lowest points of the history of the papal office.
Periodisation
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Thesaeculum obscurumwas first named and identified as a period of papal immorality by theItaliancardinal and historianCaesar Baroniusin hisAnnales Ecclesiasticiin the 16th century.[1]Baronius's primary source for his history of this period was the contemporaneous writer BishopLiutprand of Cremona.Baronius himself was writing during theCounter-Reformation,a period of heightened sensitivity to clerical corruption. His characterisation of the early 10th-century papacy was perpetuated by Protestant authors. The terms "pornocracy"(German:Pornokratie,fromGreekpornokratiā,"rule of prostitutes" ), hetaerocracy ( "government of mistresses" ), and the Rule of the Harlots (German:Hurenregiment) were coined by Protestant Germantheologiansin the 19th century.[2]
HistorianWill Durantrefers to the period from 867 to 1049 as the "nadirof the papacy ".[3]
10th-century popes
editTheTheophylactifamily were descended fromTheophylactus.They held positions of increased importance in the Roman nobility, such asiudex( "judge" ),vestararius,gloriosissimus dux( "most-glorious duke" ),consul,senator,andmagister militum.[4]Theophylact's wifeTheodoraand daughterMaroziaheld a great influence over the papal selection and religious affairs in Rome through conspiracies, affairs, and marriages.[5]
Marozia became theconcubineof 45-year-oldPope Sergius IIIwhen she was 15 and later took other lovers and husbands.[6]She ensured that her son John (who was rumoured to have been fathered bySergius III) was seated asPope John XIaccording toAntapodosis sive Res per Europam gestae(958–962) byLiutprand of Cremona(c. 920–972). Liutprand affirms that Marozia arranged the murder of her former loverPope John X(who had originally been nominated for office by Theodora) through her then husbandGuy of Tuscany,possibly to secure the elevation of her current favourite asPope Leo VI.[7]There is no record substantiating that Pope John X had definitely died before Leo VI was elected since John X was already imprisoned by Marozia and was out of public view.
Theodora and Marozia held great sway over the popes during this time. In particular, as political rulers ofRomethey had effective control over theelection of new popes.Much that is alleged about thesaeculum obscurumcomes from the histories of Liutprand,Bishop of Cremona.Liutprand took part in theAssembly of Bishopswhich deposedPope John XIIand was a political enemy of the Roman aristocracy and its control over papal elections. Lindsay Brook writes:
We must be especially circumspect about the writing of Liutprand of Cremona, perhaps the most polemical of the tenth century chroniclers, who had his own agenda to promote the revived western Roman Empire.... It would be misleading to portray all, or even most, of the popes of the era as worldly and corrupt. Surviving documents (and there are obvious lacunae) make it clear that many were competent administrators, and skilful diplomats in difficult and dangerous times. Some were even reformers, keen to root out discreditable practices such assimony.Others ordered the rebuilding and restoration of Rome's churches and palaces... Rather, it is the manner of the election of many of them and their symbiotic relationship with the Roman aristocracy that has earned their regime the designation pornocracy.[8]
List of popes during thesaeculum obscurum
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- Pope Sergius III(904–911), alleged lover of Marozia
- Pope Anastasius III(911–913)
- Pope Lando(913–914)
- Pope John X(914–928), alleged lover of Theodora (the mother), allegedly killed by Marozia
- Pope Leo VI(928–928)
- Pope Stephen VII(928–931)
- Pope John XI(931–935), son of Marozia, alleged son of Pope Sergius III
- Pope Leo VII(936–939)
- Pope Stephen VIII(939–942)
- Pope Marinus II(942–946)
- Pope Agapetus II(946–955)
- Pope John XII(955–964), grandson of Marozia, by her son Alberic II of Spoleto
Family tree
edit| Theophylact I, Count of Tusculum 864–924 | Theodora | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Hugh of Italy 887-948 (also married Marozia) | Alberic I of Spoleto d. 925 | Marozia 890–937 | (Alleged)Pope Sergius III Pope from 904–911 | Theodora | John (Consul, later bishop) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Alda of Vienne | Alberic II of Spoleto 905–954 | DavidorDeodatus | Pope John XI From 931–935 | Pope John XIII From 965-972 | Crescentius the Elder | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Maria | Gregory I, Count of Tusculum | Pope John XII From 955–964 | Pope Benedict VII From 974-983 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Pope Benedict VIII From 1012–1024 | Alberic III, Count of Tusculum d. 1044 | Pope John XIX From 1024–1032 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Peter, Duke of the Romans | Gaius | Octavianus | Pope Benedict IX From 1032–1048 | Gregory II, Count of Tusculum | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The Tusculan Papacy, 1012–1059
editAfter severalCrescentiifamily popes up to 1012, theTheophylactistill occasionally nominated sons as popes:
- Pope Benedict VIII(1012–1024), son ofCount Gregory I
- Pope John XIX(1024–1032), son of Count Gregory I
- Pope Benedict IX(1032–1044, 1045, and 1047–1048), son ofAlberic III
- Antipope Benedict X(1058–1059), son of Alberic III, driven out of Rome after a small war
Pope Benedict IX went so far as to sell the Papacy to his religious godfather,Pope Gregory VI(1045–1046). Benedict IX then changed his mind, seized theLateran Palace,and became Pope for the third time in 1047–1048.
The Tusculan Papacy was finally ended by the election ofPope Nicholas II– five years after theGreat Schism of 1054– who was assisted by Hildebrand of Sovana against Antipope Benedict X. Hildebrand was electedPope Gregory VIIin 1073 and introduced theGregorian Reforms,increasing the power and independence of the papacy that would lead to help ignite theFirst Crusadein about 20 years.
See also
edit- The Bad Popes
- List of sexually active popes
- Papal appointment
- Pope Joan(fictional; legends about her may have stemmed from stories about the Pornocracy)
References
edit- ^Dwyer, John C. (1998).Church history: twenty centuries of Catholic Christianity.Mahwah, US: Paulist Press. p.155.ISBN0-8091-3830-1.
- ^Paolo Squatriti, "Pornocracy", in Christopher Kleinhenz (ed.),Medieval Italy: An Encyclopedia,Vol. 2 (New York and London:Routledge,2004), pp. 926–27.ISBN978-1-1380-6331-0.
- ^Durant, Will.The Age of Faith.New York:Simon and Schuster.1972. p. 537
- ^Poole, Reginald L (1917). "Papal chronology in the eleventh century".English Historical Review.1917a41 (32): 204–214.doi:10.1093/ehr/XXXII.CXXVI.204.
- ^Fedele, Pietro(1910 & 1911). "Ricerche per la storia di Rome e del papato al. sec. X".Archivo della Reale Società Romana di Storia Patria,33: 177–247; & 34: 75–116, 393–423.
- ^Ide, Arthur Frederick (1987).Unzipped: The Popes Bare All: A Frank Study of Sex and Corruption in the Vatican.Austin, Texas: American Atheist Press.ISBN0-910309-43-4.
- ^Stark, Rodney (2004).For the glory of God.Princeton, New Jersey:Princeton University Press.ISBN978-0-691-11950-2.
- ^Brook, Lindsay Leonard (January 2003)."Popes and pornocrats: Rome in the early middle ages"(PDF).Foundations.1(1). Hereford, UK: Foundation for Medieval Genealogy: 5–21.ISSN1479-5078.