Scallop(/ˈskɒləp,ˈskæləp/)[a]is acommon namethat encompasses various species ofmarinebivalvemollusksin thetaxonomicfamilyPectinidae,the scallops. However, the common name "scallop" is also sometimes applied to species in other closely related families within the superfamilyPectinoidea,which also includes thethorny oysters.
Scallop Temporal range:
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Argopecten irradians,the Atlantic bay scallop | |
Scientific classification![]() | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Mollusca |
Class: | Bivalvia |
Order: | Pectinida |
Superfamily: | Pectinoidea |
Family: | Pectinidae Wilkes,1810 |
Genera | |
See text | |
Synonyms[citation needed] | |
Pectenidae |
Scallops are acosmopolitanfamily of bivalves found in all of the world's oceans, although never in fresh water. They are one of the very few groups of bivalves to be primarily "free-living", with many species capable of rapidly swimming short distances and even migrating some distance across the ocean floor. A small minority of scallop species live cemented to rockysubstratesas adults, while others attach themselves to stationary or rooted objects such as seagrass at some point in their lives by means of a filament they secrete called abyssal thread.The majority of species, however, live recumbent on sandy substrates, and when they sense the presence of a predator such as astarfish,they may attempt to escape by swimming swiftly but erratically through the water using jet propulsion created by repeatedly clapping their shells together. Scallops have a well-developed nervous system, and unlike most other bivalves all scallops have a ring of numeroussimple eyessituated around the edge of theirmantles.
Many species of scallops are highly prized as a food source, and some are farmed asaquaculture.The word "scallop" is also applied to the meat of these bivalves, theadductor muscle,that is sold asseafood.The brightly coloured, symmetric, fan-shaped shells of scallops with their radiating and often flutedornamentationare valued by shell collectors, and have been used since ancient times as motifs in art, architecture, and design.
Owing to their widespread distribution, scallop shells are a common sight on beaches and are often brightly coloured, making them a popular object to collect amongbeachcombersand vacationers.[2]The shells also have a significant place in popular culture.
Distribution and habitat
editScallops inhabit all the oceans of the world, with the largest number of species living in theIndo-Pacificregion. Most species live in relatively shallow waters from the low tide line to 100 m, while others prefer much deeper water. Although some species only live in very narrow environments, most are opportunistic and can live under a wide variety of conditions. Scallops can be found living within, upon, or under either rocks, coral, rubble,sea grass,kelp,sand, or mud. Most scallops begin their lives asbyssallyattached juveniles, an ability that some retain throughout their lives while others grow into free-living adults.[3]
Anatomy and physiology
editVery little variation occurs in the internal arrangement of organs and systems within the scallop family, and what follows can be taken to apply to the anatomy of any given scallop species.[4]
Orientation
editThe shell of a scallop consists of two sides orvalves,a left valve and a right one, divided by aplane of symmetry.[5]Most species of scallops rest on their right valve, and consequently, this valve is often deeper and more rounded than the left (i.e., upper) valve, which in many species is actually concave. With the hinge of the two valves oriented towards the top, one side corresponds to the animal's morphologicalanterioror front, the other is theposterioror rear, the hinge is thedorsalor back/top region, and the bottom corresponds to theventralor (as it were) underside/belly.[6]However, as many scallop shells are more or less bilaterally symmetrical ( "equivalved" ), as well as symmetrical front/back ( "equilateral" ), determining which way a given animal is "facing" requires detailed information about its valves.[citation needed]
Valves
editThe model scallop shell consists of two similarly shaped valves with a straight hinge line along the top, devoid of teeth, and producing a pair of flat wings or "ears" (sometimes called "auricles", though this is also the term for two chambers in its heart) on either side of its midpoint, a feature which is unique to and apparent in all adult scallops.[7]These ears may be of similar size and shape, or the anterior ear may be somewhat larger (the posterior ear is never larger than the anterior one, an important feature for distinguishing which valve is which). As is the case in almost all bivalves, a series of lines and/or growth rings originates at the center of the hinge, at a spot called the "beak"surrounded by a generally raised area called the"umbo".These growth rings increase in size downwards until they reach the curved ventral edge of the shell. The shells of most scallops are streamlined to facilitate ease of movement during swimming at some point in their lifecycles, while also providing protection from predators. Scallops with ridged valves have the advantage of the architectural strength provided by these ridges called" ribs ", although the ribs are somewhat costly in weight and mass. A unique feature of the scallop family is the presence, at some point during the animal's lifecycle, of a distinctive and taxonomically important shell feature, a comb-like structure called actenoliumlocated on the anterior edge of therightvalve next to the valve's byssal notch. Though many scallops lose this feature as they become free-swimming adults, all scallops have a ctenolium at some point during their lives, and no other bivalve has an analogous shell feature. The ctenolium is found in modern scallops only; both putative ancestors of modern scallops, theentoliidsand the Aviculopectinidae, did not possess it.[8]
Muscular system
editLike the true oysters (familyOstreidae), scallops have a single central adductor muscle, thus, the inside of their shells has a characteristic central scar, marking the point of attachment for this muscle. Theadductor muscleof scallops is larger and more developed than those ofoysters,because scallops are active swimmers; some species of scallops are known to moveen massefrom one area to another. In scallops, the shell shape tends to be highly regular, and is commonly used as anarchetypalform of aseashell.[6]
Adductor muscles
editScallops possess fast (striated) and slow (smooth)adductor muscles,which have different structures and contractile properties. These muscles lie closely apposed to one another but are divided by a connective tissue sheet. The striated adductor muscle contracts very quickly for swimming, whereas the smooth catch adductor muscle lacks striations, and contracts for long periods, keeping shells closed with little expenditure of energy.[9]
Digestive system
editScallops arefilter feeders,and eatplankton.Unlike many other bivalves, they lacksiphons.Water moves over a filtering structure, where food particles become trapped in mucus. Next, theciliaon the structure move the food toward the mouth. Then, the food is digested in the digestive gland, an organ sometimes misleadingly referred to as the "liver," which envelops part of the oesophagus, intestine, and entire stomach. Waste is passed on through the intestine (the terminus of which, like that of many mollusks, enters and leaves the animal's heart) and exits via the anus.[6]: p.20
Nervous system
