Science fiction film

This article is about the genre specific to films. For the fiction genre in general, seeScience fiction.For other uses, seeScience fiction (disambiguation).

Science fiction(orsci-fi) is afilm genrethat usesspeculative,fictionalscience-based depictions of phenomena that are not fully accepted by mainstream science, such asextraterrestrial lifeforms,spacecraft,robots,cyborgs,mutants,interstellar travel,time travel,or other technologies.Science fictionfilms have often been used to focus onpoliticalorsocial issues,and to explore philosophical issues like thehuman condition.

2001: A Space Odyssey,the landmark 1968 collaboration between filmmakerStanley Kubrickand classic science-fiction authorArthur C. Clarke,featured groundbreaking special effects, such as the realization of the spaceship USSCDiscovery One(pictured here).

The genre has existed since the early years ofsilent cinema,whenGeorges Méliès'A Trip to the Moon(1902) employedtrick photographyeffects. The next major example (first in feature-length in the genre) was the filmMetropolis(1927). From the 1930s to the 1950s, the genre consisted mainly of low-budgetB movies.AfterStanley Kubrick's landmark2001: A Space Odyssey(1968), the science fiction film genre was taken more seriously. In the late 1970s, big-budget science fiction films filled with special effects became popular with audiences after the success ofStar Wars(1977) and paved the way for theblockbusterhits of subsequent decades.

Screenwriter and scholarEric R. Williamsidentifies science fiction films as one of eleven super-genres in hisscreenwriters’ taxonomy,stating that all feature-length narrative films can be classified by these super-genres. The other ten super-genres areaction,crime,fantasy,horror,romance,slice of life,sports,thriller,war,andwestern.

Characteristics of the genre

According toVivian Sobchack,a British cinema and media theorist and cultural critic:

Science fiction film is a film genre which emphasizes actual, extrapolative, or 2.0 speculativescienceand theempirical method,interacting in a social context with the lesser emphasized, but still present,transcendentalismofmagicandreligion,in an attempt to reconcile man with the unknown.

— Vivian Carol Sobchack, p. 63

This definition suggests a continuum between (real-world)empiricismand (supernatural)transcendentalism,with science fiction films on the side of empiricism, andhappy filmsandsad filmson the side of transcendentalism. However, there are numerous well-known examples of science fiction horror films, epitomized by such pictures asFrankensteinandAlien.

The visual style of science fiction film is characterized by a clash between alien and familiar images. This clash is implemented when alien images become familiar, as inA Clockwork Orange,when the repetitions of the Korova Milkbar make the alien decor seem more familiar.As well, familiar images become alien, as in the filmsRepo ManandLiquid Sky.For example, inDr. Strangelove,the distortion of the humans make the familiar images seem more alien.Finally, alien images are juxtaposed with the familiar, as inThe Deadly Mantis,when a giantpraying mantisis shown climbing theWashington Monument.

Cultural theoristScott Bukatmanhas proposed that science fiction film allows contemporary culture to witness an expression of thesublime,be it through exaggerated scale, apocalypse or transcendence.

History

Main article:History of science fiction films

Metropolis(1927) byFritz Langwas one of the first feature-length science fiction films. It was produced atStudio Babelsberg,Germany. (Photo shows the statue depicting theMaschinenmenschbefore it is given Maria's soul, at Filmpark Babelsberg).

1900–1920s

See also:List of science fiction films before 1920andList of science fiction films of the 1920s

L'uomo meccanico(1921)

Science fiction films appeared early in thesilent filmera, typically as short films shot in black and white, sometimes with colour tinting. They usually had a technological theme and were often intended to be humorous. In1902,Georges MélièsreleasedLe Voyage dans la Lune,generally considered the first science fiction film,and a film that used early trick photography to depict a spacecraft's journey to the Moon. Several early films merged the science fiction andhorrorgenres. Examples of this areFrankenstein(1910), a film adaptation ofMary Shelley's novel, andDr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde(1920), based on the psychological tale byRobert Louis Stevenson.Taking a more adventurous tack,20,000 Leagues Under the Sea(1916) is a film based onJules Verne’s famous novel of a wondrous submarine and its vengeful captain. In the 1920s, European filmmakers tended to use science fiction for prediction and social commentary, as can be seen in German films such asMetropolis(1927) andFrau im Mond(1929). Other notable science fiction films of the silent era includeThe Impossible Voyage(1904),The Motorist(1906),The Conquest of the Pole(1912),Himmelskibet(1918; which with its runtime of 97 minutes generally is considered the first feature-length science fiction film in history),The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari(1920),The Mechanical Man(1921),Paris Qui Dort(1923),Aelita(1924),Luch Smerti(1925), andThe Lost World(1925).

1930s–1950s

See also:List of science fiction films of the 1930s,List of science fiction films of the 1940s,andList of science fiction films of the 1950s

In the 1930s, there were several big budget science fiction films, notablyJust Imagine(1930),King Kong(1933),Things to Come(1936), andLost Horizon(1937). Starting in 1936, a number of science fictioncomic stripswere adapted asserials,notablyFlash GordonandBuck Rogers,both starringBuster Crabbe.These serials, and the comic strips they were based on, were very popular with the general public. Other notable science fiction films of the 1930s includeFrankenstein(1931),Bride of Frankenstein(1935),Doctor X(1932),Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde(1931),F.P.1(1932),Island of Lost Souls(1932),Deluge(1933),The Invisible Man(1933),Master of the World(1934),Mad Love(1935),Trans-Atlantic Tunnel(1935),The Devil-Doll(1936),The Invisible Ray(1936),The Man Who Changed His Mind(1936),The Walking Dead(1936),Non-Stop New York(1937), andThe Return of Doctor X(1939). The 1940s brought usBefore I Hang(1940),Black Friday(1940),Dr. Cyclops(1940),The Devil Commands(1941),Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde(1941),Man Made Monster(1941),It Happened Tomorrow(1944),It Happens Every Spring(1949), andThe Perfect Woman(1949). The release ofDestination Moon(1950) andRocketship X-M(1950) brought us to what many people consider "the golden age of the science fiction film".

