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Shapeshifting

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Inmythology,folkloreandspeculative fiction,shapeshiftingis theabilityto physically transform oneself through unnatural means. The idea of shapeshifting is found in the oldest forms oftotemismandshamanism,as well as the oldest existent literature andepic poemssuch as theEpic of Gilgameshand theIliad.The concept remains a common literary device in modernfantasy,children's literatureandpopular culture.Examples of shapeshifters arevampiresandwerewolves.

Zeus turning Lycaon into a wolf, engraving by Hendrik Goltzius
"Metamorph" redirects here. Not to be confused withThe Metamorph,Metamorphism,Metamorpha,orMetamorphosis.
"Shapeshift" redirects here. For the Swiss company, seeShapeShift.
"Shapeshifter" and "Transmogrification" redirect here. For other uses, seeShapeshifter (disambiguation)andTransmogrify.

Folklore and mythology

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1722 German woodcut of awerewolftransforming

Popular shapeshifting creatures in folklore arewerewolvesandvampires(mostly of European, Canadian, and Native American/early American origin),ichchhadhari naag(shape-shifting cobra) of India, shapeshifting fox spirits of East Asia such as thehuli jingof China, theobakeof Japan, the Navajoskin-walkers,and gods, goddesses and demons and demonesses such as theNorseLokior theGreekProteus.Shapeshifting to the form of awolfis specifically known aslycanthropy,and creatures who undergo such change are called lycanthropes. It was also common for deities to transform mortals into animals and plants.

The prefix "were-" comes from the Old English word for "man".

While the popular idea of a shapeshifter is of a human being who turns into something else, there are numerous stories about animals that can transform themselves as well.[1]

Greco-Roman

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Main article:Metamorphoses in Greek mythology
Vertumnus,in the form of an old woman, wooingPomona,byGerbrand van den Eeckhout.

Examples of shapeshifting inclassical literatureinclude many examples inOvid'sMetamorphoses,Circe's transforming ofOdysseus' men topigsinHomer'sThe Odyssey,andApuleius's Lucius becoming adonkeyinThe Golden Ass.Proteuswas known among the gods for his shapeshifting; bothMenelausandAristaeuscaptured him to obtain information, and they succeeded only by holding on through his many transformations.NereustoldHeracleswhere to find the Apples of theHesperidesfor the same reason.

TheOceanidMetis,the first wife of Zeus and the mother of the goddess Athena, was believed to be able to change her appearance into anything she wanted. In one story, her pride led Zeus to trick her into transforming into a fly. He then swallowed her because he feared that he and Metis would have a son who would be more powerful than Zeus himself. Metis, however, was already pregnant. She stayed alive inside his head and built an armor for her daughter. The banging of her metalworking made Zeus have a headache, so Hephaestus clove his head with an axe. Athena sprang from her father's head, fully grown, and in battle armor.

InGreek mythology,the transformation is often a punishment from the gods to humans who crossed them.

  • Zeustransformed KingLycaonand his children into wolves (hence lycanthropy) as a punishment for either killing Zeus' children or serving him the flesh of Lycaon's own murdered sonNyctimus,depending on the exact version of the myth.
  • AresassignedAlectryonto keep watch forHeliosthe sun god during his affair withAphrodite,but Alectryon fell asleep, leading to their discovery and humiliation that morning. Ares turned Alectryon into arooster,which always crows to signal the morning and the arrival of the sun.
  • DemetertransformedAscalabusinto a lizard for mocking her sorrow and thirst during her search for her daughterPersephone.She also turned KingLyncusinto alynxfor trying to murder her prophetTriptolemus.
  • AthenatransformedArachneinto a spider for challenging her as a weaver and/or weaving a tapestry that insulted the gods. She also turnedNyctimeneinto an owl, though in this case it was an act of mercy, as the girl wished to hide from the daylight out of shame of being raped by her father.
  • ArtemistransformedActaeoninto a stag forspyingon her bathing, and he was later devoured by his hunting dogs.
  • Galanthiswas transformed into aweaselorcatafter interfering inHera's plans to hinder the birth ofHeracles.
  • AtalantaandHippomeneswere turned into lions after making love in a temple dedicated to Zeus orCybele.
  • Iowas a priestess ofHerainArgos,a nymph who was raped by Zeus, who changed her into aheiferto escape detection.
  • Hera punished youngTiresiasby transforming him into a woman and, seven years later, back into a man.
  • KingTereus,his wifeProcne,and her sisterPhilomelawere all turned into birds (ahoopoe,aswallowand anightingalerespectively), after Tereus raped Philomela and cut out her tongue, and in revenge she and Procne served him the flesh of his murdered sonItys(who in some variants is resurrected as agoldfinch).
  • Callistowas turned into a bear by eitherArtemisorHerafor being impregnated by Zeus.
  • SelenetransformedMyiainto a fly when she became a rival for the love ofEndymion.

While the Greek gods could use transformation punitively – such asMedusa,who turned to a monster for having sexual intercourse (rapedin Ovid's version) withPoseidoninAthena's temple – even more frequently, the tales using it are of amorous adventure. Zeus repeatedly transformed himself to approach mortals as a means of gaining access:[2]

Gianlorenzo Bernini,Apollopursuing an unwillingDaphnewho transforms into a laurel tree

Vertumnustransformed himself into an old woman to gain entry toPomona's orchard; there, he persuaded her to marry him.

In other tales, the woman appealed to other gods to protect her from rape, and was transformed (Daphneinto laurel,Coroneinto a crow). Unlike Zeus and other gods' shapeshifting, these women were permanently metamorphosed.