editLike all bivalves, scallops lack actual brains. Instead, their nervous system is controlled by three pairedganglialocated at various points throughout their anatomy, the cerebral or cerebropleural ganglia, the pedal ganglia, and the visceral or parietovisceral ganglia. All are yellowish. The visceral ganglia are by far the largest and most extensive of the three, and occur as an almost-fused mass near the center of the animal – proportionally, these are the largest and most intricate sets of ganglia of any modern bivalve. From this, radiate all of the nerves which connect the visceral ganglia to the circumpallial nerve ring which loops around the mantle and connects to all of the scallop's tentacles and eyes. This nerve ring is so well developed that, in some species, it may be legitimately considered an additional ganglion.[6]: p.46 The visceral ganglia are also the origin of the branchial nerves which control the scallop's gills. The cerebral ganglia are the next-largest set of ganglia and lie distinct from each other a significant distance dorsal to the visceral ganglia. They are attached to the visceral ganglia by long cerebral-visceral connectives, and to each other via a cerebral commissure that extends in an arch dorsally around the esophagus. The cerebral ganglia control the scallop's mouth via the palp nerves and connect tostatocystswhich help the animal sense its position in the surrounding environment. They are connected to the pedal ganglia by short cerebral-pedal connectives. The pedal ganglia, though not fused, are situated very close to each other near the midline. From the pedal ganglia, the scallop puts out pedal nerves which control the movement of, and sensation in, its small muscular foot.[6]: pp. 43–47
Vision
editScallops have a large number (up to 200) of small (about 1 mm) eyes arranged along the edge of their mantles. These eyes represent a particular innovation among molluscs, relying on a concave, parabolic mirror ofguaninecrystals to focus and retro-reflect light instead of a lens as found in many other eye types.[11]Additionally, their eyes possess a double-layered retina, the outer retina responding most strongly to light and the inner to abrupt darkness.[12]While these eyes are unable to resolve shapes with high fidelity, the combined sensitivity of both retinas to light entering the eye and light retro-reflected from the mirror grants scallops exceptional contrast definition, as well as the ability to detect changing patterns of light and motion.[13][14]Scallops primarily rely on their eyes as an 'early-warning' threat detection system, scanning around them for movement and shadows which could potentially indicate predators. Additionally, some scallops alter their swimming or feeding behaviour based on the turbidity or clarity of the water, by detecting the movement of particulate matter in the water column.[15]
Locomotion
editScallops are mostly free-living and active, unlike the vast majority of bivalves, which are mostly slow-moving and infaunal. All scallops are thought to start out with abyssus,which attaches them to some form of substrate such aseelgrasswhen they are very young. Most species lose the byssus as they grow larger. A very few species go on to cement themselves to a hard substrate (e.g.Chlamys distortaandHinnites multirigosus).[16]
However, the majority of scallops are free-living and can swim with brief bursts of speed to escape predators (mostlystarfish) by rapidly opening and closing their valves. Indeed, everything about their characteristic shell shape – its symmetry, narrowness, smooth and/ or grooved surface, small flexible hinge, powerful adductor muscle, and continuous and uniformly curved edge – facilitates such activity. They often do this in spurts of several seconds before closing the shell entirely and sinking back to the bottom of their environment. Scallops are able to move through the water column either forward/ventrally (termed swimming) by sucking water in through the space between their valves, an area called the gape, and ejecting it through small holes near the hinge line called exhalant apertures, or backward/dorsally (termed jumping) by ejecting the water out the same way it came in (i.e. ventrally). A jumping scallop usually lands on the sea floor between each contraction of its valves, whereas a swimming scallop stays in the water column for most or all of its contractions and travels a much greater distance (though seldom at a height of more than 1 m off the sea bed and seldom for a distance of greater than 5 m).[16]Both jumping and swimming movements are very energy-intensive, and most scallops cannot perform more than four or five in a row before becoming completely exhausted and requiring several hours of rest. Should a swimming scallop land on its left side, it is capable of flipping itself over to its right side via a similar shell-clapping movement called the righting reflex. So-called singing scallops are rumored to make an audible, soft popping sound as they flap their shells underwater (though whether or not this happens is open to some debate).[17]Other scallops can extend their foot from between their valves, and by contracting the muscles in their foot, they can burrow into sand.[18]
Mobility and behavior
editMost species of the scallop family are free-living, active swimmers, propelling themselves through the water through the adductor muscles to open and close their shells. Swimming occurs through the clapping of valves for water intake. Closing the valves propels water with a strong force near the hinge via the velum, a curtain-like fold of the mantle that directs water expulsion around the hinge. Scallops swim in the direction of the valve opening unless the velum directs an abrupt change in course direction.[20][21]
Other species of scallops can be found on the ocean floor attached to objects by byssal threads. Byssal threads are strong, silky fibers extending from the muscular foot, used to attach to a firm support, such as a rock. Some can also be found on the ocean floor, moving with an extendable foot between their valves or burrowing themselves in the sand by extending and retracting their feet.[6]Scallops are highly sensitive to shadows, vibrations, water movement, and chemical stimuli.[22]All possess a series of 100 blue eyes, embedded on the edge of the mantle of their upper and lower valves that can distinguish between light and darkness. They serve as a vital defense mechanism for avoiding predators. Though rather weak, their series of eyes can detect surrounding movement and alert precaution in the presence of predators, most commonly sea stars, crabs, and snails.[6]Physiological fitness and exercise of scallops decrease with age due to the decline of cellular and especially mitochondrial function,[23]thus increasing the risk of capture and lowering rates of survival. Older individuals show lower mitochondrial volume density and aerobic capacity, as well as decreased anaerobic capacity construed from the amount of glycogen stored in muscle tissue.[23]Environmental factors, such as changes in oxidative stress parameters, can inhibit the growth and development of scallops.[24]
Seasonal changes in temperature and food availability have been shown to affect muscle metabolic capabilities. The properties of mitochondria from the phasic adductor muscle ofEuvola ziczacvaried significantly during their annual reproductive cycle. Summer scallops in May have lower maximal oxidative capacities and substrate oxidation than any other time in the year. This phenomenon is due to lower protein levels in adductor muscles.[25]
Lifecycle and growth
editThe scallop family is unusual in that some members of the family aredioecious(males and females are separate), while others are simultaneous hermaphrodites (both sexes in the same individual), and a few areprotoandrous hermaphrodites(males when young then switching to female). Female scallops have redroeand male scallops have white roe. Spermatozoa and ova are released freely into the water during mating season and fertilized ova sink to the bottom. After several weeks, the immature scallops hatch and the larvae, miniature transparent versions of the adults called "spat", drift in the plankton until settling to the bottom again (an event called spatfall) to grow, usually attaching by means of byssal threads. Some scallops, such as the Atlantic bay scallopArgopecten irradians,are short-lived, while others can live 20 years or more. Age can often be inferred fromannuli,the concentric rings of their shells.[6]
