Wikipedia

Seaweed

This article is about the aquatic plant-like algae. For its culinary uses, seeEdible seaweed.For the similarly-named plant, seeSeagrass.For other uses, seeSeaweed (disambiguation).

Seaweed,ormacroalgae,refers to thousands of species ofmacroscopic,multicellular,marinealgae.The term includes some types ofRhodophyta(red),Phaeophyta(brown) andChlorophyta(green) macroalgae. Seaweed species such askelpsprovide essential nursery habitat for fisheries and other marine species and thus protect food sources; other species, such asplanktonicalgae, play a vital role incapturing carbonand producing at least 50% of Earth's oxygen.[3]

Seaweed
Informal group of macroscopic marine algae
"Fucus serratus"
Fucus serratus
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Seaweeds can be found in the following groups
Photo of seaweed with small swollen areas at the end of each frond
Ascophyllum nodosumexposed to the sun inNova Scotia,Canada
Photo of detached seaweed frond lying on sand
Dead man's fingers (Codium fragile) off theMassachusettscoast in the United States
Photo of seaweed with the tip floating at the surface
The top of akelp forestinOtago,New Zealand

Natural seaweed ecosystems are sometimes under threat from human activity. For example, mechanicaldredgingof kelp destroys the resource and dependent fisheries. Other forces also threaten some seaweed ecosystems; for example, awasting diseasein predators ofpurple urchinshas led to an urchin population surge which has destroyed largekelp forestregions off the coast of California.[4]

Humans have a long history of cultivating seaweeds for their uses. In recent years,seaweed farminghas become a global agricultural practice, providing food, source material for various chemical uses (such ascarrageenan), cattle feeds and fertilizers. Due to their importance in marine ecologies and for absorbing carbon dioxide, recent attention has been on cultivating seaweeds as a potentialclimate change mitigationstrategy forbiosequestration of carbon dioxide,alongside other benefits likenutrient pollutionreduction, increased habitat for coastal aquatic species, and reducing localocean acidification.[5]TheIPCCSpecial Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climaterecommends "further research attention" as a mitigation tactic.[6]

Taxonomy

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"Seaweed" lacks a formal definition, but seaweed generally lives in the ocean and is visible to the naked eye. The term refers to both flowering plants submerged in the ocean, likeeelgrass,as well as larger marine algae. Generally, it is one of several groups of multicellularalgae;red,greenandbrown.[7]They lack one common multicellular ancestor, forming apolyphyleticgroup. In addition, blue-green algae (Cyanobacteria) are occasionally considered in seaweed literature.[8]

The number of seaweed species is still a topic of discussion among scientists, but it is most likely that there are several thousand species of seaweed.[9]

Genera

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Claudea elegans tetrasporangia

The following table lists a very few example genera of seaweed.

Genus Algae
Phylum		 Remarks
Caulerpa Green Submerged.
Fucus Brown In intertidal zones on rocky shores.
Gracilaria Red Cultivated for food.
Laminaria Brown Also known as kelp
8–30 m under water and
cultivated for food.
Macrocystis Brown Giant kelp
forming floating canopies.
Monostroma Green
Porphyra Red Intertidal zones in temperate climate and
cultivated for food.
Sargassum Brown Pelagic especially in the Sargasso Sea.

Anatomy

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Seaweed's appearance resembles non-woodyterrestrialplants.Its anatomy includes:[10][11]

  • Thallus:algal body
    • Laminaor blade: flattened structure that is somewhat leaf-like
      • Sorus:sporecluster
      • pneumatocyst,air bladder: a flotation-assisting organ on the blade
      • Kelp,float: a flotation-assisting organ between the lamina and stipe
    • Stipe:stem-like structure, may be absent
    • Holdfast:basal structure providing attachment to a substrate
      • Haptera:finger-like extension of the holdfast that anchors to abenthicsubstrate

The stipe and blade are collectively known as thefrond.

Ecology

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Seaweed covers this rocky seabed on the east coast of Australia.

Two environmental requirements dominate seaweedecology.These are seawater (or at leastbrackish water) and light sufficient to supportphotosynthesis.Another common requirement is an attachment point, and therefore seaweed most commonly inhabits thelittoral zone(nearshore waters) and within that zone, on rocky shores more than on sand or shingle. In addition, there are fewgenera(e.g.,SargassumandGracilaria) which do not live attached to the sea floor, but float freely.