In one tale,Demetertransformed herself into a mare to escapePoseidon,but Poseidon counter-transformed himself into a stallion to pursue her, and succeeded in the rape.Caenis,having been raped byPoseidon,demanded of him that she be changed to a man. He agreed, and she becameCaeneus,a form he never lost, except, in some versions, upon death.

Clytiewas a nymph who loved Helios, but he did not love her back. Desperate, she sat on a rock with no food or water for nine days looking at him as he crossed the skies, until she was transformed into a purple, sun-gazing flower, theheliotropium.

As a final reward from the gods for their hospitality,Baucis and Philemonwere transformed, at their deaths, into a pair of trees.

Eos,the goddess of the dawn, secured immortality for her lover theTrojanprinceTithonus,but not eternal youth, so he aged without dying as he shriveled and grew more and more helpless. In the end, Eos transformed him into acicada.

In some variants of the tale ofNarcissus,he is turned into anarcissusflower.

"Cadmus Sowing the Dragon's Teeth" byMaxfield Parrish

Sometimes metamorphoses transform objects into humans. In the myths of bothJasonandCadmus,one task set to the hero was to sowdragon's teeth;on being sown, they would metamorphose into belligerent warriors, and both heroes had to throw a rock to trick them into fighting each other to survive.DeucalionandPyrrharepopulated the world after a flood by throwing stones behind them; they were transformed into people.Cadmusis also often known to have transformed into a dragon or serpent towards the end of his life.Pygmalionfell in love withGalatea,a statue he had made.Aphroditehad pity on him and transformed the stone into a living woman.

British and Irish

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Fairies,witches,andwizardswere all noted for their shapeshifting ability. Not all fairies could shapeshift, some having only the appearance of shapeshifting, through their power, called "glamour", to create illusions, and some were limited to changing their size, as with thespriggans,and others to a few forms.[3]But others, such as theHedley Kow,could change to many forms, and both human and supernatural wizards were capable of both such changes, and inflicting them on others.[4]

Witches could turn into hares and in that form steal milk and butter.[5]

Many British fairy tales, such asJack the Giant KillerandThe Black Bull of Norroway,feature shapeshifting.

Celtic mythology

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Pwyllwas transformed byArawninto Arawn's shape, and Arawn transformed himself into Pwyll's so that they could trade places for a year and a day.

Llwyd ap Cil Coedtransformed his wife and attendants into mice to attack a crop in revenge; when his wife is captured, he turns himself into three clergymen in succession to try to pay a ransom.

Math fab MathonwyandGwydiontransform flowers into a woman namedBlodeuwedd,and when she betrays her husbandLleu Llaw Gyffes,who is transformed into an eagle, they transform her again, into an owl.

GilfaethwyrapedGoewin,Math fab Mathonwy's virgin footholder, with help from his brotherGwydion.As punishment, Math turned them into different types of animals for one year each. Gwydion was transformed into a stag, sow, and wolf, and Gilfaethwy into a hind, boar, and she-wolf. Each year, they had a child. Math turned the three young animals into boys.

Gwion,having accidentally takenthe wisdomfrom a potion thatCeridwenwas brewing forher son,fled from her through a succession of changes, which she answered with changes of her own. This ended when he turned into a grain of corn and she turned into a hen and ate him. She became pregnant, and he was reborn as a baby. He grew up to be the bard Taliesin. In theBook of Taliesin,he mentions many forms which he is able to take, including that of lantern-light.

KelpiebyHerbert James Draper:transformed into a human

Tales abound about theselkie,a seal that can remove its skin to make contact inhuman guisewith people for only a short amount of time before it must return to the sea. Clan MacColdrum ofUist's foundation myths include a union between the founder of the clan and a shape-shifting selkie.[6]Another such creature is the Scottish selkie, which needs its sealskin to regain its form. InThe Great Silkie of Sule Skerrythe (male) selkie seduces a human woman. Such stories surrounding these creatures are usually romantic tragedies.

Scottish mythologyfeatures shapeshifters, which allows the various creatures to trick, deceive, hunt, and kill humans. Water spirits such as theeach-uisge,which inhabit lochs and waterways in Scotland, were said to appear as a horse or a young man.[4]Other tales includekelpieswho emerge from lochs and rivers in the disguise of a horse or woman to ensnare and kill weary travelers.Tam Lin,a man captured by the Queen of the Fairies is changed into all manner of beasts before being rescued. He finally turned into a burning coal and was thrown into a well, whereupon he reappeared in his human form. The motif of capturing a person by holding him through all forms of transformation is a common thread infolktales.[7]

TheChildren of Lir,transformed into swans in Irish tales

Perhaps the best-knownIrish mythis that ofAoifewho turned her stepchildren, theChildren of Lir,into swans to be rid of them. Likewise, in theTochmarc Étaíne,Fuamnachjealously turnsÉtaíninto a butterfly. The most dramatic example of shapeshifting in Irish myth is that ofTuan mac Cairill,the only survivor ofPartholón's settlement of Ireland. In his centuries-long life, he became successively a stag, a wild boar, a hawk, and finally a salmon before being eaten and (as in the Wooing of Étaín) reborn as a human.

ThePúcais a Celtic faery, and also a deft shapeshifter. He can transform into many different, terrifying forms.

Sadhbh,the wife of the famous heroFionn mac Cumhaill,was changed into a deer by the druidFer Doirichwhen she spurned his amorous interests.