Many scallops are hermaphrodites (having female and male organs simultaneously), altering their sex throughout their lives, while others exist as dioecious species, having a definite sex. In this case, males are distinguished by roe-containing white testes and females with roe-containing orange ovaries. At the age of two, they usually become sexually active, but do not contribute significantly to egg production until four. The reproduction process occurs externally through spawning, in which eggs and sperm are released into the water. Spawning typically occurs in late summer and early autumn; spring spawning may also take place in theMid-Atlantic Bight.[27]The females of scallops are highly fecund, capable of producing hundreds of millions of eggs per year.[27]
Once an egg is fertilized, it is then planktonic, a collection of microorganisms that drift abundantly in fresh or salt water. Larvae stay in the water column for four to seven weeks before dissipating to the ocean floor, where they attach themselves to objects through byssus threads. Byssus is eventually lost with adulthood, transitioning almost all scallop species into free swimmers. Rapid growth occurs within the first several years, with an increase of 50–80 % in shell height and quadrupled size in meat weight, and reaches a commercial size at about four to five years of age.[27]The lifespans of some scallops have been known to extend over 20 years.[28]
Ecology
editScallops are known to be infected byviruses,bacteria,microalgaeof theheterokontsanddinoflagellates.[29]: 71
Mutualism
editSome scallops, includingChlamys hastata,frequently carryepibiontssuch as sponges and barnacles on their shells. The relationship of the sponge to the scallop is characterized as a form of mutualism, because the sponge provides protection by interfering with adhesion of predatory sea-star tube feet,[30][31][32]camouflagesChlamys hastatafrom predators,[31]or forms a physical barrier around byssal openings to prevent sea stars from inserting their digestive membranes.[32]Sponge encrustation protectsC. hastatafrom barnacle larvae settlement, serving as a protection from epibionts that increase susceptibility to predators. Thus, barnacle larvae settlement occurs more frequently on sponge-free shells than on sponge-encrusted shells.[30]
In fact, barnacle encrustation negatively influences swimming inC. hastata.Those swimming with barnacle encrustation require more energy and show a detectable difference in anaerobic energy expenditure than those without encrustation. In the absence of barnacle encrustation, individual scallops swim significantly longer, travel further, and attain greater elevation.[33]
Taxonomy and phylogeny
editEtymology
editThe family name Pectinidae, which is based on the name of the type genus,Pecten,comes from theLatinpectenmeaningcomb,in reference to a comb-like structure of the shell which is situated next to the byssal notch.[34]
Phylogeny
editThe fossil history of scallops is rich in species and specimens. The earliest known records of true scallops (those with a ctenolium) can be found from theTriassic period,over 200 million years ago.[8]The earliest species were divided into two groups, one with a nearly smooth exterior:Pleuronectisvon Schlotheim, 1820, while the other had radial ribs or riblets and auricles:PraechlamysAllasinaz, 1972.[35]Fossil records also indicate that the abundance of species within the Pectinidae has varied greatly over time; Pectinidae was the most diverse bivalve family in theMesozoic era,but the group almost disappeared completely by the end of theCretaceous period.The survivorsspeciatedrapidly during theTertiary period.Nearly 7,000 species and subspecies names have been introduced for both fossil and recent Pectinidae.[36]
Thecladogramis based on molecular phylogeny using mitochondrial (12S, 16S) and nuclear (18S, 28S, and H3) gene markers by Yaron Malkowsky and Annette Klussmann-Kolb in 2012.[37]
Pteriomorphia |
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Taxonomic structure
editScallops are the family Pectinidae, marine bivalve molluscs within the superfamilyPectinoidea.Other families within this same superfamily share a somewhat similar overall shell shape, and some species within some of the related families are also commonly referred to as "scallops" (for example,Propeamussiidae,the glass scallops).
The family Pectinidae is the most diversified of the pectinoideans in present-day oceans. It is one of the largest marine bivalve families and contains over 300 extant species in 60 genera. Its origin dates back to the Middle Triassic Period, approximately 240 million years ago;[8]in terms of diversity, it has been a thriving family to the present day.[38]
Evolution from its origin has resulted in a successful and diverse group: pectinids are present in the world's seas, found in environments ranging from the intertidal zone to the hadal depths. The Pectinidae play an extremely important role in many benthic communities and exhibit a wide range of shell shapes, sizes, sculptures, and cultures.[39]
Raines and Poppe[b]listed nearly 900 species names of scallops, but most of these are considered either questionable or invalid. Raines and Poppe mentioned over 50 genera, around 250 species, andsubspecies.Although species are generally well-circumscribed, their attribution tosubfamiliesand genera is sometimes equivocal, and information aboutphylogenyand relationships of the species are minimal, not the least because most work has been based only on adultmorphology.[41]
This family's earliest and most comprehensive taxonomic treatments were based on macroscopic morphological characters of the adult shells and represent broadly divergent classification schemes.[42][29]Some level of taxonomic stability was achieved when Waller's studies in 1986, 1991, and 1993 concluded evolutionary relationships between pectinid taxa based on hypothesized morphological synapomorphies, which previous classification systems of Pectinidae failed to do. He created three Pectinidae subfamilies: Camptonectinidae, Chlamydinae and Pectininae.[43][44][45]
The framework of its phylogeny shows that repeated life habit states derive from evolutionary convergence and parallelism.[46][47]Studies have determined the family Pectinidae is monophyletic, developing from a single common ancestor. The direct ancestors of Pectinidae were scallop-like bivalves of the family Entoliidae.[48]Entoliids had auricles and a byssal notch only at youth, but they did not have a ctenolium, a comb-like arrangement along the margins of the byssal notch in Pectinidae. The ctenolium is the defining feature of the modern family Pectinidae and is a characteristic that has evolved within the lineage.[49]
In a 2008 paper, Puslednik et al. identified considerable convergence of shell morphology in a subset species of gliding Pectinidae, which suggests iterative morphological evolution may be more prevalent in the family than previously believed.[50]
There have been a number of efforts to address phylogenetic studies. Only three have assessed more than ten species[51][52][53]and only one has included multiple outgroups.[52]Nearly all previous molecular analyses of the Pectinidae have only utilized mitochondrial data. Phylogenies based only on mitochondrial sequence data do not always provide an accurate estimation on the species tree. Complicated factors can arise due to the presence of genetic polymorphisms in ancestral species and resultant lineage sorting.[54][55]
