Wikipedia

Salk Institute for Biological Studies

TheSalk Institute for Biological Studiesis a scientific research institute in theLa Jollacommunity ofSan Diego, California.[1]The independent, non-profit institute was founded in 1960 byJonas Salk,the developer of thepolio vaccine;among the founding consultants wereJacob BronowskiandFrancis Crick.Construction of the research facilities began in spring of 1962. The Salk Institute consistently ranks among the top institutions in the US in terms of research output and quality in the life sciences.[2]

Salk Institute for Biological Studies
Salk Institute for Biological Studies in July 2019
Map
General information
TypeInstitutional
Town or citySan Diego,California,U.S.
Current tenantsSalk Institute
Named forJonas Salk
Completed1965
Technical details
Structural systemVierendeel trusses
MaterialPoured concrete
Floor count4
Design and construction
Architect(s)Louis I. Kahn
Structural engineerAugust Komendant
Awards and prizesAmerican Institute of ArchitectsTwenty-five Year Award
Website
salk.edu

As of October 2020, the Salk Institute employs 850 researchers in 60 research groups and focuses its research in three areas:molecular biologyandgenetics;neurosciences;andplant biology.Research topics includeaging,cancer,diabetes,birth defects,Alzheimer's disease,Parkinson's disease,AIDS,and the neurobiology ofAmerican Sign Language.[3]March of Dimesprovided the initial funding and continues to support the institute. Research is funded by a variety of public sources, such as the USNational Institutes of Healthand thegovernment of California;and private organizations such as Paris-basedIpsen,theHoward Hughes Medical Instituteand the Waitt Family Foundation.[4]In addition, the internally administered Innovation Grants Program encourages cutting-edge high-risk research.[5]In 2017 the Salk Institute Trustees elected former president ofBooz Allen Hamilton,Daniel C. Lewis, as board chairman.[6]

The institute also served as the basis forBruno LatourandSteve Woolgar's 1979 bookLaboratory Life: The Construction of Scientific Facts.[7]

History

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Salk and architectLouis I. Kahnapproached the city of San Diego in March 1960 about a gift of land on theTorrey PinesMesa and were granted their request after areferendumin June 1960.[1]The National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, known today as theMarch of Dimes,provided the initial funding.[8]Construction began in 1962 and a handful of researchers moved into the first laboratory in 1963. Additional buildings housing more laboratories as well as the organizational administrative offices were constructed in the 1990s, designed byAnshen & Allen.

As a memorial to Jonas Salk, a golden engraving lies on the floor at the entrance to the institute: "Hope lies in dreams, in imagination and in the courage of those who dare to make dreams into reality."

Francis Crick held the post of J.W. Kieckhefer Distinguished Research Professor at the Salk Institute. His later research centered on theoreticalneurobiologyand attempts to advance the scientific study of human consciousness. He remained in this post at the Salk Institute until his death in 2004.

50th anniversary celebration

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From April 22 to 27, 2010, the Salk Institute hosted glass sculptures by artistDale Chihulyto celebrate 50 years of its inception.[9]The event was underwritten byIrwin Jacobs,past chairman of the board of trustees.

Establishing the institute

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Main article:Jonas Salk § Establishing the Salk Institute
Jonas Salk

Jonas Salk founded the institute in 1963 in the San Diego neighborhood of La Jolla. Salk believed that the institution would help new and upcoming scientists along in their careers, as he said himself, "I thought how nice it would be if a place like this existed and I was invited to work there." Many supporters, in particular the National Foundation, "helped him build his dream of a research complex for the investigation of biological phenomena 'from cell to society'."[10]

In 1966, Salk described his "ambitious plan for the creation of a kind ofSocraticacademy where the supposedly alienated two cultures of science and humanism will have a favorable atmosphere for cross-fertilization. "[11]Author and journalistHoward Taubmanexplained:

Although he is distinctly future-oriented, Dr. Salk has not lost sight of the institute's immediate aim, which is the development and use of the new biology, calledmolecularandcellular biology,described as part physics, part chemistry and part biology. The broad-gauged purpose of this science is to understand man's life processes.

There is talk here of the possibility, once the secret of how the cell is triggered to manufactureantibodiesis discovered, that a single vaccine may be developed to protect a child against many common infectious diseases. There is speculation about the power to isolate and perhaps eliminate genetic errors that lead to birth defects.