Norse and Teutonic

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"The giantGalligantuaand the wicked old magician transform the duke's daughter into a whitehind."byArthur Rackham

There is a significant amount of literature about shapeshifters that appear in a variety of Norse tales.[8]

In theLokasenna,OdinandLokitaunt each other with having taken the form of females and nursing offspring to which they had given birth. A 13th-centuryEddarelates Loki taking the form of amareto bear Odin's steedSleipnirwhich was the fastest horse ever to exist, and also the form of a she-wolf to bearFenrir.[9]

SvipdagrangeredOdin,who turned him into a dragon. Despite his monstrous appearance, his lover, the goddessFreyja,refused to leave his side. When the warrior Hadding found and slew Svipdagr, Freyja cursed him to be tormented by a tempest and shunned like the plague wherever he went.[citation needed]In theHyndluljóð,Freyja transformed her protégéÓttarinto a boar to conceal him. She also possessed a cloak of falcon feathers that allowed her to transform into a falcon, which Loki borrowed on occasion.

TheVolsunga sagacontains many shapeshifting characters.Siggeir's mother changed into a wolf to help torture his defeated brothers-in-law with slow and ignominious deaths. When one,Sigmund,survived, he and his nephew and sonSinfjötlikilled men wearing wolfskins; when they donned the skins themselves, they were cursed to becomewerewolves.[10]

Loge feigns fear as Alberich turns into a giant snake. Wotan stands in the background; illustration byArthur RackhamtoRichard Wagner'sDas Rheingold

The dwarfAndvariis described as being able to magically turn into apike.Alberich,his counterpart inRichard Wagner'sDer Ring des Nibelungen,using theTarnhelm,takes on many forms, including a giant serpent and a toad, in a failed attempt to impress or intimidate Loki and Odin/Wotan.

Fafnirwas originally a dwarf, a giant, or even a human, depending on the exact myth, but in all variants, he transformed into a dragon—a symbol ofgreed—while guarding his ill-gotten hoard. His brother,Ótr,enjoyed spending time as an otter, which led to his accidental slaying by Loki.

InScandinavia,there existed, for example, the famous race of she-werewolves known by the name of Maras, women who took on the appearance of huge half-human and half-wolf monsters that stalked the night in search of human or animal prey. If a woman gives birth at midnight and stretches the membrane that envelopes the child when it is brought forth, between four sticks and creeps through it, naked, she will bear children without pain; but all the boys will beshamans,and all the girls Maras.[citation needed]

TheNisseis sometimes said to be a shapeshifter. This trait also is attributed toHulder.

Louhi,Mistress of the North, attackingVäinämöinenin the form of a giant eagle with her troops on her back as she tries to stealSampo;in theFinnishepic poetryKalevalabyElias Lönnrot.(The Defense of the Sampo,Akseli Gallen-Kallela,1896)

Gunnhild, Mother of Kings(Gunnhild konungamóðir) (c. 910 – c. 980), a quasi-historical figure who appears in theIcelandic Sagas,according to which she was the wife ofEric Bloodaxe,was credited with magic powers – including the power of shapeshifting and turning at will into a bird. She is the central character of the novelMother of KingsbyPoul Anderson,[11]which considerably elaborates on her shapeshifting abilities.

In theFinnishepic poemKalevalaof ancient folklore,Louhi,Mistress of the North, attacksVäinämöinenin the form of a giant eagle with her troops on her back as she tries to stealSampo.

Indian

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  • Ichchhadhari naag:A common male cobra will become anichchhadhari naagand a common female cobra will become anichchhadhari naaginafter 100 years of tapasya (penance). After being blessed by LordShiva,they attain a human form of their own and have the ability to shapeshift into any living creature, they can live for more than a hundred years without getting old.
  • Yoginiswere associated with the power of shapeshifting into female animals.[12]
  • In the Indian fableThe Dog BridefromFolklore of the Santal Parganasby Cecil Henry Bompas, a buffalo herder falls in love with a dog that has the power to turn into a woman when she bathes.
  • InKerala,there was a legend about theOdiyanclan, who in Kerala folklore are men believed to possess shapeshifting abilities and can assume animal forms. Odiyans are said to have inhabited theMalabarregion of Kerala before the widespread use of electricity.

Armenian

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InArmenian mythology,shapeshifters include theNhang,a serpentine river monster that can transform itself into a woman or seal, and will drown humans and then drink their blood; or the beneficialShahapet,a guardian spirit that can appear either as a man or a snake.[13]

Philippines

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Philippine mythologyincludes theAswang,a vampiric monster capable of transforming into a bat, a large black dog, a black cat, a black boar, or some other form to stalk humans at night. The folklore also mentions other beings such as theKapre,theTikbalang,and theEngkanto,which change their appearances to woo beautiful maidens. Also, talismans (called "anting-anting"or"birtud"in the local dialect), can give their owners the ability to shapeshift. In one tale,Chonguita the Monkey Wife,[14]a woman is turned into a monkey, only becoming human again if she can marry a handsome man.

Tatar

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Tatarfolklore includesYuxa,a hundred-year-old snake that can transform itself into a beautiful young woman, and seeks to marry men to have children.

Chinese

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"Madame White Snake" Picture on long veranda in theSummer Palace,Beijing, China

Chinese mythologycontains many tales of animal shapeshifters, capable of taking on human form. The most common such shapeshifter is thehuli jing,a fox spirit that usually appears as a beautiful young woman; most are dangerous, but some feature as the heroines of love stories.Madame White Snakeis one such legend; a snake falls in love with a man, and the story recounts the trials she and her husband faced.

Japanese

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Kuzunohathe fox woman, casting a fox shadow

InJapanese folkloreobakeare a type ofyōkaiwith the ability to shapeshifting. The fox, orkitsuneis among the most commonly known, but other such creatures include thebakeneko,themujina,and thetanuki.