In molecular phylogenies of the Bivalvia, both the Spondylidae and the Propeamussiidae have been resolved as sister to the Pectinidae.[52][56]
List of subfamilies and genera
editThe following are recognised in the family Pectinidae:
- SubfamilyCamptonectinaeHabe, 1977[57]
- CamptonectesAgassiz, 1864
- CiclopectenSeguenza,1877
- DelectopectenStewart, 1920
- HyalopectenA. E. Verrill, 1897
- PseudohinnitesDijkstra, 1989
- SinepectenSchein, 2006
- SubfamilyPalliolinaeKorbkov in Eberzin, 1960
- TribeAdamussiiniHabe, 1977
- AdamussiumThiele, 1934
- AntarctipectenBeu & Taviani, 2013†
- DuplipectenMarwick, 1928†
- LentipectenMarwick, 1928†
- LeoclunipectenBeu & Taviani, 2013†
- RuthipectenBeu & Taviani, 2013†
- TribeEburneopectininiT. R. Waller, 2006†
- EburneopectenConrad, 1865†
- TribeMesopepliniT. R. Waller, 2006
- KaparachlamysBoreham, 1965†
- MesopeplumIredale, 1929
- PhialopectenMarwick, 1928†
- SectipectenMarwick, 1928†
- TowaipectenBeu, 1995†
- TribePallioliniWaller, 1993
- KarnekampiaH. P. Wagner, 1988
- LissochlamysSacco, 1897
- PalliolumMonterosato,1884
- PlacopectenVerrill,1897
- PseudamussiumMörch, 1853
- TribeSerripectininiT. R. Waller, 2006†
- JanupectenMarwick, 1928†
- SerripectenMarwick, 1928†
- TribeAdamussiiniHabe, 1977
- SubfamilyPectininae
- TribeAequipectininiF. Nordsieck, 1969
- AequipectenP. Fischer, 1886
- ArgopectenMonterosato, 1889
- CryptopectenDall, Bartsch & Rehder, 1938
- FlexopectenSacco, 1897
- HaumeaDall, Bartsch & Rehder, 1938
- LeptopectenVerrill, 1897
- VolachlamysIredale, 1939
- TribeAmusiiniRidewood, 1903
- AmusiumRöding, 1798
- DentamussiumDijkstra, 1990
- EuvolaDall, 1898
- LeopectenMasuda, 1971
- YlistrumMynhardt & Alejandrino, 2014
- TribeAustrochlamydiniJonkers, 2003
- AustrochlamysJonkers, 2003
- TribeDecatopectininiWaller, 1986
- AnguipectenDall,Bartsch & Rehder, 1938
- AntillipectenT. R. Waller, 2011
- BractechlamysIredale,1939
- DecatopectenRüppell in G. B. Sowerby II, 1839
- ExcellichlamysIredale,1939
- GlorichlamysDijkstra, 1991
- GloripalliumIredale,1939
- JuxtamusiumIredale,1939
- LyropectenConrad, 1862
- MirapectenDall,Bartsch & Rehder, 1938
- NodipectenDall, 1898
- TribePectininiWilkes, 1810
- AnnachlamysIredale, 1939
- †FascipectenFreneix, Karache & Salvat 1971
- †GigantopectenRovereto, 1899
- MinnivolaIredale,1939
- †OopectenSacco, 1897
- †OppenheimopectenTeppner, 1922
- PectenMüller,1776
- SerratovolaHabe, 1951
- TribeAequipectininiF. Nordsieck, 1969
- SubfamilyPedinaeBronn, 1862
- TribeChlamydinivon Teppner, 1922
- AustrohinnitesBeu & Darragh, 2001†
- AzumapectenHabe, 1977
- ChesapectenWard & Blackwelder, 1975†
- ChlamysRöding,1798
- ChokekeniaSantelli & del Río, 2018†
- CkaraosippurSantelli & del Río, 2019†
- ComplicachlamysIredale, 1939
- CoralichlamysIredale,1939
- DietotenhosenSantelli & del Río, 2019†
- EquichlamysIredale,1929
- HemipectenA. Adams & Reeve, 1849
- HinnitesDeference, 1821
- LaevichlamysWaller, 1993
- ManupectenMonterosato,1872
- MoirechlamysSantelli & del Río, 2018†
- NotochlamysCotton, 1930
- PascahinnitesDijkstra & Raines, 1999
- PixiechlamysSantelli & del Río, 2018†
- PraechlamysAllasinaz, 1972†
- ScaeochlamysIredale,1929
- SemipalliumJousseaume in Lamy, 1928
- SwiftopectenHertlein, 1936
- TalochlamysIredale, 1929
- VeprichlamysIredale, 1929
- YabepectenMasuda, 1963†
- ZygochlamysIhering, 1907
- TribeCrassadominiWaller, 1993
- CaribachlamysWaller, 1993
- CrassadomaBernard, 1986
- TribeFortipectininiMasuda, 1963
- FortipectenYabe & Hatai, 1940†
- KotorapectenMasuda, 1962†
- MasudapectenAkiyama, 1962†
- MizuhopectenMasuda, 1963
- NipponopectenMasuda, 1962†
- PatinopectenDall, 1898
- TribeMimachlamydiniWaller, 1993
- MimachlamysIredale, 1929
- SpathochlamysWaller, 1993
- TribePediniBronn, 1862
- PedumBruguière, 1792
- TribeChlamydinivon Teppner, 1922
- Subfamilyincertae sedis
- AgerchlamysDamborenea, 1993†
- AthlopectenMarwick, 1928†
- CamptochlamysArkell, 1930†
- IndopectenDouglas, 1929†
- Jorgechlamysdel Río, 2004†
- LamellipectenDijkstra & Maestrati, 2010
- LindapectenPetuch, 1995
- MixtipectenMarwick, 1928†
- PseudopectenBayle, 1878†
Seafood industry
editAquaculture
editWild fisheries
editThe largest wild scallop fishery is for the Atlantic sea scallop (Placopecten magellanicus) found off the northeastern United States and eastern Canada. Scallops are harvested usingscallop dredgesor bottom trawls. Most of the rest of the world's production of scallops is from Japan (wild, enhanced, and aquaculture) and China (mostly cultured Atlantic bay scallops).[58]: p.661
In theD'Entrecasteaux Channelin the south of Tasmania dredging was banned in 1969, and since thendivershave caught them in this area.[59]Attempts to use lighted pots to attractlobsterandcrabled to the discovery that they were effective in attracting scallops.[60]
Sustainability
editThe scallop fishery in New Zealand declined from a catch of 1246 tonnes in 1975 to 41 tonnes in 1980, at which point the government ordered the fishery closed.Spatseeding in the 1980s helped it recover, and catches in the 1990s were up to 684 tonnes.[61]TheTasman Bayarea was closed to commercial scallop harvesting from 2009 to 2011 due to a decline in the numbers. The commercial catch was down to 22 tonnes in 2015, and the fishery was closed again. The main causes for the decline seem to be fishing, climate effects, disease, pollutants, and sediment runoff from farming and forestry.[61]Forest and Birdlist scallops as the "Worst Choice" in their Best Fish Guide for sustainable seafood species.[62][better source needed]
On the east coast of theUnited States,over the last 100 years, the populations of bay scallops have greatly diminished due to several factors but probably mostly due to a reduction in seagrasses (to which bay scallop spat attach) caused by increased coastal development and concomitant nutrient runoff. Another possible factor is the reduction of sharks from overfishing. A variety of sharks used to feed onrays,which are the main predator of bay scallops. With the shark population reduced – thisapex predatorin some places almost eliminated – the rays have been free to feed on scallops to greatly decrease their numbers.[63]By contrast, the Atlantic sea scallop (Placopecten magellanicus) is at historically high levels of abundance after recovery from overfishing.[64]
As food
editScallops are characterized by offering two flavors and textures in one shell: the meat, called "scallop", which is firm and white, and the roe, called "coral", which is soft and often brightly coloured reddish-orange. Sometimes, markets sell scallops already prepared in the shell, with only the meat remaining. Outside the U.S., the scallop is often sold whole. They are available both with and without coral in the UK and Australia.[65]
Scallops without any additives are called "dry-packed", while scallops that are treated withsodium tripolyphosphate(STPP) are called "wet-packed". STPP causes the scallops to absorb moisture prior to the freezing process, thereby increasing their weight. The freezing process takes about two days.[66][better source needed]
InFrench cuisine,scallops are often quickly cooked in a hot buttered pan, sometimes withcalvadosand served with creamed leeks, or prepared in a white wine sauce. InGalician cuisine,scallops are baked with breadcrumbs, ham, and onions.[citation needed]
Scallops are sometimes breaded, deep-fried, and served withcoleslawandfrench friesin the northeasternUnited States(either on their own or as part of afisherman's platter).[67]InNew England,some seafood restaurants offer scallop rolls, consisting of breaded scallops on a grilled, split-tophot dog bun.[68]
InJapanese cuisine,scallops may be served in soup or prepared assashimiorsushi.[citation needed]In a sushi bar,hotategai( phàm lập bối, hải phiến ) is the traditional scallop on rice and, whilekaibashira( bối trụ ) may be calscallop is more loosely used to include other shellfish species with round-shaped flesh (the adductor muscle), such asAtrina( đái tử ).