In the 1950s, public interest in space travel and new technologies was great. While many 1950s science fiction films were low-budgetB movies,there were several successful films with larger budgets and impressive special effects. These includeThe Day the Earth Stood Still(1951),The Thing from Another World(1951),When Worlds Collide(1951),The War of the Worlds(1953),20,000 Leagues Under the Sea(1954),This Island Earth(1955),Forbidden Planet(1956),Invasion of the Body Snatchers(1956),The Curse of Frankenstein(1957),Journey to the Center of the Earth(1959) andOn the Beach(1959). There is often a close connection between films in the science fiction genre and the so-called "monster movie".Examples of this areThem!(1954),The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms(1953) andThe Blob(1958). During the 1950s,Ray Harryhausen,protege of master King Kong animator Willis O'Brien, usedstop-motion animationto create special effects for the following notable science fiction films:It Came from Beneath the Sea(1955),Earth vs. the Flying Saucers(1956) and20 Million Miles to Earth(1957).

Poster for the 1954 Japanese monster filmGodzilla

The most successful monster movies were Japanese film studioToho'skaijufilms directed byIshirō Hondaand featuring special effects byEiji Tsuburaya.The 1954 filmGodzilla,with the title monster attacking Tokyo, gained immense popularity, spawned multiple sequels, led to other kaiju films likeRodan,and created one of the most recognizable monsters in cinema history.Japanese science fictionfilms, particularly thetokusatsuand kaiju genres, were known for their extensive use ofspecial effects,and gained worldwide popularity in the 1950s. Kaiju and tokusatsu films, notablyWarning from Space(1956), sparkedStanley Kubrick's interest in science fiction films and influenced2001: A Space Odyssey(1968). According to his biographerJohn Baxter,despite their "clumsy model sequences, the films were often well-photographed in colour... and their dismal dialogue was delivered in well-designed and well-lit sets."

1960s-present

See also:List of science fiction films of the 1960s

With theSpace Racebetween the USSR and the US going on, documentaries and illustrations of actual events, pioneers and technology were plenty. Any movie featuring realistic space travel was at risk of being obsolete at its time of release, rather fossil than fiction. There were relatively few science fiction films in the 1960s, but some of the films transformed science fiction cinema.Stanley Kubrick's2001: A Space Odyssey(1968) brought new realism to the genre, with its groundbreaking visual effects and realistic portrayal of space travel and influenced the genre with its epic story and transcendent philosophical scope. Other 1960s films includedPlanet of the Vampires(1965) by Italian filmmakerMario Bava,that is regarded as one of the best movies of the period,Planet of the Apes(1968) andFahrenheit 451(1966), which provided social commentary, and the campyBarbarella(1968), which explored the comical side of earlier science fiction.Jean-Luc Godard's French "new wave" filmAlphaville(1965) posited a futuristic Paris commanded by an artificial intelligence which has outlawed all emotion.

See also:List of science fiction films of the 1970sandList of science fiction films of the 1980s

The era of crewed trips to the Moon in 1969 and the 1970s saw a resurgence of interest in the science fiction film.Andrei Tarkovsky'sSolaris(1972) andStalker(1979) are two widely acclaimed examples of the renewed interest offilmauteursin science fiction.Science fiction films from the early 1970s explored the theme of paranoia, in which humanity is depicted as under threat from sociological, ecological or technological adversaries of its own creation, such asGeorge Lucas's directional debutTHX 1138(1971),The Andromeda Strain(1971),Silent Running(1972),Soylent Green(1973),Westworld(1973) and its sequelFutureworld(1976), andLogan's Run(1976). The science fiction comedies of the 1970s includedWoody Allen'sSleeper(1973), andJohn Carpenter'sDark Star(1974). The sports science fiction genre can be seen in films such asRollerball(1975).

Star Wars(1977) andClose Encounters of the Third Kind(1977) were box-office hits that brought about a huge increase in science fiction films. In1979,Star Trek: The Motion Picturebrought the television series to the big screen for the first time. It was also in this period that the Walt Disney Company released many science fiction films for family audiences such asThe Black Hole,Flight of the Navigator,andHoney, I Shrunk the Kids.The sequels toStar Wars,The Empire Strikes Back(1980) andReturn of the Jedi(1983), also saw worldwide box office success.Ridley Scott's films, such asAlien(1979) andBlade Runner(1982), along withJames Cameron'sThe Terminator(1984), presented the future as dark, dirty and chaotic, and depicted aliens and androids as hostile and dangerous. In contrast,Steven Spielberg'sE.T. the Extra-Terrestrial(1982), one of the most successful films of the 1980s, presented aliens as benign and friendly, a theme already present in Spielberg's ownClose Encounters of the Third Kind.James Bond also entered the science fiction genre in 1979 withMoonraker.