Seaweed occupies various ecological niches. At the surface, they are only wetted by the tops of sea spray, while some species may attach to a substrate several meters deep. In some areas, littoral seaweed colonies can extend miles out to sea.[citation needed]The deepest living seaweed are some species ofred algae.Others have adapted to live intidal rock pools.In this habitat, seaweed must withstand rapidly changing temperature andsalinityand occasional drying.[12]

Macroalgae and macroalgal detritus have also been shown to be an important food source for benthic organisms, because macroalgae shed oldfronds.[13] These macroalgal fronds tend to be utilized bybenthosin theintertidal zoneclose to the shore.[14][15] Alternatively,pneumatocysts(gas filled "bubbles" ) can keep the macroalgaethallusafloat; fronds are transported by wind and currents from the coast into the deep ocean.[13]It has been shown thatbenthic organismsalso at several 100 m tend to utilize these macroalgae remnants.[15]

As macroalgae takes upcarbon dioxideand releasesoxygenin thephotosynthesis,macroalgae fronds can also contribute tocarbon sequestrationin the ocean, when the macroalgal fronds drift offshore into the deepocean basinsand sink to the sea floor without being remineralized by organisms.[13]The importance of this process forblue carbonstorage is currently a topic of discussion among scientists.[16][17][18]

Biogeographic expansion

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Nowadays a number of vectors—e.g., transport on ship hulls, exchanges among shellfish farmers, global warming, opening of trans-oceanic canals—all combine to enhance the transfer of exotic seaweeds to new environments. Since the piercing of the Suez Canal, the situation is particularly acute in the Mediterranean Sea, a 'marine biodiversity hotspot' that now registers over 120 newly introduced seaweed species -the largest number in the world.[19]

Production

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As of 2019, 35,818,961 tonnes were produced, of which 97.38% were produced in Asian countries.[20]

Seaweed production
Country tonns
per year,
cultured and wild
China 20,351,442
Indonesia 9,962,900
South Korea 1,821,475
Philippines 1,500,326
North Korea 603,000
Chile 427,508
Japan 412,300
Malaysia 188,110
Norway 163,197
United Republic of Tanzania 106,069

Farming

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This section is an excerpt fromSeaweed farming.[edit]

Seaweed farmingorkelpfarming is the practice ofcultivatingandharvestingseaweed. In its simplest form farmers gather from natural beds, while at the other extreme farmers fully control the crop'slife cycle.

The seven most cultivatedtaxaareEucheumaspp.,Kappaphycus alvarezii,Gracilariaspp.,Saccharina japonica,Undaria pinnatifida,Pyropiaspp., andSargassum fusiforme.EucheumaandK. alvareziiare attractive forcarrageenan(agelling agent);Gracilariais farmed foragar;the rest are eaten after limited processing.[21]Seaweeds are different frommangrovesandseagrasses,as they are photosynthetic algal organisms[22]and are non-flowering.[21]

The largest seaweed-producing countries as of 2022 areChina(58.62%) andIndonesia(28.6%); followed bySouth Korea(5.09%) and thePhilippines(4.19%). Other notable producers includeNorth Korea(1.6%),Japan(1.15%),Malaysia(0.53%),Zanzibar(Tanzania,0.5%), andChile(0.3%).[23][24]Seaweed farming has frequently been developed to improve economic conditions and to reduce fishing pressure.[25]

TheFood and Agriculture Organization(FAO) reported that world production in 2019 was over 35 million tonnes. North America produced some 23,000 tonnes of wet seaweed. Alaska, Maine, France, and Norway each more than doubled their seaweed production since 2018.As of 2019, seaweed represented 30% of marineaquaculture.[26]

Seaweed farming is acarbon negativecrop, with a high potential forclimate change mitigation.[27][28]The IPCCSpecial Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climaterecommends "further research attention" as a mitigation tactic.[29]World Wildlife Fund,Oceans 2050, andThe Nature Conservancypublicly support expanded seaweed cultivation.[26]

Uses

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Further information:Seaweed farming § Uses

Seaweed has a variety of uses, for which it isfarmed[30]or foraged.[31]

Food

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Main article:Edible seaweed

Seaweed is consumed across the world, particularly inEast Asia,e.g.,Japan,China,Korea,TaiwanandSoutheast Asia,e.g.Brunei,Singapore,Thailand,Burma,Cambodia,Vietnam,Indonesia,thePhilippines,andMalaysia,[32]as well as inSouth Africa,Belize,Peru,Chile,theCanadian Maritimes,Scandinavia,South West England,[33]Ireland,Wales,HawaiiandCalifornia,andScotland.

Gim(김, Korea),nori(Hải đài,Japan) andzicai(Tử thái,China) are sheets of driedPorphyraused in soups,sushioronigiri(rice balls).Gametin the Philippines, from driedPyropia,is also used as a flavoring ingredient for soups, salads andomelettes.[34]Chondrus crispus('Irish moss' orcarrageenanmoss) is used in food additives, along withKappaphycusandGigartinoidseaweed.Porphyrais used inWalesto makelaverbread(sometimes withoatflour). In northernBelize,seaweed is mixed withmilk,nutmeg,cinnamonandvanillato make "dulce"(" sweet ").