Dried scallop is known inCantoneseChinese cuisineasconpoy( càn dao trụ, càn bối, càn bối ).[citation needed]Smoked scallopsare sometimes served asappetizersor used as an ingredient in the preparation of various dishes and appetizers.[69]
Scallops have lent their name to the culinary term "scalloped", which originally referred to seafood creamed and served hot in the shell.[70]Today, it means a creamed casserole dish such asscalloped potatoes,which contains no seafood at all.[citation needed]
-
Adductor muscle meat ofgiant scallop
-
Dried scallops, also known asconpoy
-
Fried scallops on a stick served with rice
-
Pan seared scallops
Pearls
editScallops do occasionally producepearls,though scallop pearls do not have the buildup of translucent layers or "nacre" which give desirability to the pearls of thefeather oysters,and usually lack bothlustreandiridescence.They can be dull, small, and of varying colour, but exceptions occur that are appreciated for their aesthetic qualities.[71]
Symbolism of the shell
editShell of Saint James
editThe scallop shell is the traditional emblem ofSt James the Greatand is popular with pilgrims travelling the Way of St James (Camino de Santiago).[72]Medieval Christians would collect a scallop shell while at Compostela as evidence of having made the journey. The association of Saint James with the scallop can most likely be traced to the legend that the apostle once rescued a knight covered in scallops.[73]An alternative version of the legend holds that while St. James' remains were being transported to Galicia (Spain) fromJerusalem.As the ship approached land, the wedding of the daughter ofQueen Lupawas taking place on shore.[74]The young groom was on horseback, and, upon seeing the ship's approach, his horse got spooked, and horse and rider plunged into the sea.[75]Through miraculous intervention, the horse and rider emerged from the water alive, covered in seashells.[76]
Indeed, in French, the mollusc itself – as well as a popular preparation of it in cream sauce – is calledcoquille St. Jacques.In German they areJakobsmuscheln– literally "James's shellfish". Curiously theLinnaeannamePecten jacobeusis given to the Mediterranean scallop, while the scallop endemic to Galicia is calledPecten maximusdue to its bigger size.[77]The scallop shell is represented in the decoration of churches named after St. James, such as inSt James' Church, Sydney,where it appears in a number of places, including in the mosaics on the floor of thechancel.[78]
When referring to St James, a scallop shell valve is displayed with its convex outer surface showing. In contrast, when the shell refers to the goddess Venus (see below), it is displayed with its concave interior surface showing.[77]
Fossil Fuel
editTheShellcompany, one of the world's biggest companies, is represented by a scallop.
Badge
editThe scallop shell symbol found its way intoheraldryas a badge of those who had been on the pilgrimage to Compostela, although later, it became a symbol of pilgrimage in general.Sir Winston ChurchillandLady Diana's family, theSpencer familycoat of armsincludes a scallop, as well as both of Diana's sonsPrince WilliamandPrince Harry's personal coats of arms; also PopeBenedict XVI's personal coat of arms includes a scallop; another example is the surnameWilmotand alsoJohn Wesley's (which as a result the scallop shell is used as an emblem ofMethodism). However, charges in heraldry do not always have an unvarying symbolic meaning, and there are cases of arms in which no family member went on a pilgrimage, and the occurrence of the scallop is simply a pun on the name of thearmiger(as in the case ofJacques Coeur), or for other reasons.[79]In 1988, the State ofNew Yorkin the US chose thebay scallop(Argopecten irradians) as itsstate shell.[80]
Fertility symbol
editThroughout antiquity, scallops and otherhinged shellshave symbolized the feminine principle.[81]Outwardly, the shell can symbolize the protective and nurturing principle, and inwardly, the "life-force slumbering within the Earth",[82]an emblem of the vulva.[83][84]
Many paintings ofVenus,the Roman goddess of love and fertility, included a scallop shell in the painting to identify her. This is evident inBotticelli'sclassicallyinspired 15th century paintingThe Birth of Venus.[85]
One legend of theWay of St. Jamesholds that the route was seen as a fertility pilgrimage, undertaken when a young couple desired to bear offspring. The scallop shell is believed to have originally been carried by pagans as a symbol of fertility.[86][87]
Other interpretations
editAlternatively, the scallop resembles the setting sun, which was the focus of the pre-Christian Celtic rituals of the area.[citation needed]To wit, the pre-Christian roots of theWay of St. Jameswas a Celtic death journey westwards towards the setting sun, terminating at theEnd of the World(Finisterra) on the "Coast of Death" (Costa da Morte) and the "Sea of Darkness" (i.e., the Abyss of Death, theMare Tenebrosum,Latin for the Atlantic Ocean, itself named after theDying Civilizationof Atlantis).[88][better source needed]
Contemporary art
editThe beach atAldeburgh,Suffolk, England, featuresMaggi Hambling's steel sculpture,The Scallop,erected in 2003 as a memorial to the composerBenjamin Britten,who had a long association with the town.[89]
Scalloped shape
editThe term "scalloped" is used to designate a decorative pattern, resembling the wavy scallop surface, that is used at the edges of furniture, fabrics, and other items.[90]
See also
editExplanatory notes
edit- ^Also occasionally writtenscollopand once spelledscalap,-opp,scalop,skalop,scalepp,-oppe,scalloppe,skallap,-op,scallope,scallap,s(c)kollop,andscollup,-opas well asescallop,escalop,andescollop,thoughscallopappears to have become the dominant way of spelling the word in English.[1]
- ^Raines, B. K. & Poppe, G. T. (2006):The Family Pectinidae.[40]
Citations
edit- ^Whitney, D.W. (1890)ScallopThe Century Dictionary: An Encyclopedic Lexicon of the English Languagep.5371,Century Company,and (2009)The Oxford English Dictionary,Second Edition,Oxford University.
- ^Robinson & Robinson 2000,p.65.
- ^Shumway & Parsons 2011,p.207.
- ^Shumway & Parsons 2011,p.124.
- ^Milsom & Rigby 2009,p.62.
- ^abcdefghDrew 1906,pp.5–6.
- ^Shumway & Parsons 2011,p.59.
- ^abcHautmann, Michael (2010)."The first scallop"(PDF).Paläontologische Zeitschrift.84(2): 317–322.Bibcode:2010PalZ...84..317H.doi:10.1007/s12542-009-0041-5.S2CID84457522.