The big budget adaptations ofFrank Herbert'sDuneandAlex Raymond'sFlash Gordon,as well asPeter Hyams's sequel to2001,2010: The Year We Make Contact(based on2001authorArthur C. Clarke's sequel novel2010: Odyssey Two), were box office failures that dissuaded producers from investing in science fiction literary properties. Disney'sTron(1982) turned out to be a moderate success. The strongest contributors to the genre during the second half of the 1980s were James Cameron and Paul Verhoeven withThe TerminatorandRoboCopentries.Robert Zemeckis' filmBack to the Future(1985) and itssequelswere critically praised and became box office successes, not to mention international phenomena. James Cameron's sequel toAlien,Aliens(1986), was very different from the original film, falling more into the action/science fiction genre, it was both a critical and commercial success andSigourney Weaverwas nominated forBest Actress in a Leading Roleat theAcademy Awards.TheJapanese cyberpunkanimefilmAkira(1988) also had a big influence outside Japan when released.

See also:List of science fiction films of the 1990sandList of science fiction films of the 2000s

In the 1990s, the emergence of theWorld Wide Weband thecyberpunkgenre spawned several movies on the theme of the computer-human interface, such asTerminator 2: Judgment Day(1991),Total Recall(1990),The Lawnmower Man(1992), andThe Matrix(1999). Other themes included disaster films (e.g.,ArmageddonandDeep Impact,both1998), alien invasion (e.g.,Independence Day(1996)) and genetic experimentation (e.g.,Jurassic Park(1993) andGattaca(1997)). Also, theStar Warsprequel trilogy began with the release ofStar Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace,which eventually grossed over one billion dollars.

As the decade progressed, computers played an increasingly important role in both the addition ofspecial effects(thanks toTerminator 2: Judgment DayandJurassic Park) and the production of films. As software developed in sophistication it was used to produce more complicated effects. It also enabled filmmakers to enhance the visual quality of animation, resulting in films such asGhost in the Shell(1995) from Japan, andThe Iron Giant(1999) from the United States.

During the first decade of the 2000s,superhero filmsabounded, as did earthbound science fiction such as theMatrixtrilogy. In2005,theStar Warssaga was completed (although it was later continued, but at the time it was not intended to be) with the darkly themedStar Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith.Science-fiction also returned as a tool for political commentary in films such asA.I. Artificial Intelligence,Minority Report,Sunshine,District 9,Children of Men,Serenity,Sleep Dealer,andPandorum.The 2000s also saw the release ofTransformers(2007) andTransformers: Revenge of the Fallen(2009), both of which resulted in worldwide box office success. In 2009,James Cameron'sAvatargarnered worldwide box office success, and would later become the highest-grossing movie of all time. This movie was also an example of political commentary. It depicted humans destroying the environment on another planet by mining for a special metal called unobtainium. That same year,Terminator Salvationwas released and garnered only moderate success.

Further information:List of science fiction films of the 2010s

The 2010s saw new entries in several classic science fiction franchises, includingPredators(2010),Tron: Legacy(2010), a resurgence of theStar Warsseries, and entries into thePlanet of the ApesandGodzillafranchises. Several more cross-genre films have also been produced, including comedies such asHot Tub Time Machine(2010),Seeking a Friend for the End of the World(2012),Safety Not Guaranteed(2013), andPixels(2015), romance films such asHer(2013),Monsters(2010), andEx Machina(2015), heist films includingInception(2010) and action films includingReal Steel(2011),Total Recall(2012),Edge of Tomorrow(2014),Pacific Rim(2013),Chappie(2015),Tomorrowland(2015), andGhost in the Shell(2017). Thesuperhero filmboom has also continued, into films such asIron Man 2(2010) andIron Man 3(2013), several entries into theX-Men film series,andThe Avengers(2012), which became the fourth-highest-grossing film of all time. New franchises such asDeadpoolandGuardians of the Galaxyalso began in this decade.

Further into the decade, more realistic science fictionepic filmsalso become prevalent, includingBattleship(2012),Gravity(2013),Elysium(2013),Interstellar(2014),Mad Max: Fury Road(2015),The Martian(2015),Arrival(2016),Passengers(2016), andBlade Runner 2049(2017). Many of these films have gained widespread accolades, including severalAcademy Awardwins and nominations. These films have addressed recent matters of scientific interest, including space travel, climate change, and artificial intelligence.

Alongside these original films, many adaptations were produced, especially within theyoung adultdystopian fictionsubgenre, popular in the early part of the decade. These include theHunger Gamesfilm series,based on thetrilogy of novelsbySuzanne Collins,The Divergent Seriesbased onVeronica Roth'sDivergent trilogy,and theMaze Runnerseries,based onJames Dashner'sThe Maze Runnernovels.Several adult adaptations have also been produced, includingThe Martian(2015), based onAndy Weir's2011 novel,Cloud Atlas(2012), based onDavid Mitchell's2004 novel,World War Z,based onMax Brooks'2006 novel,andReady Player One(2018), based onErnest Cline's2011 novel.

Independent productions also increased in the 2010s, with the rise ofdigital filmmakingmaking it easier for filmmakers to produce movies on a smaller budget. These films includeAttack the Block(2011),Source Code(2011),Looper(2012),Upstream Color(2013),Ex Machina(2015), andValerian and the City of a Thousand Planets(2017). In 2016,Ex Machinawon the Academy Award forVisual Effectsin a surprising upset over the much higher-budgetStar Wars: The Force Awakens(2015).