Dr. Salk, a creative man himself, hopes that the institute will do its share in probing the wisdom of nature and thus help enlarge the wisdom of man. For the ultimate purpose of science, humanism and the arts, in his judgment, is the freeing of each individual to cultivate his full creativity, in whichever direction it leads.... As if to prepare for Socratic encounters such as these, the institute's architect,Louis Kahn,has installed blackboards in place of concrete facings on the walls along the walks.[12]

The New York Times,in a 1980 article celebrating the 25th anniversary of the Salk vaccine, described the current workings at the facility:

At the institute, a magnificent complex of laboratories and study units set on a bluff overlooking the Pacific, Dr. Salk holds the titles of founding director and resident fellow. His own laboratory group is concerned with theimmunologicaspects of cancer and the mechanisms of autoimmune disease, such asmultiple sclerosis,in which theimmune systemattacks the body's own tissues.[13]

In an interview about his future hopes at the institute, he said, "In the end, what may have more significance is my creation of the institute and what will come out of it, because of its example as a place for excellence, a creative environment for creative minds."

Francis Crick,codiscoverer of the structure of theDNAmolecule, was a leading professor at the institute until his death in 2004.

The institute also served as the basis forBruno LatourandSteve Woolgar's 1979 bookLaboratory Life: The Construction of Scientific Facts.[14]


Architecture

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The Salk Institute, La Jolla, California (1959–1965) was to be a campus composed of three clusters: meeting and conference areas, living quarters, and laboratories. Only the laboratory cluster, consisting of two parallel blocks enclosing a water garden, was built. The two laboratory blocks frame a long view of thePacific Ocean,accentuated by a thin linear fountain that seems to reach for the horizon.

The campus was designed by Louis Kahn.[15]Salk had sought a beautiful campus in order to draw the best researchers in the world. The original buildings of the Salk Institute were designated a historical landmark in 1991. The entire 27-acre (11 ha) site was deemed eligible by the California Historical Resources Commission in 2006 for listing in the USNational Register of Historic Places.It is "arguably the defining work" of Kahn.[16]

Design

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Water stream between symmetric building masses flowing towards the ocean.

Jack MacAllister,FAIA,of the Kahn office, was the supervising architect and a design influence on the building that consists of two symmetric wings with a water stream flowing towards the ocean in the middletravertine-paved central plaza that separates the two.[17][18][19]In the beginning the buildings were made up of different types ofconcretemixes of different color. In the basement of the complex, there are different colored water walls because Kahn was experimenting with the mixtures. The buildings themselves have been designed to promote collaboration, and thus there are no walls separating laboratories on any of the floors. The lighting fixtures on the roof slide along rails thus reflecting the collaborative and open philosophy of the Salk Institute's science.

After two years of design work, and after the design had been approved and meetings with building contractors had begun, Kahn and the Salk Institute abruptly decided to reduce the number of laboratory buildings from four narrow ones to two wider ones and to increase the number of floors per building from two to three.August Komendantre-engineered the structure and produced a new set of drawings with a speed that professor Leslie described as "legendary".[20]: 143–149, 200 Komendant also trained the construction workers in techniques for producing a highly refined concrete finish.[20]: 156, 165 

In 1992 theAmerican Institute of Architects(AIA) gave this building its prestigiousTwenty-five Year Award,which is given to only one building per year.[21]

Inside the laboratories, the ducts and vents are reinforced by concreteVierendeel trussessupported by post-tensioned columns.[22]The authorities at the time were very cautious due to the fact that they felt these trusses would not be able to hold in case of an earthquake, but in atour de forceof structural design, Komendant was able to achieve twice the ductility that a steel frame offered.[22]

At first Kahn wanted to put a garden in the middle of the two buildings but, as construction continued, he did not know what shape it should take. When he saw an exhibit ofLuis Barragan's work at theMuseum of Modern Artin New York, Kahn invited Baragan to collaborate on the court that separated the two buildings. Barragan told Kahn that he should not add one leaf, nor plant, not one flower, nor dirt, instead, make it a plaza with a single water feature. The resulting space is considered the most impressive element of the entire design.[by whom?]

Courtyard

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Semi-dwarfValencia orangetrees.

In the courtyard is a citrus grove containing several rows of semi-dwarfValencia orangetrees. This grove replaces the original grove which contained orange and kumquat trees which were then replaced with lime trees in the 1995 grove refurbishment. This latest replacement was due primarily to a need to remove current trees for structural repairs and waterproofing of central plant ceilings. The trees were mulched and used for ground cover in compliance with project commitments to sustainability. The decision not to replant additional lime trees stems from dissatisfaction with the manner in which the current trees defoliate and turn yellow in the shade. Valencia compensates for shade by producing additionalchlorophyllin shaded section, becoming greener.