Korean

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Korean mythologyalso contains a fox with the ability to shapeshift. Unlike its Chinese and Japanese counterparts, thekumihois always malevolent. Usually its form is of a beautiful young woman; one tale recounts a man, a would-be seducer, revealed as a kumiho.[15]The kumiho has nine tails and as she desires to be a full human, she uses her beauty to seduce men and eat their hearts (or in some cases livers where the belief is that 100 livers would turn her into a real human).

Somali

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InSomali mythologyQori ismaris( "One who rubs himself with a stick" ) was a man who could transform himself into a "Hyena-man"by rubbing himself with a magic stick at nightfall and by repeating this process could return to his human state before dawn.

Southern Africa

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ǀKaggenis ademi-urgeand folk hero of theǀXampeople of southern Africa.[16]He is a trickster god who can shape shift, usually taking the form of apraying mantisbut also a bulleland,alouse,a snake, and acaterpillar.[17]

South American

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Amazon river dolphinsare curious and lack of fear of foreign objects,[18]areapex predators,[19]and the male Amazon river dolphins are very physically aggressive during their mating period, particularly around the courtship practice of object carrying.[20][21]

Amazon river dolphins,known by thenativesas theboto,encantados or toninhas, are very prevalent in the mythology of the native South Americans. They are frequently characterized in mythology with superior musical ability, seductiveness and love of sex, resulting in illegitimate children, and attraction to parties. Despite the fact that the Encante are said to come from autopiafull of wealth which is also without pain or death, they crave the pleasures and hardships of human societies.[22]

Transformation into human form is said to be rare, and usually occurs at night. The encantado will often be seen running from afesta,despite protests from the others for it to stay, and can be seen by pursuers as it hurries to the river and reverts to dolphin form. When it is under human form, it wears a hat to hide itsblowhole,which does not disappear with the shapeshift.[22]

Besides the ability to shapeshift into human form, encantados frequently wield other magical abilities, such as controlling storms,hypnotizinghumans into doing their will, transforming humans into encantados, and inflicting illness, insanity, and even death.Shamansoften intervene in these situations.[22]

Along with shapeshifting,kidnappingis also a common theme in such folklore. Encantados are said to be fond of abducting humans with whom they fall in love, children born of their illicit love affairs, or just about anyone near the river who can keep them company, and taking them back to the Encante. The fear of this is so great among people who live near the Amazon River that both children and adults are terrified of going near the water between dusk and dawn, or entering water alone. Some who supposedly have encountered encantados while out in their canoes have been said to have gone insane, but the creatures seem to have done little more than follow their boats and nudge them from time to time.[22]Themythis suggested to have arisen in part becausedolphin genitaliabear a resemblance to those of humans. Others believe the myth served (and still serves) as a way of hiding the incestuous relations which are quite common in some small, isolated communities along the river.[23] Legend also states that "if a person makes eye contact with an Amazon river dolphin, they will have lifelongnightmares".[24]

Trinidad and Tobago

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TheLigahooorloup-garouis the shapeshifter ofTrinidad and Tobago's folklore.This unique ability is believed to be handed down in some oldcreolefamilies, and is usually associated withwitch-doctorsand practitioners ofAfrican magic.[25] [26]

Mapuche (Argentina and Chile)

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The name of theNahuel Huapi Lakein Argentina derives from the toponym of its major island inMapudungun(Mapuchelanguage): "Island of the Jaguar (or Puma)", fromnahuel,"puma (or jaguar)", andhuapí,"island". There is, however, more to the word "Nahuel" – it can also signify "a man who bysorceryhas been transformed into a puma "(or jaguar).

Slavic mythology

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InSlavic mythology,one of the main godsVeleswas a shapeshifting god of animals, magic and the underworld. He was often represented as a bear, wolf, snake or owl.[27]He also became a dragon while fightingPerun,the Slavic storm god.[28]

Folktales

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Tsarevna Frog(orThe Frog Princess), byViktor Vasnetsov,tells of a frog thatmetamorphosesinto a princess.
  • In the Finnish taleThe Magic Bird,three young sorceresses attempt to murder a man who keeps reviving. His revenge is to turn them into three black mares and have them harnessed to heavy loads until he is satisfied.
  • InThe Laidly Worm of Spindleston Heugh,a Northumbrian legend from about the thirteenth century, Princess Margaret of Bamburgh is transformed into a dragon by her stepmother; her motive sprung, likeSnow White's stepmother's, from the comparison of their beauty.[29]
  • InChild ballad35, "Allison Gross",the title witch turns a man into awyrmfor refusing to be her lover. This is a motif found in many legends and folktales.[30]
  • In the German taleThe Frog's Bridegroom,recorded by folklorist and ethnographerGustav Jungbauer,the third of three sons of a farmer, Hansl, is forced to marry a frog, which eventually turns out to be a beautiful woman transformed by a spell.
  • In some variants of the fairy tales, bothThe Frog Princeor more commonlyThe Frog Princessand Beast, ofBeauty and the Beast,are transformed as a form of punishment for some transgression. Both are restored to their true forms after earning a human's love despite their appearance.
  • In the most famousLithuanianfolk taleEglė the Queen of Serpents,Eglė irreversibly transforms her children and herself into trees as a punishment for betrayal while her husband is able to reversibly morph into a serpent at will.
  • InEast of the Sun and West of the Moon,the hero is transformed into a bear by his wickedstepmother,who wishes to force him to marry her daughter.[31]
  • InThe Marmot QueenbyItalo Calvino,a Spanish queen is turned into a rodent byMorgan le Fay.
  • InThe Mare of the Necromancer,a Turin Italian tale byGuido Gozzano,the Princess of Corelandia is turned into a horse by the baron necromancer for refusing to marry him. Only the love and intelligence of Candido save the princess from the spell.
  • The White Doe,a French tale written byMadame d'Aulnoy,describes the transformation of Princess Desiree into a doe by a jealous fairy.
  • From a Croatian book of tales,Sixty Folk-Tales from Exclusively Slavonic SourcesbyA. H. Wratislaw,the fable entitled "The she-wolf" tells of a huge she-wolf with a habit of turning into a woman from time to time by taking off her skin. One day a man witnesses the transformation, steals her pelt and marries her.
  • The Merchant's Sonsis a Finnish story of two brothers, one of whom tries to win the hand of the tsar's wicked daughter. The girl does not like her suitor and endeavors to have him killed, but he turns her into a beautiful mare which he and his brother ride. In the end he turns her back into a girl and marries her.
  • InDapplegrim,if the youth found the transformed princess twice, and hid from her twice, they would marry.
  • In literary fairy taleThe Beggar Princess,to save her beloved prince, Princess Yvonne fulfills the tasks of cruel king Ironheart and is changed into an old woman.[32]
  • Journey to the West,one of China's Four Great Classical Novels, greatly features shapeshifting, as many gods, demons, and other mythical beings are capable of the act. The most famous case would be theMonkey King,a mischievous trickster who often utilizes his power of 72 transformations to thwart his foes.