Themes, imagery, and visual elements

Science fiction films are often speculative in nature, and often include key supporting elements of science and technology. However, as often as not the "science" in aHollywoodscience fiction movie can be considered pseudo-science, relying primarily on atmosphere and quasi-scientific artistic fancy than facts and conventional scientific theory. The definition can also vary depending on the viewpoint of the observer.

Many science fiction films include elements of mysticism,occult,magic, or thesupernatural,considered by some to be more properly elements of fantasy or the occult (or religious) film.This transforms the movie genre into a science fantasy with a religious or quasi-religious philosophy serving as the driving motivation. The movieForbidden Planetemploys many common science fiction elements, but the film carries a profound message - that the evolution of a species toward technological perfection (in this case exemplified by the disappeared alien civilization called the "Krell" ) does not ensure the loss of primitive and dangerous urges.In the film, this part of the primitive mind manifests itself as monstrous destructive force emanating from the Freudian subconscious, or "Id".

Some films blur the line between the genres, such as films where the protagonist gains the extraordinary powers of thesuperhero.These films usually employ quasi-plausible reason for the hero gaining these powers.

Not allscience fiction themesare equally suitable for movies. Science fiction horror is most common. Often enough, these films could just as well pass asWesternsorWorld War IIfilms if the science fiction props were removed.Common motifs also include voyages and expeditions to other planets, anddystopias,whileutopiasare rare.

Imagery

Film theoristVivian Sobchackargues that science fiction films differ from fantasy films in that while science fiction film seeks to achieve our belief in the images we are viewing, fantasy film instead attempts to suspend our disbelief. The science fiction film displays the unfamiliar and alien in the context of the familiar. Despite the alien nature of the scenes and science fictional elements of the setting, the imagery of the film is related back to humankind and how we relate to our surroundings. While the science fiction film strives to push the boundaries of the human experience, they remain bound to the conditions and understanding of the audience and thereby contain prosaic aspects, rather than being completely alien or abstract.

Genre films such as westerns or war movies are bound to a particular area or time period. This is not true of the science fiction film. However, there are several common visual elements that are evocative of the genre. These include the spacecraft or space station, alien worlds or creatures, robots, and futuristic gadgets. Examples include movies likeLost in Space,Serenity,Avatar,Prometheus,Tomorrowland,Passengers,andValerian and the City of a Thousand Planets.More subtle visual clues can appear with changes of the human form through modifications in appearance, size, or behavior, or by means a known environment turned eerily alien, such as an empty cityThe Omega Man(1971).

Scientific elements

Peter Sellersas the titular character fromDr. Strangelove(1964)

While science is a major element of this genre, many movie studios take significant liberties with scientific knowledge. Such liberties can be most readily observed in films that showspacecraftmaneuvering inouter space.Thevacuumshould preclude the transmission ofsoundor maneuvers employing wings, yet the soundtrack is filled with inappropriate flying noises and changes in flight path resembling an aircraft banking. The filmmakers, unfamiliar with the specifics ofspace travel,focus instead on providing acoustical atmosphere and the more familiar maneuvers of the aircraft.

Similar instances of ignoring science in favor of art can be seen when movies present environmental effects as portrayed inStar WarsandStar Trek.Entireplanetsare destroyed in titanic explosions requiring mere seconds, whereas an actual event of this nature takes many hours.

The role of the scientist has varied considerably in the science fiction film genre, depending on the public perception of science and advanced technology.Starting withDr. Frankenstein,themad scientistbecame astock characterwho posed a dire threat to society and perhaps even civilization. Certain portrayals of the "mad scientist", such asPeter Sellers's performance inDr. Strangelove,have become iconic to the genre.In the monster films of the 1950s, the scientist often played a heroic role as the only person who could provide atechnological fixfor some impending doom. Reflecting the distrust of government that began in the 1960s in the United States, the brilliant but rebellious scientist became a common theme, often serving aCassandra-like role during an impending disaster.

Biotechnology(e.g.,cloning) is a popular scientific element in films as depicted inJurassic Park(cloning of extinct species),The Island(cloning of humans), and (genetic modification) in some superhero movies and in theAlienseries.Cyberneticsandholographic projectionsas depicted inRoboCopandI, Robotare also popularized.Interstellar travelandteleportationis a popular theme in theStar Trekseries that is achieved throughwarp drivesandtransporterswhileintergalactic travelis popular in films such asStargateandStar Warsthat is achieved throughhyperspaceorwormholes.Nanotechnologyis also featured in theStar Trekseries in the form ofreplicators(utopia), inThe Day the Earth Stood Stillin the form ofgrey goo(dystopia), and inIron Man 3in the form ofextremis (nanotubes).Force fieldsis a popular theme inIndependence Daywhileinvisibilityis also popular inStar Trek.Arc reactor technology, featured inIron Man,is similar to acold fusiondevice.Miniaturization technology where people are shrunk to microscopic sizes is featured in films likeFantastic Voyage(1966),Honey, I Shrunk the Kids(1989), and Marvel'sAnt-Man(2015).

The lateArthur C. Clarke'sthird lawstates that "any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic". Past science fiction films have depicted "fictional" ( "magical" ) technologies that became present reality. For example, the Personal Access Display Device fromStar Trekwas a precursor ofsmartphonesandtablet computers.Gesture recognitionin the movieMinority Reportis part of currentgame consoles.Human-level artificial intelligenceis also fast approaching with the advent ofsmartphone A.I.while aworking cloaking device / materialis the main goal ofstealth technology.Autonomous cars(e.g.KITTfrom theKnight Riderseries) andquantum computers,like in the movieStealthandTranscendence,also will be available eventually. Furthermore, although Clarke's laws do not classify"sufficiently advanced" technologies,theKardashev scalemeasures a civilization's level of technological advancement into types. Due to its exponential nature, sci-fi civilizations usually only attain Type I (harnessing all the energy attainable from a single planet), and strictly speaking often not even that.