Open environment

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The Salk Institute replete with empty space is symbolic of an open environment for creation. The contrast between balance and dynamic space manifests a pluralistic invitation for scientific study in structures developed to accommodate their respective functions as parts of a research facility. Although modern in appearance, it is essentially an isolated compound for individual and collaborative study, not unlike monasteries as sanctuaries for religious discovery, and they are thought to have directly influenced Kahn in his design. Ultimately, the Salk Institute's meaning can be interpreted as transcending function and physical place as a reflection of Western civilization's pursuit of truth through science.

In 2014, theGetty Conservation Institutepartnered with the Salk Institute to preserve the concrete and teak building which is, due to its coastal location, subject to the punishing rigors of a marine environment.[18]

Laboratories, library

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Most of the laboratories and studies are named after the benefactors, such as the Sloan-Swartz Center for Theoretical Neurobiology[23]and the Razavi Newman Center for Bioinformatics.[24]A library that houses current periodicals, some books and computers is located on the 3rd level of the west end of the North building.[25]The Conrad T. Prebys auditorium and the Trustees' Room are located in the basement of the east buildings of the institute.

Concrete

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According to A. Perez, the concrete was made with volcanic ash relying on the basis of ancient Roman concrete making techniques, and as a result gives off a warm, pinkish glow. This "pozzolanic"concrete was then only vibrated as needed structurally, leaving a lightly textured wall face. The basement also houses the transgenic core. Each laboratory block has five study towers, with each tower containing four offices, except for those near the entrance to the court, which only contain two. A diagonal wall allows each of the thirty-six scientists using the studies to have a view of the Pacific, and every study is fitted with a combination of operable sliding and fixed glass panels in teak wood frames. Originally the design also included living quarters and a conference building, but they were never built.

Structural system

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Main article:August Komendant § Salk Institute for Biological Studies
A section of a laboratory building at the Salk Institute. Above each laboratory floor is a service floor to handle air ducts, piping, etc. The ladder-like structures that encase the service floors are Vierendeel trusses.

In keeping with his design and the philosophy of "served and servant spaces,"[a][26]and as the vast requirement for mechanical spaces were extensive, Kahn decided to create a separate service floor for them above each of the laboratories to make it easier to reconfigure individual laboratories in the future without disrupting neighboring spaces. He also designed each laboratory floor to be entirely free of internal support columns, making laboratory configuration easier. Komendant engineered theVierendeel trussesthat make this arrangement possible. Thesepre-stressed concretetrusses are about 62 feet (19 m) long, spanning the full width of each floor and extending from the bottom of each service floor to the top. They are supported by steel cables embedded in the concrete in a curve similar to that of cables supporting asuspension bridge.Their rectangular openings, which are 6 feet (1.8 m) high in the center and 5 feet (1.5 m) at the ends, allow maintenance workers to move easily through the thicket of pipes and ducts on the service floors. The trusses impose strictly vertical loads on their support columns, to which they are attached not rigidly but with a system of slip plates and tension cables to permit small movements during moderate earthquakes.[20]: 97 

Unbuilt areas

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The meeting and conference areas and the living quarters were formally designated by Kahn as the Meeting Place and Living Place, respectively. He continued to make drawings of these spaces even after their cancellation following a shortage in construction funding. Kahn's stressed importance of the Meeting Place and Living Place to the entirety of the campus plan was in accordance to theUrban Reidentification Gridconcepts proposed by British architectsPeter and Alison Smithsonnearly a decade before, in which interconnectivity between communal activities and their respective spaces took priority. Aesthetically, the unbuilt areas combined cuboidal and cylindrical forms, distinguishing them from the laboratory cluster. The U-shaped road that was part of the original plan was built and exists to this day, but its ends that would have connected the Meeting Place and Living Place to the central laboratories are left bare or occupied by a parking lot.[27]

Scientific activities

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The institute is organized into several research units, each of which is further composed of several scientific groups, each led by a member of the faculty. Some of these units are:

  • Plant Molecular and Cellular Biology Laboratory
  • Regulatory Biology Laboratory
  • Structural Biology Laboratory
  • Gene Expression Laboratory
  • Laboratory of Genetics
  • Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory
  • Cellular Neurobiology Laboratory
  • Systems Neurobiology Laboratories
  • Computational Neurobiology Laboratory
  • Clayton Foundation Laboratories for Peptide Biology
  • Molecular and Cell Biology Laboratory
  • Chemical Biology and Proteomics Laboratory
  • Immunobiology and Microbial Pathogenesis Laboratory
  • The Renato Dulbecco Laboratories for Cancer Research