Themes

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Shapeshifting may be used as aplot device,such as whenPuss in Bootsin the fairy tales tricks theogreinto becoming a mouse to be eaten. Shapeshifting may also include symbolic significance, like the Beast's transformation inBeauty and the Beastindicates Belle's ability to accept him despite his appearance.[33]

When a form is taken on involuntarily, the thematic effect can be one of confinement and restraint; the person isboundto the new form. In extreme cases, such aspetrifaction,the character is entirely disabled. On the other hand, voluntary shapeshifting can be a means of escape and liberation. Even when the form is not undertaken to resemble a literal escape, the abilities specific to the form allow the character to act in a manner that was previously impossible.

Examples of this are infairy tales.A prince who is forced into a bear's shape (as inEast of the Sun and West of the Moon) is a prisoner, but a princess who takes on a bear's shape voluntarily to flee a situation (as inThe She-Bear) escapes with her new shape.[34]In theEarthseabooks,Ursula K. Le Guindepicts an animal form as slowly transforming the wizard's mind, so that the dolphin, bear or other creature forgets it was human, making it impossible to change back. This makes an example of a voluntary shapeshifting becoming an imprisoning metamorphosis.[35] Beyond this, the uses of shapeshifting, transformation, andmetamorphosisin fiction are asproteanas the forms the characters take on. Some are rare, such asItalo Calvino's "The Canary Prince"is aRapunzelvariant in which shape-shifting is used to gain access to the tower.

Punitive changes

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Svipdag transformedbyJohn BauershowsSvipdagrbeing turned him into a dragon, after angering Odin, but despite his monstrous appearance, his lover, the goddessFreyja,refused to leave his side.

In many cases, imposed forms are punitive. This may be a just punishment, the nature of the transformation matching the crime for which it occurs; in other cases, the form is unjustly imposed by an angry and powerful person. In fairy tales, such transformations are usually temporary, but they commonly appear as theresolutionof myths (as in many of theMetamorphoses) or produceorigin myths.

Transformation chase

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In manyfairy talesandballads,as inChild Ballad#44,The Twa MagiciansorFarmer Weathersky,a magical chase occurs where the pursued endlessly takes on forms in an effort to shake off the pursuer, and the pursuer answers with shapeshifting, as, a dove is answered with a hawk and a hare with a greyhound. The pursued may finally succeed in escape or the pursuer in capturing.

The Grimm Brothers' fairy taleFoundling-Birdcontains this as the bulk of the plot.[36]In the Italian Campania Fables collection ofPentameronebyGianbattista Basile,tells of a Neapolitan princess who, to escape from her father who had imprisoned her, becomes a huge she-bear. The magic happens due to a potion given to her by an old witch. The girl, once gone, can regain her human aspect.

In other variants, the pursued may transform various objects into obstacles, as in the fairy tale "The Master Maid",where the Master Maid transforms a wooden comb into a forest, a lump of salt into a mountain, and a flask of water into a sea. In these tales, the pursued normally escapes after overcomingthreeobstacles.[36]This obstacle chase is literally found worldwide, in many variants in every region.[37]

In fairy tales of theAarne–Thompsontype 313A, The Girl Helps the Hero Flee, such a chase is an integral part of the tale. It can be either a transformation chase (as inThe Grateful Prince,King Kojata,Foundling-Bird,Jean, the Soldier, and Eulalie, the Devil's Daughter,orThe Two Kings' Children) or an obstacle chase (as inThe Battle of the Birds,The White Dove,orThe Master Maid).[38]

In a similar effect, a captive may shapeshift to break a hold on him.ProteusandNereus's shapeshifting was to prevent heroes such asMenelausandHeraclesfrom forcing information from them.[39]Tam Lin,once seized by Janet, was transformed by thefaeriesto keep Janet from taking him, but as he had advised her, she did not let go, and so freed him.[40]The motif of capturing a person by holding him through many transformations is found in folktales throughout Europe,[7]andPatricia A. McKillipreferences it in herRiddle-Master trilogy:a shape-shifting Earthmaster finally wins its freedom by startling the man holding it.

Powers

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One motif is a shape change in order to obtain abilities in the new form.Berserkerswere held to change into wolves and bears to fight more effectively. In many cultures, evil magicians could transform into animal shapes and thus skulk about.