Alien lifeforms

Main article:Extraterrestrials in fiction

The concept of life, particularly intelligent life, having an extraterrestrial origin is a popular staple of science fiction films. Early films often used alien life forms as a threat or peril to the human race, where the invaders were frequently fictional representations of actual military or political threats on Earth as observed in films such asMars Attacks!,Starship Troopers,theAlienseries, thePredatorseries, andThe Chronicles of Riddickseries. Some aliens were represented as benign and even beneficial in nature in such films asEscape to Witch Mountain,E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial,Close Encounters of the Third Kind,The Fifth Element,The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy,Avatar,Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets,and theMen in Blackseries.

In order to provide subject matter to which audiences can relate, the large majority of intelligent alien races presented in films have ananthropomorphicnature, possessing human emotions and motivations. In films likeCocoon,My Stepmother Is an Alien,Species,Contact,The Box,Knowing,The Day the Earth Stood Still,andThe Watch,the aliens were nearly human in physical appearance, and communicated in a common earth language. However, the aliens inStargateandPrometheuswere human in physical appearance but communicated in an alien language. A few films have tried to represent intelligent aliens as something utterly different from the usual humanoid shape (e.g. An intelligent life form surrounding an entire planet inSolaris,the ball shaped creature inDark Star,microbial-like creatures inThe Invasion,shape-shifting creatures inEvolution). Recent trends in films involvebuilding-size alien creatureslike in the moviePacific Rimwhere theCGIhas tremendously improved over the previous decades as compared in previous films such asGodzilla.

Disaster films

Main article:Disaster film

A frequent theme among science fiction films is that of impending or actual disaster on an epic scale. These often address a particular concern of the writer by serving as a vehicle of warning against a type of activity, including technological research. In the case of alien invasion films, the creatures can provide as a stand-in for a feared foreign power.

Films that fit into the Disaster film typically also fall into the following general categories:

• Alien invasion:Hostileextraterrestrialsarrive and seek to supplant humanity. They are either overwhelmingly powerful or very insidious. Typical examples includeThe War of the Worlds(1953),Invasion of the Body Snatchers(1956),Daleks' Invasion Earth 2150 A.D.(1966),Independence Day(1996),War of the Worlds(2005),The Day the Earth Stood Still(2008),Skyline(2010),The Darkest Hour(2011),Battle: Los Angeles(2011),Battleship(2012),The Avengers(2012),Man of Steel(2013),Pacific Rim(2013),Ender's Game(2013),Pixels(2015),Independence Day: Resurgence(2016), andJustice League(2017).Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace(1999) takes an alternative look at the subject, involving an extraterrestrial political entity invading planet Naboo for commercial reasons.
• Environmental disaster:such as major climate change, or anasteroidorcometstrike. Movies that have employed this theme includeSoylent Green(1973),Waterworld(1995),Deep Impact(1998),Armageddon(1998),The Core(2003),The Day After Tomorrow(2004),2012(2009),Snowpiercer(2013) andGeostorm(2017).
• Man supplanted by technology:Typically in the form of an all-powerfulcomputer,advancedrobotsorcyborgs,or else genetically modified humans or animals. Among the films in this category are theTerminatorseries,The Matrixtrilogy,I, Robot(2004), and theTransformersseries.
• Nuclear war:Usually in the form of adystopic,post-holocausttale of grim survival. Examples of such a storyline can be found in the moviesDr. Strangelove(1964),Dr. Who and the Daleks(1965),Planet of the Apes(1968;remade in 2001),A Boy and His Dog(1975),Mad Max(1979),City of Ember(2008),The Book of Eli(2010),Oblivion(2013),Mad Max: Fury Road(2015), andFriend of the World(2020).
• Pandemic:A highly lethaldisease,often one created by man, threatens or wipes out most of humanity in a massiveplague.This topic has been treated in such films asThe Andromeda Strain(1971),The Omega Man(1971),12 Monkeys(1995),28 Weeks Later(2007),I Am Legend(2007), and theResident Evilseries. This version of the genre sometimes mixes withzombie filmsor othermonster movies.

Monster films

Main article:Monster movie

While monster films do not usually depict danger on a global or epic scale, science fiction film also has a long tradition of movies featuring monster attacks. These differ from similar films in the horror or fantasy genres because science fiction films typically rely on a scientific (or at least pseudo-scientific) rationale for the monster's existence, rather than a supernatural or magical reason. Often, the science fiction film monster is created, awakened, or "evolves" because of the machinations of a mad scientist, a nuclear accident, or a scientific experiment gone awry. Typical examples includeThe Beast from 20,000 Fathoms(1953),Jurassic Parkfilms,Cloverfield,Pacific Rim,theKing Kongfilms, and theGodzillafranchise or the many films involvingFrankenstein's monster.

Mind and identity

The coremental aspectsof what makes us human has been a staple of science fiction films, particularly since the 1980s.Ridley Scott'sBlade Runner(1982), an adaptation ofPhilip K. Dick's novelDo Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?,examined what made an organic-creation a human, while theRoboCopseries saw anandroidmechanism fitted with the brain and reprogrammed mind of a human to create acyborg.The idea of brain transfer was not entirely new to science fiction film, as the concept of the "mad scientist"transferring the human mind to another body is as old asFrankensteinwhile the idea of corporations behind mind transfer technologies is observed in later films such asGamer,Avatar,andSurrogates.