- ^Sun, Xiujun; Liu, Zhihong; Wu, Biao; Zhou, Liqing; Wang, Qi; Wu, Wei; Yang, Aiguo (2018)."Differences between fast and slow muscles in scallops revealed through proteomics and transcriptomics".BMC Genomics.19(1): 377.doi:10.1186/s12864-018-4770-2.PMC5963113.PMID29783952.Material was copied from this source, which is available under aCreative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
- ^Harris, Olivia K.; Kingston, Alexandra C. N.; Wolfe, Caitlin S.; Ghoshroy, Soumitra; Johnsen, Sönke; Speiser, Daniel I. (2019)."Core–shell nanospheres behind the blue eyes of the bay scallop Argopecten irradians".Journal of the Royal Society Interface.16(159).doi:10.1098/rsif.2019.0383.PMC6833330.PMID31640501.
- ^Speiser, Daniel I.; Johnsen, Sönke (29 December 2008). "Comparative Morphology of the Concave Mirror Eyes of Scallops (Pectinoidea)".American Malacological Bulletin.26(1–2): 27–33.doi:10.4003/006.026.0204.S2CID11584708.
- ^Speiser, Daniel I.; Loew, Ellis R.; Johnsen, Sönke (1 February 2011)."Spectral sensitivity of the concave mirror eyes of scallops: potential influences of habitat, self-screening and longitudinal chromatic aberration".Journal of Experimental Biology.214(3): 422–431.doi:10.1242/jeb.048108.PMID21228201.
- ^"Eyes detect changing movement patterns: queen scallop".asknature.org.
- ^Land, M F; Fernald, R D (March 1992). "The Evolution of Eyes".Annual Review of Neuroscience.15(1): 1–29.doi:10.1146/annurev.ne.15.030192.000245.PMID1575438.
- ^Speiser, Daniel I.; Johnsen, Sönke (1 July 2008)."Scallops visually respond to the size and speed of virtual particles"(PDF).Journal of Experimental Biology.211(13): 2066–2070.doi:10.1242/jeb.017038.PMID18552295.
- ^abShumway & Parsons 2011,pp.689–690.
- ^Dore 2013,p.152.
- ^Gosling 2015,p.29.
- ^Purcell, E. M. (1977), "Life at low reynolds number",American Journal of Physics,45(1): 3–11,Bibcode:1977AmJPh..45....3P,doi:10.1119/1.10903,hdl:2433/226838
- ^Cheng, J.-Y.; Davison, I. G.; Demont, M. E. (1996)."Dynamics and energetics of scallop locomotion"(PDF).Journal of Experimental Biology.199(9): 1931–1946.doi:10.1242/jeb.199.9.1931.PMID9319845.
- ^Joll, L. M. (1989). "Swimming behavior of the saucer scallopAmusium balloti(Mollusca: Pectinidae) ".Marine Biology.102(3): 299–305.Bibcode:1989MarBi.102..299J.doi:10.1007/BF00428481.S2CID84250961.
- ^Land, M.F. (1966)."Activity in the optic nerve of Pecten maximus in response to changes in light intensity, and to pattern and movements in optical environment"(PDF).Journal of Experimental Biology.45(1): 83–99.doi:10.1242/jeb.45.1.83.PMID5969013.
- ^abPhilipp, E.E.R.; Schmidt, M.; Gsottbauer, C.; Sänger, A. M.; Abele, D. (2008)."Size- and age-dependent changes in adductor muscle swimming physiology of the scallop Aequipecten opercularis"(PDF).Journal of Experimental Biology.211(15): 2492–2501.doi:10.1242/jeb.015966.PMID18626084.
- ^Guerra, C.; Zenteno-Savín, T.; Maeda-Martínez, A. N.; Abele, D.; Philipp, E. E. R. (2013). "The effect of predator exposure and reproduction on oxidative stress parameters in the Catarina scallop Argopecten ventricosus".Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A.165(1): 89–96.doi:10.1016/j.cbpa.2013.02.006.PMID23416890.
- ^Boadas, M.A.; Nusetti, O.; Mundarain, F. (1997). "Seasonal variation in the properties of muscle mitochondria from the tropical scallop Euvola (Pecten) ziczac".Marine Biology.128(2): 247–255.Bibcode:1997MarBi.128..247B.doi:10.1007/s002270050089.S2CID84538863.
- ^Dvoretsky, Alexander G.; Dvoretsky, Vladimir G. (19 May 2022)."Biological Aspects, Fisheries, and Aquaculture of Yesso Scallops in Russian Waters of the Sea of Japan".Diversity.14(5). MDPI AG: 399.doi:10.3390/d14050399.ISSN1424-2818.Modified material was copied from this source, which is available under aCreative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
- ^abcHart, D.R.; Chute, A.S. (2004)."Essential Fish Habitat Source Document: Sea Scallop, Placopecten magellanicus, Life History and Habitat Characteristics"(PDF).NOAA Tech Memo NMFS NE-189.
- ^"Scallop Aquaculture"(PDF).College of Marine Science,University of South Florida.
- ^abShumway, Sandra E.; Parsons, G. Jay, eds. (7 June 2016).Scallops: Biology, Ecology, Aquaculture, and Fisheries.Elsevier Science. p. 5.ISBN978-0-444-62719-3.
- ^abBloom, S. (1975)."The motile escape response of a sessile prey: a sponge-scallop mutualism".Journal of Experimental Biology and Ecology.17(3): 311–321.Bibcode:1975JEMBE..17..311B.doi:10.1016/0022-0981(75)90006-4.
- ^abPitcher, C.R.; Butler, A.J. (1987). "Predation by asteroids, escape response, and morphometrics of scallops with epizoic sponges".Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology.112(3): 233–249.Bibcode:1987JEMBE.112..233P.doi:10.1016/0022-0981(87)90071-2.
- ^abForester, A.J. (1979). "The association between the spongeHalichondria panicea(Pallas) and scallopChlamys varia(L.): a commensal protective mutualism ".Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology.36(1): 1–10.Bibcode:1979JEMBE..36....1F.doi:10.1016/0022-0981(79)90096-0.
- ^Donovan, D.; Bingham, B.; Farren, H.; Gallardo, R.; Vigilant, V. (2002)."Effects of sponge encrustation on the swimming behaviour energetics and morphometry of the scallopChlamys hastata"(PDF).Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom.82(3): 469–476.Bibcode:2002JMBUK..82..469D.doi:10.1017/s0025315402005738.S2CID56338849.
- ^Rice 2012,p.47.
- ^Waller, T. R. (1993)."The evolution of Chlamys (Mollusca: Bivalvia: Pectinidae) in the tropical western Atlantic and eastern Pacific".American Malacological Bulletin.10(2): 195–249.
- ^Harper et al. 2000,p.254.