In many fairy tales, the hero'stalking animalhelperproves to be a shapeshifted human being, able to help him in its animal form. In one variation, featured inThe Three Enchanted PrincesandThe Death of Koschei the Deathless,the hero's three sisters have been married to animals. These prove to be shapeshifted men, who aid their brother-in-law in a variant of tale types.[41]

In anearly Mayantext, the Shapeshifter, or Mestaclocan, can change his appearance and manipulate the minds of animals. In one tale, the Mestaclocan finds a dying eagle. Changing into the form of an eagle, he convinces the dying bird that it is, in fact, not dying. As the story goes they both soar into the heavens and live together for eternity.

Bildungsroman

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Beauty and the Beasthas been interpreted as a young woman's coming-of-age, in which she changes from being repulsed by sexual activity and regarding a husband therefore bestial, to a mature woman who can marry.[42]

Needed items

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Valkyriesas swan maidens, having shed their swan skins.

Some shapeshifters can change form only if they have some item, usually an article of clothing. InBisclavretbyMarie de France,a werewolf cannot regain human form without his clothing, but in wolf form does no harm to anyone. However, the most common use of this motif is in tales where a man steals the article and forces the shapeshifter, trapped in human form, to become his bride. This lasts until she discovers where he has hidden the article, and she can flee. Selkies feature in these tales. Others includeswan maidensand the Japanesetennin.

Swedish writerSelma Lagerlöf,inThe Wonderful Adventures of Nils,included a version of the story with the typical elements (fisherman sees mermaids dancing on an island and steals the sealskin of one of them, preventing her from becoming a seal again, so that he could marry her) and linked it to the founding of the city ofStockholm.[43]

Inner conflict

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The power to externally transform can symbolize an internal savagery; a central theme in many strands ofwerewolfmythology,[44]and theinversion of the "liberation" theme,as inDr Jekyll's transformationinto Mr. Hyde.

Usurpation

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Sister Alenushka Weeping about Brother IvanushkabyViktor Vasnetsov,Russian variant ofBrother and Sister:Alenushka laments her brother's transformation into a goat.

Some transformations are performed to remove the victim from his place so that the transformer can usurp it.Bisclaveret's wife steals his clothing and traps him in wolf form because she has a lover. A witch, inThe Wonderful Birch,changed a mother into a sheep to take her place, and had the mother slaughtered; when her stepdaughter married the king, the witch transformed her into a reindeer to put her daughter in the queen's place. In the KoreanTransformation of the Kumiho,akumiho,a fox with magical powers, transforms itself into an image of the bride, only being detected when her clothing is removed. InBrother and Sister,when two children flee from their cruel stepmother, she enchants the streams along the way to transform them. While the brother refrains from the first two, which threaten to turn them into tigers and wolves, he is too thirsty at the third, which turns him into a deer.The Six Swansare transformed into swans by theirstepmother,[45]as are the Children of Lir in Irish mythology.

Ill-advised wishes

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Many fairy-tale characters have expressed ill-advisedwishesto have any child at all, even one that has another form, and had such children born to them.[46]At the end of the fairy tale, normally after marriage, such children metamorphose into human form.Hans My Hedgehogwas born when his father wished for a child, even a hedgehog. Even stranger forms are possible:Giambattista Basileincluded in hisPentameronethetaleof a girl born as a sprig of myrtle, andItalo Calvino,in hisItalian Folktales,a girl born as an apple.

Sometimes, the parent who wishes for a child is told how to gain one but does not obey the directions perfectly, resulting in a transformed birth. InPrince Lindworm,the woman eats two onions but does not peel one, resulting in her first child being alindworm.InTatterhood,a woman magically produces two flowers, but disobeys the directions to eat only the beautiful one, resulting in her having a beautiful and sweet daughter, but only after a disgusting and hideous one.

Less commonly, ill-advised wishes can transform a person after birth.The Seven Ravensare transformed when their father thinks his sons are playing instead of fetching water to christen their newborn and sickly sister, and curses them.[47]InPuddocky,when three princes start to quarrel over the beautiful heroine, a witch curses her because of the noise.

Monstrous bride/bridegroom

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See also:Animal as Bridegroom

Such wished-for children may become monstrousbridesorbridegrooms.These tales have often been interpreted as symbolically representing arranged marriages; the bride's revulsion to marrying a stranger is symbolized by his bestial form.[48]

The heroine must fall in love with the transformed groom. The hero or heroine must marry, as promised, and the monstrous form is removed by the wedding.Sir Gawainthus transformed theLoathly lady;although he was told that this was halfway, she could at his choice be beautiful by day and hideous by night, or vice versa, he told her that he would choose what she preferred, which broke the spell entirely.[49]InTatterhood,Tatterhood is transformed by her asking her bridegroom why he didn't ask her why she rode a goat, why she carried a spoon, and why she was so ugly, and when he asked her, denying it and therefore transforming her goat into a horse, her spoon into a fan, and herself into a beauty.Puddockyis transformed when her prince, after she had helped him with two other tasks, tells him that his father has sent him for a bride. A similar effect is found inChild ballad34,Kemp Owyne,where the hero can transform a dragon back into a maiden by kissing her three times.[50]

Sometimes the bridegroom removes his animal skin for the wedding night, whereupon it can be burned.Hans My Hedgehog,The DonkeyandThe Pig Kingfall under this grouping. At an extreme, inPrince Lindworm,the bride who avoids being eaten by the lindworm bridegroom arrives at her wedding wearing every gown she owns, and she tells the bridegroom she will remove one of hers if he removes one of his; only when her last gown comes off has he removed his last skin, and become a white shape that she can form into a man.[1]

In some tales, the hero or heroine must obey a prohibition; the bride must spend a period not seeing the transformed groom in human shape (as inEast of the Sun and West of the Moon), or the bridegroom must not burn the animals' skins. InThe Brown Bear of Norway,The Golden Crab,The Enchanted Snakeand some variants ofThe Frog Princess,burning the skin is a catastrophe, putting the transformed bride or bridegroom in danger. In these tales, the prohibition is broken, invariably, resulting in a separation and a search by one spouse for the other.[1]