Films such asTotal Recallhave popularized a thread of films that explore the concept of reprogramming the human mind. The theme ofbrainwashingin several films of the sixties and seventies includingA Clockwork OrangeandThe Manchurian Candidatecoincided with secret real-life government experimentation duringProject MKULTRA.Voluntary erasure of memory is further explored as themes of the filmsPaycheckandEternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind.Some films likeLimitlessexplore the concept of mind enhancement. The anime seriesSerial Experiments Lainalso explores the idea of reprogrammable reality and memory.

The idea that a human could be entirely represented as a program in a computer was a core element of the filmTron.This would be further explored in the film version ofThe Lawnmower Man,Transcendence,andReady Player Oneand the idea reversed inVirtuosityas computer programs sought to become real persons. InThe Matrixseries, thevirtual realityworld became a real-world prison for humanity, managed by intelligent machines. In movies such aseXistenZ,The Thirteenth Floor,andInception,the nature of reality and virtual reality become intermixed with no clear distinguishing boundary.

Telekinesisandtelepathyare featured in movies likeStar Wars,The Last Mimzy,Race to Witch Mountain,Chronicle,andLucywhileprecognitionis featured inMinority Reportas well as inThe Matrixsaga (in which precognition is achieved by knowing the artificial world).

Robots

Transformerscharacters atUniversal Studios Hollywood

Robotshave been a part of science fiction since the Czech playwrightKarel Čapekcoined the word in 1921. In early films, robots were usually played by a human actor in a boxy metal suit, as inThe Phantom Empire,although the female robot inMetropolisis an exception. The first depiction of a sophisticated robot in a United States film wasGortinThe Day the Earth Stood Still.

Robots in films are often sentient and sometimes sentimental, and they have filled a range of roles in science fiction films. Robots have been supporting characters, such asRobby the RobotinForbidden Planet,Huey, Dewey and Louie inSilent Running,DatainStar Trek: The Next Generation,sidekicks (e.g.,C-3POandR2-D2fromStar Wars,JARVIS fromIron Man), and extras, visible in the background to create a futuristic setting (e.g.,Back to the Future Part II(1989),Total Recall(2012),RoboCop(2014)). As well, robots have been formidable movie villains or monsters (e.g., the robot Box in the filmLogan's Run(1976),HAL 9000in2001: A Space Odyssey,ARIIA inEagle Eye,robotSentinelsinX-Men: Days of Future Past,thebattle droidsin theStar Warsprequel trilogy,or the huge robot probes seen inMonsters vs. Aliens). In some cases, robots have even been the leading characters in science fiction films; in the filmBlade Runner(1982), many of the characters arebioengineeredandroid"replicants".This is also present in the animated filmsWALL-E(2008),Astro Boy(2009),Big Hero 6(2014),Ghost in the Shell(2017) and inNext Gen(2018).

Films likeBicentennial Man,A.I. Artificial Intelligence,Chappie,andEx Machinadepicted the emotional fallouts of robots that are self-aware. Other films likeThe Animatrix (The Second Renaissance)present the consequences of mass-producing self-aware androids as humanity succumbs to their robot overlords.

One popular theme in science fiction film is whether robots will someday replace humans, a question raised in the film adaptation ofIsaac Asimov'sI, Robot(in jobs) and in the filmReal Steel(in sports), or whether intelligent robots could develop a conscience and a motivation to protect, take over, or destroy the human race (as depicted inThe Terminator,Transformers,and inAvengers: Age of Ultron). Another theme is remotetelepresenceviaandroidsas depicted inSurrogatesandIron Man 3.As artificial intelligence becomes smarter due toincreasing computer power,some sci-fi dreams have already been realized. For example, the computerDeep Bluebeat the world chess champion in 1997 and a documentary film,Game Over: Kasparov and the Machine,was released in 2003. Another famous computer calledWatsondefeated the two best humanJeopardy(game show) players in 2011 and a NOVA documentary film,Smartest Machine on Earth,was released in the same year.

Building-size robotsare also becoming a popular theme in movies as featured inPacific Rim.Future live action films may include an adaptation of popular television series likeVoltronandRobotech.TheCGIrobots ofPacific Rimand thePower Rangers(2017) reboot was greatly improved as compared to the originalMighty Morphin Power Rangers: The Movie(1995). While "size does matter", a famous tagline of the movieGodzilla,incredibly small robots, callednanobots,do matter as well (e.g. BorgnanoprobesinStar Trekand nanites inI, Robot).

Time travel

Main article:Time travel in fiction

The concept oftime travel—travelling backwards and forwards through time—has always been a popular staple of science fiction film and science fiction television series. Time travel usually involves the use of some type of advanced technology, such as H. G. Wells' classicThe Time Machine,the commercially successful 1980s-eraBack to the Futuretrilogy, theBill & Tedtrilogy, theTerminatorseries,Déjà Vu(2006),Source Code(2011),Edge of Tomorrow(2014), andPredestination(2014). Other movies, such as thePlanet of the Apesseries,Timeline(2003) andThe Last Mimzy(2007), explained their depictions of time travel by drawing on physics concepts such as thespecial relativityphenomenon of time dilation (which could occur if a spaceship was travelling near the speed of light) andwormholes.Some films show time travel not being attained from advanced technology, but rather from an inner source or personal power, such as the 2000s-era filmsDonnie Darko,Mr. Nobody,The Butterfly Effect,andX-Men: Days of Future Past.