- ^Malkowsky, Yaron; Klussmann-Kolb, Annette (May 2012)."Phylogeny and spatio-temporal distribution of European Pectinidae (Mollusca: Bivalvia)".Systematics and Biodiversity.10(2): 233–242.Bibcode:2012SyBio..10..233M.doi:10.1080/14772000.2012.676572.S2CID84085349.
- ^Waller, Thomas R. (2006). Shumway, Sandra E. (ed.).New phylogenies of the Pectinidae (Mollusca: Bivalvia): Reconciling morphological and molecular approaches.Amsterdam:Elsevier.pp. 1–44.
{{cite book}}
:|work=
ignored (help) - ^Brand, A.R. (2006). "Chapter 12 Scallop ecology: Distributions and behaviour".Scallop ecology: distributions and behavior.Developments in Aquaculture and Fisheries Science. Vol. 35. pp. 651–744.doi:10.1016/S0167-9309(06)80039-6.ISBN9780444504821.
{{cite book}}
:|journal=
ignored (help) - ^Raines, Poppe & Groh 2006.
- ^Barucca, M., Olmo, E., Schiaparelli, S. & Canapa, A. (2004): Molecular phylogeny of the family Pectinidae (Mollusca: Bivalvia)
- ^Waller, Thomas R. (1972).The functional significance of some shell micro-structures in the Pectinacea.International Geological Congress.pp. 48–56.
{{cite book}}
:|work=
ignored (help) - ^Waller, Thomas R. (1986)."A new genus and species of scallop (Bivalvia: Pectinidae) from off Somalia, and the definition of a new tribe Decatopectinin i".Nautilus.100(2): 39–46.doi:10.5962/bhl.part.26491.
- ^Waller 1991,pp. 1–73.
- ^Waller, Thomas R. (1993). "The evolution of" Chlamys "(Mollusca: Bivalvia: Pectinidae) in the tropical western Atlantic and eastern Pacific".American Malacological Bulletin.10(2): 195–249.
- ^Alejandrino, A.; Puslednik, L.; Serb, J. M. (2011)."Convergent and parallel evolution in life habit of the scallops".BMC Evolutionary Biology.11(1): 164.doi:10.1186/1471-2148-11-164.PMC3129317.PMID21672233.
- ^Waller, Thomas R. (2007). "The evolutionary and biogeographic origins of the endemic Pectinidae (Mollusca: Bivalvia) of the Galápagos Islands".Journal of Paleontology.81(5): 929–950.Bibcode:2007JPal...81..929W.doi:10.1666/pleo05-145.1.S2CID86121432.
- ^Dijkstra, H.H.; Maestrati, P. (2012)."Pectinoidea (Mollusca, Bivalvia, Propeamussiidae, Cyclochlamydidae n. fam., Entoliidae and Pectinidae) from the Vanuatu Archipelago".Zoosystema.34(2): 389–408.doi:10.5252/z2012n2a12.S2CID85935928.
- ^Waller, Thomas R. (1984)."The ctenolium of scallop shells: functional morphology and evolution of a key family-level character in the Pectinacea (Mollusca: Bivalvia)".Malacologia.25(1): 203–219.
- ^Puslednik, L.; Serb, J.M. (2008). "Molecular phylogenetics of the Pectinidae (Mollusca: Bivalvia) and the effect of outgroup selection and increased taxon sampling on tree topology".Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution.48(3): 1178–1188.doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2008.05.006.PMID18579415.
- ^Barucca, M.; Olmo, E.; Schiaparelli, S.; Capana, A. (2004). "Molecular phylogeny of the family Pectinidae (Mollusca: Bivalvia) based on mitochondrial 16S and 12S rRNA genes".Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution.31(1): 89–95.Bibcode:2004MolPE..31...89B.doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2003.07.003.PMID15019610.
- ^abcMatsumoto, M.; Hayami, I. (2000)."Phylogenetic analysis of the family Pectinidae (Bivalvia) based on mitochondrial cytochrome C oxidase subunit".Journal of Molluscan Studies.66(4): 477–488.doi:10.1093/mollus/66.4.477.
- ^Saavedra, C.; Peña, J.B (2006)."Phylogenetics of American scallops (Bivalvia: Pectinidae) based on partial 16S and 12S ribosomal RNA gene sequences".Marine Biology.150(1): 111–119.Bibcode:2006MarBi.150..111S.doi:10.1007/s00227-006-0335-z.S2CID84205954.
- ^Pamilo, P.; Nei, M. (1988)."Relationships between gene trees and species trees".Molecular Biology and Evolution.5(5): 568–583.doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a040517.PMID3193878.
- ^Wu, C.I. (1991)."Inferences of species phylogeny in relation to segregation of ancient polymorphisms".Genetics.127(2): 429–435.doi:10.1093/genetics/127.2.429.PMC1204370.PMID2004713.
- ^Waller, Thomas R., 1998. Origin of the Molluscan Class Bivalvia and a Phylogeny of Major Groups. Pp. 1–45. In: P.A. Johnston & J.W. Haggart (eds),Bivalves: An Eon of Evolution.Calgary:University of Calgary Pressxiv + 461 pp.
- ^Habe 1977.
- ^Shumway & Parsons 2011,p.902.
- ^Walker, Margaret (1991)."What price Tasmanian scallops? A report of morbidity and mortality associated with the scallop diving season in Tasmania 1990".South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society Journal.21(1). Archived from the original on 20 October 2013.Retrieved16 July2013.
{{cite journal}}
:CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - ^"Orkney part of 'scallop discos' fishing trial".BBC News.BBC.6 June 2022.Retrieved7 June2022.
- ^abArnold, Naomi (July–August 2018)."What we do in the shallows".New Zealand Geographic.152:56–73.
- ^"Scallops".Forest and Bird.
- ^Pinet 2011,p.333.
- ^Granata, Flick & Martin 2012,p.96.
- ^Shumway & Parsons 2011,p.1355.
- ^Rolnick & Peterson 2014,p.47.
- ^Volume Feeding Institutions.Cahners. 1977. p. 123.
- ^Orlando, Ric (6 July 2023)."My Fried Seafood Love Affair and Some Wines to Pair".Sante Magazine.Retrieved23 August2024.
- ^Broder, Andy (7 June 2012)."AndyTalk: Beyond Lox – Smoked Seafood Hold the Bagels".Phoenix New Times.Archived fromthe originalon 9 June 2012.Retrieved31 January2017.
- ^Rombauer & Becker 1964,p. 369.
- ^Matlins 2001,p. 56.
- ^Thomas, Hope B. Werness; line drawings by Joanne H. Benedict and Hope B. Werness; additional drawings by Tiffany Ramsay-Lozano and Scott (2003).The continuum encyclopedia of animal symbolism in art.New York: Continuum. p. 359.ISBN9780826415257.
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:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^Pullan, Wendy (2013)."Tracking the Habitual: Observations on the Pilgrim's Shell".Architecture and Pilgrimage, 1000–1500.Ashgate Publishing Company. p. 67.ISBN9781472410832.
- ^Bahrami, Beebe (2009).The Spiritual Traveler: Spain: a Guide to Sacred Sites and Pilgrim Routes.Paulist Press. p. 36.ISBN978-1-58768-047-2.