Alginate,agarandcarrageenanare gelatinous seaweed products collectively known ashydrocolloidsorphycocolloids.Hydrocolloids are food additives.[35]The food industry exploits their gelling, water-retention, emulsifying and other physical properties. Agar is used in foods such as confectionery, meat and poultry products, desserts and beverages and moulded foods. Carrageenan is used in salad dressings and sauces, dietetic foods, and as a preservative in meat and fish, dairy items and baked goods.

Seaweeds are used as animal feeds. They have long been grazed by sheep, horses and cattle in Northern Europe, even though their nutritional benefits are questionable. Their protein content is low and their heavy metal content is high, especially for arsenic and iodine, which are respectively toxic and nutritious.[36][37]

They are valued for fish production.[38]Adding seaweed to livestock feed can substantially reducemethane emissionsfrom cattle,[39]but only from their feedlot emissions. As of 2021, feedlot emissions account for 11% of overall emissions from cattle.[40]

Medicine and herbs

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See also:Fucoidan
Seaweed-covered rocks in theUnited Kingdom
Seaweed on rocks onLong Island

Alginates are used in wound dressings (seealginate dressing), and dental moulds. Inmicrobiology,agaris used as a culture medium. Carrageenans, alginates and agaroses, with other macroalgal polysaccharides, havebiomedicineapplications.Delisea pulchramay interfere with bacterial colonization.[41]Sulfated saccharides from red and green algae inhibit someDNAandRNA-envelopedviruses.[42]

Seaweed extract is used in some diet pills.[43]Other seaweed pills exploit the same effect asgastric banding,expanding in the stomach to make the stomach feel more full.[44][45]

Climate change mitigation

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Further information:Carbon sequestrationandblue carbon
This section is an excerpt fromSeaweed farming § Climate change mitigation.[edit]
Seaweed cultivation in the open ocean can act as a form of carbon sequestration to mitigate climate change.[46][47]Studies have reported that nearshore seaweed forests constitute a source ofblue carbon,as seaweed detritus is carried into the middle and deep ocean thereby sequestering carbon.[29][28][48][49][50]Macrocystis pyrifera(also known as giant kelp) sequesters carbon faster than any other species. It can reach 60 m (200 ft) in length and grow as rapidly as 50 cm (20 in) a day.[51]According to one study, covering 9% of the world's oceans with kelp forests could produce "sufficientbiomethaneto replace all of today's needs in fossil fuel energy, while removing 53 billion tons of CO2per year from the atmosphere, restoring pre-industrial levels ".[52][53]

Other uses

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See also:Seaweed fertilizerandSeaweed fuel

Other seaweed may be used asfertilizer,compostfor landscaping, or to combatbeach erosionthrough burial in beach dunes.[54]

Seaweed is under consideration as a potential source ofbioethanol.[55][56]

Seaweed is lifted out of the top of an algae scrubber/cultivator, to be discarded or used as food, fertilizer, or skin care.

Alginates are used in industrial products such as paper coatings, adhesives, dyes, gels, explosives and in processes such as paper sizing, textile printing, hydro-mulching and drilling. Seaweed is an ingredient in toothpaste, cosmetics and paints. Seaweed is used for the production of bio yarn (a textile).[57]

Several of these resources can be obtained from seaweed throughbiorefining.

Seaweed collectingis the process of collecting, drying and pressing seaweed. It was a popular pastime in the Victorian era and remains a hobby today. In some emerging countries, seaweed is harvested daily to support communities.

Women in Tanzania grow "Mwani" (seaweed in Swahili). The farms are made up of little sticks in neat rows in the warm, shallow water. Once they harvest the seaweed, it is used for many purposes: food, cosmetics, fabric, etc.

Seaweed is sometimes used to build roofs on houses onLæsøinDenmark.[58]

Health risks

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Rotting seaweed is a potent source ofhydrogen sulfide,a highly toxic gas, and has been implicated in some incidents of apparent hydrogen sulfide poisoning.[59]It can cause vomiting and diarrhea.[60]

The so-called "stinging seaweed"Microcoleus lyngbyaceusis a filamentouscyanobacteriawhich contains toxins includinglyngbyatoxin-aanddebromoaplysiatoxin.Direct skin contact can causeseaweed dermatitischaracterized by painful, burning lesions that last for days.[1][61]

Threats

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Bacterial diseaseice-iceinfectsKappaphycus(red seaweed), turning its branches white. The disease caused heavy crop losses in the Philippines, Tanzania and Mozambique.[62]

Seaurchin barrenshave replaced kelp forests in multiple areas. They are "almost immune to starvation". Lifespans can exceed 50 years. When stressed by hunger, their jaws and teeth enlarge, and they form "fronts" and hunt for food collectively.[62]

See also

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References

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Further reading

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  • Iselin, Josie.An Ocean Garden: The Secret Life of Seaweed(Oregon State University Press, 2023)online book review
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