Death

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Ghosts sometimes appear in animal form. InThe Famous Flower of Serving-Men,the heroine's murdered husband appears to the king as a white dove, lamenting her fate over his own grave. InThe White and the Black BrideandThe Three Little Men in the Wood,the murdered – drowned – true bride reappears as a white duck. InThe Rose TreeandThe Juniper Tree,the murdered children become birds who avenge their own deaths. There are African folk tales of murder victims avenging themselves in the form ofcrocodilesthat can shapeshift into human form.[51]

In some fairy tales, the character can reveal himself in every new form, and so a usurper repeatedly kills the victim in every new form, as inBeauty and Pock Face,A String of Pearls Twined with Golden Flowers,andThe Boys with the Golden Stars.This eventually leads to a form in which the character (or characters) can reveal the truth to someone able to stop the villain.

Similarly, the transformation back may be acts that would be fatal. InThe Wounded Lion,the prescription for turning the lion back into a prince was to kill him, chop him to pieces, burn the pieces, and throw the ash into the water. Less drastic but no less fatal, the fox inThe Golden Bird,the foals inThe Seven Foals,and the cats inLord PeterandThe White Cattell the heroes of those stories to cut off their heads; this restores them to human shape.[52]In the Greek tale ofScylla,Scylla's fatherNisusturns into an eagle after death and drowns her daughter for betraying her father.