More conventional time travel movies use technology to bring the past to life in the present, or in a present that lies in our future. The filmIceman(1984) told the story of the reanimation of a frozenNeanderthal.The filmFreejack(1992) shows time travel used to pull victims of horrible deaths forward in time a split-second before their demise, and then use their bodies for spare parts.

A common theme in time travel film is the paradoxical nature of travelling through time. In theFrench New WavefilmLa jetée(1962), directorChris Markerdepicts the self-fulfilling aspect of a person being able to see their future by showing a child who witnesses the death of his future self.La Jetéewas the inspiration for12 Monkeys,(1995) directorTerry Gilliam's film about time travel, memory and madness. TheBack to the Futuretrilogy andThe Time Machinego one step further and explore the result of altering the past, while inStar Trek: First Contact(1996) andStar Trek(2009) the crew must rescue the Earth from having its past altered by time-travellingcyborgsand alien races.

Genre as commentary on social issues

The science fiction film genre has long served as useful means of discussing sensitive topical issues without arousing controversy, and it often provides thoughtful social commentary on potential unforeseen future issues. The fictional setting allows for a deeper examination and reflection of the ideas presented, with the perspective of a viewer watching remote events. Most controversial issues in science fiction films tend to fall into two general storylines,Utopianordystopian.Either a society will become better or worse in the future. Because of controversy, most science fiction films will fall into thedystopian filmcategory rather than the Utopian category.

The types of commentary and controversy presented in science fiction films often illustrate the particular concerns of the periods in which they were produced. Early science fiction films expressed fears about automation replacing workers and the dehumanization of society through science and technology. For example,The Man in the White Suit(1951) used a science fiction concept as a means to satirize postwar British "establishment" conservatism, industrial capitalists, and trade unions. Another example isHAL 9000from2001: A Space Odyssey(1968). He controls the shuttle, and later harms its crew. "Kubrick's vision reveals technology as a competitive force that must be defeated in order for humans to evolve."Later films explored the fears of environmental catastrophe, technology-created disasters, or overpopulation, and how they would impact society and individuals (e.g.Soylent Green,Elysium).

The monster movies of the 1950s—likeGodzilla(1954)—served as stand-ins for fears ofnuclear war,communismand views on theCold War.In the 1970s, science fiction films also became an effective way of satirizing contemporary social mores withSilent RunningandDark Starpresenting hippies in space as a riposte to the militaristic types that had dominated earlier films.Stanley Kubrick'sA Clockwork Orangepresented a horrific vision of youth culture, portraying a youth gang engaged inrapeandmurder,along with disturbing scenes of forcedpsychological conditioningserving to comment on societal responses tocrime.

Logan's Rundepicted a futuristicswingers' utopia that practiced euthanasia as a form of population control andThe Stepford Wivesanticipated a reaction to thewomen's liberation movement.Enemy Minedemonstrated that the foes we have come to hate are often just like us, even if they appear alien.

Contemporary science fiction films continue to explore social and political issues. One recent example isMinority Report(2002), debuting in the months after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, and focused on the issues of police powers, privacy and civil liberties in a near-future United States. Some movies likeThe Island(2005) andNever Let Me Go(2010) explore the issues surrounding cloning.

More recently, the headlines surrounding events such as theIraq War,international terrorism,theavian influenzascare, and United Statesanti-immigration lawshave found their way into the consciousness of contemporary filmmakers. The filmV for Vendetta(2006) drew inspiration from controversial issues such as thePatriot Actand theWar on Terror,while science fiction thrillers such asChildren of Men(also 2006),District 9(2009), andElysium(2013) commented on diverse social issues such asxenophobia,propaganda,andcognitive dissonance.Avatar(2009) had remarkable resemblance to colonialism of native land, mining by multinational-corporations and the Iraq War.

Future noir

Lancaster Universityprofessor Jamaluddin Bin Aziz argues that as science fiction has evolved and expanded, it has fused with other film genres such asgothicthrillersandfilm noir.When science fiction integrates film noir elements, Bin Aziz calls the resulting hybrid form "future noir", a form which "... encapsulates apostmodernencounter with generic persistence, creating a mixture of irony, pessimism, prediction, extrapolation, bleakness and nostalgia. "Future noir films such asBrazil,Blade Runner,12 Monkeys,Dark City,andChildren of Menuse aprotagonistwho is "...increasingly dubious, alienated and fragmented", at once "dark and playful like the characters in Gibson'sNeuromancer,yet still with the "... shadow ofPhilip Marlowe... "

Future noir films that are set in apost-apocalypticworld "...restructure and re-represent society in a parody of the atmospheric world usually found in noir's construction of a city—dark, bleak and beguiled." Future noir films often intermingle elements of the gothic thriller genre, such asMinority Report,which makes references tooccultpractices, andAlien,with its tagline "In space, no one can hear you scream", and a space vessel, Nostromo, "that hark[s] back to images of the haunted house in the gothic horror tradition". Bin Aziz states that films such asJames Cameron’sThe Terminatorare a subgenre of "techno noir" that create "...an atmospheric feast of noir darkness and a double-edged world that is not what it seems."