Rusty Gage was named to a five-year term to lead the institute on January 1, 2019.[28]In February 2023 he returned to full-time laboratory work and was succeeded as president by Gerald Joyce.[29]The Austrian molecular biologistJan Karlsederis the chair of the academic council.[30]There are 53 faculty members. Five of these are members of theHoward Hughes Medical Institute,and more than a quarter are elected members of the USNational Academy of Sciences.[31]

In terms of research output measured by number of publications and citations, the institute is recognized as one of the world's leading institutions in several areas of biology, especially in neurosciences and plant biology.[32][33][34]

In December 2009, theTimemagazine rankedJoseph R. Ecker's mapping of the human epigenome as the second biggest scientific achievement of 2009.[35]

In May 2008, theCalifornia state governmentannounced that it would provide$US270 million for fundingCalifornia Institute for Regenerative Medicine(CIRM). TheSanford Consortium for Regenerative Medicine,a joint effort between Salk Institute,UC San Diego,Burnham InstituteandTSRI,received US$43 million from this funding.[36][37]

In addition, the institute employs postdoctoral scholars and staff scientists who receive training for academic leadership.

Notable projects

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Salk Institute currently runs the Harnessing Plants Initiative (HPI), which aims to improve the capability of agricultural crops tosequester carbon.It comprises two programs:

  • CRoPS (CO2Removal on a Planetary Scale) which aims to develop "Salk Ideal Plants"
  • CPR (Coastal Plant Restoration)

The Salk Ideal Plants are plants that are genetically modified. The intent is to create plants with increased root mass, root depth andsuberincontent.[38]

Training program

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Although the Salk Institute is not a degree-granting institution, it runs a graduate program together with the neighboringUC San Diego,and all Salk Institute professors receive adjunct appointments in the Division of Biological Sciences at UC San Diego. In addition, several faculty members are affiliated with other programs such as the Neuroscience Graduate Program and the Cellular and Molecular Medicine.[39]The students pursue either aPhDor anMD/PhDdegree.

Notable faculty members

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Nobel laureates

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As of 2024, the institute has oneNobel laureateon its faculty:Elizabeth Blackburn.Four of Salk's 11 Nobel laureates were deceased by 2016: Francis Crick,Robert W. Holley,Renato Dulbecco,andSydney Brenner.Another five scientists trained at Salk have gone on to win theNobel Prize.[41]

Former members

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See also

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Bibliography

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  • Leslie, Thomas(2005).Louis I. Kahn: Building Art, Building Science.New York: George Braziller, Inc.ISBN0-8076-1543-9,0-8076-1543-9
  • Weston, Richard (2004). Key buildings of the twentieth century: plans, sections, and elevations. New York: W.W. Norton. p. 138.ISBN978-0-393-73145-3
  • Wiseman, Carter. Louis I. Kahn:Beyond Time and Style.New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2007,ISBN978-0393731651

Notes

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  1. ^"Served and servant spaces: Servant spaces are supporting the main areas of the building. Toilets, storage and technical rooms, stairs and corridors, duct shaft and kitchens are main examples of spaces that are considered as servant spaces. Servant spaces are not meant for habitation, they will be visited only briefly or by internal staff. They are mostly meant for mechanical equipment, ducts and pipes. Served spaces are the primary areas. Concert halls, commercial spaces, living rooms, bedrooms, auditoriums, classes and exhibition spaces are common examples of served spaces. Served spaces are meant for habitation and are meant for primary occupants of the space or visitors." and the need for mechanical services (air ducts, pipes, etc.) "