Modern

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Fiction

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See also

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Notes

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Citations

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  1. ^abcTerri Windling,"Married to Magic: Animal Brides and Bridegrooms in Folklore and Fantasy[usurped]"
  2. ^Richard M. Dorson, "Foreword", p xxiv, Georgias A. Megas,Folktales of Greece,University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London, 1970
  3. ^Katharine Briggs(1976). "Glamour".An Encyclopedia of Fairies, Hobgoblins, Brownies, Boogies, and Other Supernatural Creatures.p. 191.ISBN0-394-73467-X.
  4. ^abKatharine Briggs(1976). "Shape-shifting".An Encyclopedia of Fairies, Hobgoblins, Brownies, Boogies, and Other Supernatural Creatures.p. 360.ISBN0-394-73467-X.
  5. ^Eddie Lenihan and Carolyn Eve Green,Meeting The Other Crowd: The Fairy Stories of Hidden Ireland,p. 80ISBN1-58542-206-1
  6. ^Scottish Highlanders and Native Americans: indigenous education in the eighteenth-century Atlantic world Margaret Szasz 2007 University of Oklahoma Press
  7. ^abFrancis James Child,The English and Scottish Popular Ballads,v 1, pp. 336–7, Dover Publications, New York 1965
  8. ^Perabo, L. D. 2017. Shapeshifting in Old Norse-Icelandic Literature, Roda da Fortuna. Revista Eletrônica sobre Antiguidade e Medievo, 6(1): 135–158.
  9. ^ Gill, N. S."Loki – Norse Trickster Loki".about.com.Retrieved2010-06-18.;Stephan Grundy,"Shapeshifting and Berserkergang," inTranslation, Transformation, and Transubstantiation,ed. Carol Poster and Richard Utz (Evanston: IL: Northwestern University Press, 1998), pp. 104–22.
  10. ^Adkins, Christopher David (2023). "Carnivore Incarnate: Wicked Wolves and Noble Bears in Norse Tales of Shapeshifting".Preternature.13(1): 1–26.doi:10.5325/preternature.12.1.0001.ISSN2161-2196.
  11. ^Tor Books,2003
  12. ^Hatley, Shaman(2007).The Brahmayāmalatantra and Early Śaiva Cult of Yoginīs.University of Pennsylvania (PhD Thesis, UMI Number: 3292099. p. 14.
  13. ^"Armenian Mythology"by Mardiros H. Ananikiam, inBullfinch's Mythology
  14. ^Fansler, Dean s.Filipino Popular Tales.
  15. ^Heinz Insu Fenkl."A Fox Woman Tale of Korea".The Endicott Studio. Archived from the original on 2006-11-11.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  16. ^Dorothea F. Bleek(1956).Bushman Dictionary.Рипол Классик. p.296.ISBN9785882327261.
  17. ^Wilhelm Heinrich Immanuel Bleek (1875).A brief account of Bushman folklore and other texts.Cape Town: Juta.hdl:2263/12485.
  18. ^Don E. Wilson, DeeAnn M. Reeder (2005).Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference, Volume 1.JHU Press.ISBN9780801882210.
  19. ^Gómez Salazar, Catalina Trujillo, Fernando Whitehead, Hal (2011)."Ecological factors influencing group sizes of river dolphins: Inia geoffrensis and Sotalia fluviatilis".Marine Mammal Science.28(2): E124–E142.{{cite journal}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. ^Bebej, Ryan."Inia geoffrensis Amazon river dolphin (Also: boto; pink river dolphin)".Animal Diversity Web.Retrieved11 March2024.
  21. ^Martin, A.R.; Da Silva, V.M.F.; Rothery, P. (Jun 23, 2008)."Object carrying as socio-sexual display in an aquatic mammal".Biology Letters.4(3): 243–245.doi:10.1098/rsbl.2008.0067.PMC2610054.PMID18364306.{{cite journal}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ^abcdHall, Jamie (2003).Half Human, Half Animal: Tales of Werewolves and Related Creatures.Authorhouse. pp. 55–88.ISBN978-1-4107-5809-5.
  23. ^Cravalho, Mark (Winter 1999)."Shameless creatures: An ethnozoology of the Amazon river dolphin".Ethnology.38(1): 47–58.doi:10.2307/3774086.JSTOR3774086.
  24. ^Waleska Gravena, Tomas Hrbek, Vera M. F. Da Silva, Izeni P. Farias (22 October 2008)."Amazon River dolphin love fetishes: From folklore to molecular forensics".Marine Mammal Science.4(24): 969–978.Bibcode:2008MMamS..24..969G.doi:10.1111/j.1748-7692.2008.00237.x.{{cite journal}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  25. ^ "TNT Folklore".triniview.com.Retrieved2017-01-16.
  26. ^ "Caribbean History Archives".Gerard A. Besson.Retrieved2017-01-16.
  27. ^Aleksandra Kojic (2016-08-18)."Veles – The Slavic Shapeshifting God of Land, Water and Underground".Slavorum.Retrieved2017-09-08.
  28. ^Katičić, Radoslav(2008).Božanski boj: Tragovima svetih pjesama naše pretkršćanske starine(PDF).Zagreb: IBIS GRAFIKA.ISBN978-953-6927-41-8.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2015-10-18.
  29. ^Joseph Jacobs,English Fairy Tales,"The Laidly Worm of Spindleston Heugh"
  30. ^Child (1965),pp. 313–314.
  31. ^Maria Tatar, p. 193,The Annotated Classic Fairy Tales,ISBN0-393-05163-3
  32. ^Brady, Loretta Ellen.The Green Forest Fairy Book.Boston: Little, Brown and Company. 1920. pp. 132–169.
  33. ^Wilson (1976),p. 94.
  34. ^Marina Warner,From the Beast to the Blonde: On Fairy Tales And Their Tellers,p. 353ISBN0-374-15901-7
  35. ^Colbert (2001),pp. 28–29.
  36. ^abVladimir Propp,Morphology of the Folk Tale,p. 57,ISBN0-292-78376-0
  37. ^Stith Thompson, The Folktale, p. 56, University of California Press, Berkeley Los Angeles London, 1977
  38. ^Stith Thompson,The Folktale,p. 89, University of California Press, Berkeley Los Angeles London, 1977
  39. ^Colbert (2001),p. 23.
  40. ^abGrant & Clute,p. 960, "Transformation".
  41. ^Stith Thompson,The Folktale,pp. 55–56, University of California Press, Berkeley Los Angeles London, 1977
  42. ^Jones (1995),p. 84.
  43. ^Online text of Ch. VII inThe Wonderful Adventures of Nils[1]
  44. ^Steiger (1999),p. xix.
  45. ^Tatar (2004),p. 226.
  46. ^Maria Tatar,Off with Their Heads!p. 60ISBN0-691-06943-3
  47. ^Tatar (2004),p. 136.
  48. ^Maria Tatar,Off with Their Heads!pp. 140–141ISBN0-691-06943-3
  49. ^Wilson (1976),p. 89.
  50. ^Child (1965),p. 306.
  51. ^Steiger (1999),p. 67.
  52. ^Maria Tatar,The Hard Facts of the Grimms' Fairy Tales,pp. 174–5,ISBN0-691-06722-8
  53. ^Stephen Prickett,Victorian Fantasyp. 86ISBN0-253-17461-9
  54. ^Jack Zipes,When Dreams Came True: Classical Fairy Tales and Their Tradition,pp. 176–7ISBN0-415-92151-1
  55. ^Steiger (1999),p. 385.
  56. ^This scene is omitted in the story as depicted inThe Once and Future King;seeL. Sprague de Camp,Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers:The Makers of Heroic Fantasy,p. 266ISBN0-87054-076-9
  57. ^Erik J. Wielenberg, "Aslan the Terrible" pp. 226–7 Gregory Bassham ed. and Jerry L. Walls, ed.The Chronicles of Narnia and PhilosophyISBN0-8126-9588-7
  58. ^James F. Sennett, "Worthy of a Better God" p. 243 Gregory Bassham ed. and Jerry L. Walls, ed.The Chronicles of Narnia and PhilosophyISBN0-8126-9588-7
  59. ^Grant & Clute,p. 858, "Shapeshifting".
  60. ^"Doctor Who The Faceless Ones Blu-ray".
  61. ^"The Zygon Who Fell to Earth".www.drwhoguide.com.
  62. ^"Clip: Horror of Fang Rock: Part 4".BBC.24 September 1977.
  63. ^Meyer, Stephenie(2008).Breaking Dawn.Little, Brown and Company.ISBN9780316032834.
  64. ^"Elastigirl (Helen Parr) - Incredibles - Superhero Database".www.superherodb.com.Retrieved2024-10-03.
  65. ^Schmidt, Sara (2018-09-06)."The Incredibles: 25 Weirdest Things About Elastigirl's Body".ScreenRant.Retrieved2024-10-03.

Bibliography

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Further reading

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  • Hall, Jamie (2003).Half Human, Half Animal: Tales of Werewolves and Related Creatures.AuthorHouse.ISBN1-4107-5809-5.
  • Kachuba, John B. 2019.Shapeshifters: A History.Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  • Wood, Felicity. "The Shape-Shifter on the Borderlands: A Comparative Study of the Trickster Figure in African Orality and in Oral Narratives Concerning one South African Trickster, Khotso Sethuntsa."English in Africa(2010): 71–90.
  • Zaytoun, Kelli D. "" Now Let Us Shift "the Subject: Tracing the Path and Posthumanist Implications of La Naguala/The Shapeshifter in the Works ofGloria Anzaldúa."MELUS: Multi-Ethnic Literature of the United States40.4 (2015): 69–88.
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