- ^Starkie 1965,pp.70–71.
- ^Starkie 1965,p. 71.
- ^abDavies, Paul; Howard, Deborah; Pullan, Wendy, eds. (2013).Architecture and pilgrimage, 1000–1500: southern Europe and beyond.Aldershot, Hamps.: Ashgate Publishing. pp. 73–86.ISBN9781472410832.
- ^St. James Church 1963,p. 22.
- ^Stix, Stix & Abbott 1968,p.[pages needed].
- ^"New York State Shell: Bay Scallop".State Symbols USA.Retrieved24 May2012.
- ^Salisbury 2001,p. 11.
- ^Fontana 1994,pp. 88, 103.
- ^Gutzwiller, K (1992). "The Nautilus, the Halycon, and Selenaia: Callimachus'sEpigram5 Pf.= 14 G.-P ".Classical Antiquity.11(2): 194–209.doi:10.2307/25010972.JSTOR25010972.
- ^Johnson 1994,p. 230.
- ^"Birth of Venus".artble.com.2017.Retrieved25 February2017.
- ^Slavin, S (2003). "Walking as Spiritual Practice: The Pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela".Body and Society.9(1): 18.doi:10.1177/1357034X030093001.S2CID144403461.
- ^Gauding 2009,p.169.
- ^Thomas, Isabella."Pilgrim's Progress".Europe in the UK.European Commission.Archived fromthe originalon 23 March 2008.Retrieved21 January2017.
- ^Dunford & Lee 2012,p.486.
- ^Court of Customs and Patent Appeals Reports.The Court of Customs and Patent Appeals. 1930.Retrieved11 November2023.
General bibliography
edit- Dore, Ian (29 June 2013).The New Fresh Seafood Buyer's Guide: A manual for distributors, restaurants and retailers.Boston, MA:Springer Science & Business Media.p. 152.ISBN978-1-4757-5990-7.
- Drew, Gilman Arthur (1906),The Habits Anatomy, and Embryology of the Giant Scallop: (Pecten Tenuicostatus, Mighels),Orono, Maine, pp. 5–6
{{citation}}
:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Dunford, Martin; Lee, Phil (13 September 2012).The Rough Guide to Norfolk & Suffolk.Rough Guides. p. 486.ISBN978-1-4053-9037-8.
- Fontana, David (1994).The secret language of symbols: a visual key to symbols and their meanings.San Francisco:Chronicle Books.pp. 88, 103.ISBN978-0-8118-0462-2.
- Gauding, Madonna (2009).The Signs and Symbols Bible: The Definitive Guide to Mysterious Markings.Sterling Publishing Company.p.169.ISBN978-1-4027-7004-3.
- Gosling, Elizabeth (27 April 2015).Marine Bivalve Molluscs.John Wiley & Sons.p. 29.ISBN978-1-119-04522-9.
- Granata, Linda Ankenman; Flick, George J. Jr.; Martin, Roy E. (8 February 2012).The Seafood Industry: Species, Products, Processing, and Safety.John Wiley & Sons. p. 96.ISBN978-1-118-22953-8.
- Habe, Tadashige (1977). "Bivalvia and Scaphopoda".Systematics of mollusca in Japan: Bivalvia and Scaphopoda.Hokuryukan.
- Harper, Elizabeth; Taylor, John David; Crame, J. Alistair;Geological Society of London(2000).The Evolutionary Biology of the Bivalvia.Geological Society of London.ISBN978-1-86239-076-8.
- Johnson, Buffie (1994).Lady of the beasts: the Goddess and her sacred animals.Rochester, Vt: Inner Traditions/Bear & Company.p. 230.ISBN978-0-89281-523-4.
- Matlins, Antoinette, L. (2001).The Pearl Book: The Definitive Buying Guide: how to Select, Buy, Care for & Enjoy Pearls.New York, NY: Gemstone. p. 56.ISBN978-0-943763-35-4.
{{cite book}}
:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Milsom, Clare;Rigby, Sue(1 April 2009).Fossils at a Glance.Chichester:John Wiley & Sons.p. 62.ISBN978-1-4443-1123-5.
- Pinet, Paul R. (28 December 2011).Invitation to Oceanography.Jones & Bartlett Publishers.p. 333.ISBN978-1-4496-0192-8.
- Rice, Tony (3 December 2012).Can Squid Fly? Can squid fly?: answers to a host of fascinating questions about the sea and sea life.London:Thomas Reed publications,Bloomsbury Publishing.p.47.ISBN978-1-4081-5130-3.
- Rolnick, Glenn; Peterson, Chris (4 November 2014).Carmine's celebrates: classic Italian recipes for everyday feasts.New York:St. Martin's Press.p.47.ISBN978-1-4668-3723-2.
- Raines, Bret K.; Poppe, Guido T.; Groh, Klaus (2006).A conchological iconography.Hackenheim Germany: ConchBooks. p. 402.ISBN978-3-925919-78-7.
- Robinson, Chuck; Robinson, Debbie (2000).The Art of Shelling: A Complete Guide to Finding Shells and Other Beach Collectibles at Shelling Locations from Florida to Maine.Old Squan Village Publishing. p. 65.ISBN978-0-9647267-8-9.
- Rombauer, Irma S.; Becker, Marion Rombauer (1964) [1931].The Joy of Cooking.Indianapolis, Indiana:Bobbs-Merrill.p. 369.ISBN978-0-452-25665-1.
- Salisbury, Joyce E.(2001).Encyclopedia of women in the ancient world.Santa Barbara, Calif:ABC-CLIO.p. 11.ISBN978-1-57607-092-5.
- Shumway, Sandra E.; Parsons, G. Jay, eds. (22 September 2011).Scallops: Biology, Ecology and Aquaculture(2nd ed.). Amsterdam Boston:Elsevier.pp. 689–690.ISBN978-0-08-048077-0.
- St. James' Church (Sydney, N.S.W.) (1963).A Short story of historic St. James', Sydney(2nd ed.). The Church.Retrieved25 September2023.
- Starkie, Walter (1965) [1959].The Road to Santiago.Berkeley, Los Angeles:University of California Press.p. 71.Retrieved20 January2017.
- Stix, Hugh; Stix, Marguerite; Abbott, Robert Tucker (1968).The Shell: Five Hundred Million Years of Inspired Design(First ed.). New York NY:Harry N. Abrams, Inc.ISBN978-0810904750.
- Waller, Thomas R. (1991). "Evolutionary relationships among commercial scallops (Mollusca: Bivalvia: Pectinidae)". In S. E. Shumway (ed.).Scallops: Biology, ecology and aquaculture.New York: Elsevier.
- Willard, Barbara; Owens, Mary B. (1 September 1997).Augustine Came to Kent.Warsaw, N.D.; San Francisco: Bethlehem Books,Ignatius Press.ISBN978-1-883937-21-8.
External links
edit- Mollusca - Bivalvia - PectinidaeatNatural History Museum Rotterdam– photos of Pectinidae shells