References

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  1. ^"Salk Institute for Biological Studies".Salk.edu.Retrieved2016-10-18.
  2. ^"Heavyweights in Molecular Biology/Genetics: For Some, A High Percentage of Elite Papers".Archived fromthe originalon 2009-01-06.Retrieved2009-03-14.
  3. ^"The Paul F. Glenn Center for Research on Aging - Overview".www.salk.edu.
  4. ^"Ipsen, Salk Institute ink research pact".Fierce Biotech.11 January 2008.Retrieved2016-10-18.
  5. ^"InsideSalk - 11|07 Issue Innovation Grants Program Infuses Cutting-Edge Projects with Start-Up Funds".Salk.edu.Retrieved2016-10-18.
  6. ^"Salk Institute Trustees elect Daniel C. Lewis as Board Chairman".Salk.edu.Retrieved2019-06-07.
  7. ^Latour, Bruno; Woolgar, Steve (1986-09-21).Laboratory Life.Princeton University Press.ISBN9780691028323.Retrieved2017-05-04.
  8. ^"History of Salk - Salk Institute for Biological Studies".Salk.edu.Retrieved2016-10-18.
  9. ^"DelMarTimes.net | Chihuly glass scultpures drawing crowd to Salk Institute".Archived fromthe originalon 2010-05-04.Retrieved2010-04-26.
  10. ^"Salk 25 years after vaccine",Detroit Free Press,April 9, 1980, p. 31.
  11. ^Taubman, Howard. "Father of Biophilosophy" The New York Times, November 11, 1966
  12. ^Taubman, Howard. "Father of Biophilosophy" The New York Times, November 11, 1966,
  13. ^Glueck, Grace."Salk Studies Man's Future"The New York Times,April 8, 1980
  14. ^Latour, Bruno; Woolgar, Steve (21 September 1986).Laboratory Life.Princeton University Press.ISBN9780691028323.RetrievedMay 4,2017.
  15. ^"Buildings of Wonder".Salk Institute for Biological Studies.Retrieved2022-02-07.
  16. ^Trachtenberg, Marvin (1 September 2016)."RECORD's Top 125 Buildings: 51-75: Salk Institute".Architectural Record.
  17. ^"Jack MacAllister Archives".AIACC. 2014-04-24.Retrieved2016-10-18.
  18. ^abJessica Gelt (August 25, 2014),Getty team launches conservation study of Kahn's Salk InstituteArchivedMarch 5, 2016, at theWayback MachineLos Angeles Times.
  19. ^"Insights: Jack MacAllister, FAIA".aecknowledge.com(video).Retrieved2016-01-25.
  20. ^abcLeslie, Thomas (2005).Louis I. Kahn: Building Art, Building Science.New York: George Braziller, Inc.ISBN0-8076-1543-9.
  21. ^"Twenty Five Year Award Recipients".American Institute of Architects.RetrievedFeb 17,2012.
  22. ^abWeston, Richard (2004).Key buildings of the twentieth century: plans, sections, and elevations.New York: W.W. Norton. p. 138.ISBN978-0-393-73145-3.
  23. ^"Sloan-Swartz".Sloan-swartz.salk.edu.Retrieved2016-10-18.
  24. ^"Salk Bioinformatics".Archived fromthe originalon 2007-03-22.
  25. ^"Salk Institute - the Salk Campus - Directions and Tours".Archived fromthe originalon 2007-12-23.Retrieved2007-12-24.
  26. ^"What are served and servant spaces?".16 January 2018.Retrieved2020-10-24.
  27. ^Churchill, James (3 May 2019). "The Salk Institute, a form in ethical Brutalism".GSAPP, Columbia University.Modern American Architecture.
  28. ^"Salk President Rusty Gage named to new five-year term to lead Institute".Retrieved6 June2019.
  29. ^"Gerald Joyce to become next president of the Salk Institute".Salk News.February 16, 2023.Retrieved18 February2023.
  30. ^"Salk Institute - Academic Council".Salk Institute.Retrieved6 June2019.
  31. ^"Salk scientist Thomas Albright elected to National Academy of Sciences - Salk Institute for Biological Studies".Salk.edu.2008-04-30.Retrieved2016-10-18.
  32. ^"Cell Superstars and Genome Giants".Archived fromthe originalon 2011-07-20.Retrieved2009-03-16.
  33. ^Rubin, Gerald M (2006), "Janelia Farm: An Experiment in Scientific Culture",Cell,125(2): 209–12,doi:10.1016/j.cell.2006.04.005,PMID16630805
  34. ^"Current Comments"(PDF).Garfield.library.upenn.edu.December 3, 1990.Retrieved2016-10-18.
  35. ^Harrell, Eben (8 December 2009)."The Top 10 Everything Of 2009".Time.Archived fromthe originalon December 13, 2009.
  36. ^Pollack, Andrew (8 May 2008)."$271 Million for Research on Stem Cells in California".The New York Times.
  37. ^"Sanford Consortium for Regenerative Medicine | About Us".Sanfordconsortium.org.Archived fromthe originalon 2016-11-01.Retrieved2016-10-18.
  38. ^Harnessing plants initiative
  39. ^"Academic Training - Salk Institute for Biological Studies".Salk.edu.Retrieved2016-10-18.
  40. ^"Ronald M. Evans, PhD".HHMI.org.Retrieved2016-10-18.
  41. ^"About - Salk Institute for Biological Studies".Salk.edu.Retrieved2020-10-17.
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