Film versus literature

When compared to science-fictionliterature,science-fiction films often rely less on the human imagination and more upon action scenes andspecial effect-created alien creatures and exotic backgrounds. Since the 1970s, film audiences have come to expect a high standard for special effects in science-fiction films.In some cases, science fiction-themed films superimpose an exotic, futuristic setting onto what would not otherwise be a science-fiction tale. Nevertheless, some critically acclaimed science-fiction movies have followed in the path of science-fiction literature, using story development to explore abstract concepts.

Influence of science fiction authors

Jules Verne(1828–1905) became the first major science-fiction author whose works film-makers adapted for the screen - withMéliès'Le Voyage dans la Lune(1902) and20,000 lieues sous les mers(1907), which used Verne's scenarios as a framework for fantastic visuals. By the time Verne's work fell out of copyright in 1950, the adaptations were generally adapted ascostume dramaswith aVictorianaesthetic. Verne's works have been adapted a number of times since then, including20,000 Leagues Under the Sea(1954),From the Earth to the Moon(1958), and two film versions ofJourney to the Center of the Earthin 1959 and 2008.

H. G. Wells's novelsThe Invisible Man,Things to ComeandThe Island of Doctor Moreauwere all adapted into films during his lifetime (1866–1946), whileThe War of the Worlds,updated in 1953 and again in 2005, was adapted to film at least four times altogether.The Time Machinehas had two film versions (1960 and 2002) whileSleeperin part is a pastiche of Wells's 1910 novelThe Sleeper Awakes.

With the drop-off in interest in science-fiction films during the 1940s, few of the "golden age" science-fiction authors made it to the screen. A novella byJohn W. Campbellprovided the basis forThe Thing from Another World(1951).Robert A. Heinleincontributed to the screenplay forDestination Moon(1950), but none of his major works were adapted for the screen until the 1990s:The Puppet Masters(1994) andStarship Troopers(1997). The fiction ofIsaac Asimov(1920–1992) influenced theStar WarsandStar Trekfilms, but it was not until 1988 that a film version of one of his short stories (Nightfall) was produced. The first major motion-picture adaptation of a full-length Asimov work wasBicentennial Man(1999) (based on the short storiesBicentennial Man(1976) andThe Positronic Man(1992), the latter co-written with Robert Silverberg), althoughI, Robot(2004), a film loosely based onAsimov's book of short storiesby the same name, drew more attention.

The 1968 film adaptation of some of the stories of science-fiction authorArthur C. Clarkeas2001: A Space Odysseywon theAcademy Award for Visual Effectsand offered thematic complexity not typically associated with the science-fiction genre at the time. Its sequel,2010: The Year We Make Contact(inspired to Clarke's2010: Odyssey Two), was commercially successful but less highly regarded by critics. Reflecting the times, two earlier science-fiction works byRay Bradburywere adapted for cinema in the 1960s:Fahrenheit 451(1966) andThe Illustrated Man(1969).Kurt Vonnegut'sSlaughterhouse-Fivewas filmed in 1971 andBreakfast of Championsin 1998.

Philip K. Dick's fiction has been used in a number of science-fiction films, in part because it evokes the paranoiathat has been a central feature of the genre. Films based on Dick's works includeBlade Runner(1982),Total Recall(1990),Impostor(2001),Minority Report(2002),Paycheck(2003),A Scanner Darkly(2006), andThe Adjustment Bureau(2011). These films represent loose adaptations of the original stories, with the exception ofA Scanner Darkly,which is more inclined to Dick's novel.

Market share

The estimated North Americanbox-officemarket-share of science fiction as of 2019comprised 4.77%.

See also

• Genres, subcategories and related topics to science fiction
• Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation
• List of dystopian films
• List of films set in the future
• Saturn Award for Best Science Fiction Film

General and cited references

• Luca Bandirali, Enrico Terrone,Nell'occhio, nel cielo. Teoria e storia del cinema di fantascienza,Turin: Lindau, 2008,ISBN978-88-7180-716-4.
• Welch Everman,Cult Science Fiction Films,Citadel Press,1995,ISBN0-8065-1602-X.
• Peter Guttmacher,Legendary Sci-Fi Movies,1997,ISBN1-56799-490-3.
• Phil Hardy,The Overlook Film Encyclopedia, Science Fiction.William Morrow and Company, New York,1995,ISBN0-87951-626-7.
• Richard S. Myers,S-F 2: A pictorial history of science fiction from 1975 to the present,1984,Citadel Press,ISBN0-8065-0875-2.
• Gregg Rickman,The Science Fiction Film Reader,2004,ISBN0-87910-994-7.
• Matthias Schwartz, Archeologies of a Past Future. Science Fiction Films from Communist Eastern Europe, in: Rainer Rother, Annika Schaefer (eds.):Future Imperfect. Science – Fiction – Film,Berlin 2007, pp. 96–117.ISBN978-3-86505-249-0.
• Dave Saunders,Arnold: Schwarzenegger and the Movies,2009,London,I. B. Tauris
• Errol Vieth,Screening Science: Context, Text and Science in Fifties Science Fiction Film,Lanham, MD and London: Scarecrow Press, 2001.ISBN0-8108-4023-5.

Further reading

• Simultaneous Worlds: Global Science Fiction Cinemaedited by Jennifer L. Feeley and Sarah Ann Wells, 2015, University of Minnesota Press

External links

• The Encyclopedia of Fantastic Film and Television— horror, science fiction, fantasy and animation
• The Greatest Films: Science Fiction Films
• LIFE Sci-Fi | Tech News, Movies, Reviews
• LIFE in a word