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Sigismund I the Old

Sigismund I the Old(Polish:Zygmunt I Stary,Lithuanian:Žygimantas II Senasis;1 January 1467 – 1 April 1548) wasKingofPolandandGrand Duke of Lithuaniafrom 1506 until his death in 1548. Sigismund I was a member of theJagiellonian dynasty,the son ofCasimir IVand younger brother of KingsJohn I AlbertandAlexander I Jagiellon.He was nicknamed"the Old"in laterhistoriographyto distinguish him from his son and successor,Sigismund II Augustus.Before ascending to the Polish and Lithuanian thrones, he wasDuke of Głogówfrom 1499,Duke of Opavafrom 1501, and governor of Silesia from 1504 on behalf of his brother, KingVladislaus IIof Bohemia and Hungary.

Sigismund I the Old
Portrait byKulmbach,1511-1518
King of Poland
Grand Duke of Lithuania
Reign8 December 1506 – 1 April 1548
Coronation24 January 1507 inWawel Cathedral,Kraków
PredecessorAlexander I
SuccessorSigismund II Augustus
Born1 January 1467
Kozienice,Poland
Died1 April 1548(1548-04-01)(aged 81)
Kraków,Poland
Burial7 July 1548
Wawel Cathedral,Kraków
Spouse
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(m.1512; died 1515)​
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(m.1517)​
Issue
more...
DynastyJagiellon
FatherCasimir IV of Poland
MotherElisabeth of Austria
ReligionCatholic Church
SignatureSigismund I the Old's signature

Sigismund was born in the town ofKozienicein 1467 as the fifth son of Casimir IV and his wifeElizabeth of Austria.He was one of thirteen children and was not expected to assume the throne after his father. Sigismund's eldest brother and rightful heirVladislaus IIinstead became theKing of Bohemia,HungaryandCroatiaas the successor toGeorge of Poděbradyin Bohemia and then toMatthias Corvinusin Hungary, thus temporarily uniting these kingdoms. When Casimir died, the Polish-Lithuanian realm was divided between the remaining two older sons, with John Albert being crowned King of Poland, and Alexander as Grand Duke of Lithuania. Alexander inherited Poland following John Albert's sudden death in 1501. Hence, Sigismund's reign only began when he succeeded Alexander to both titles in 1506 at the age of 39.

A capable monarch and a patron of arts, Sigismund established Polish rule overDucal Prussiaand annexed theDuchy of MazoviawithWarsaw,while retaining the nation's wealth and prominence in the region. He made sure that his nephewAlbert, Duke of Prussia,and Albert'sProtestantsuccessors would payfeudal homageor tribute to Polish monarchs as a sign of political and diplomatic dependence. This was observed until theTreaty of Brombergin 1657 whenPrussiagained its sovereignty. Sigismund and his commanderJan Amor Tarnowskialso defeatedMoldaviaatObertynin 1531, andMuscovyin 1535, thereby strengthening the country's eastern borders. His 42-year reign was further marked by decisive contributions toPolish architecture,cuisine,language,and customs, especially at the behest of his second wife, the Italian-bornBona Sforza.Italian styles and fashions dominated at the height of thePolish RenaissanceandPolish Golden Age,which developed theCatholic identity of Poland.He was commemorated on a contemporary 200-złotybanknote.

Sigismund was married twice, first to noblewomanBarbara Zápolyafrom Hungary and then to Bona Sforza, the daughter ofGian Galeazzo Sforza,Duke of Milan.Their only son and the last Jagiellon king, Sigismund Augustus, was co-crownedvivente regein 1529 and formally assumed throne when Sigismund the Old died in 1548.

Early life and coronation

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Sigismund (far right) with EmperorMaximilian Iand brotherVladislaus IIin Vienna, 1515. Woodcut byAlbrecht Dürer

The son of KingCasimir IV JagiellonandElisabeth Habsburg of Austria,Sigismund followed his brothersJohn AlbertandAlexanderto the Polish throne.[1]Their eldest brotherVladislausbecame king ofBohemia,Hungary,andCroatia.Sigismund was christened as the namesake of his maternal great-grandfather,Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund.

When Casimir died in 1492, Sigismund was his only son without any titles or land. From 1495 to 1496, he petitioned his brother Alexander to provide him with land, and Elisabeth of Austria attempted to install him on the Austrian throne. Both efforts failed. In 1497, King John I Albert, his older brother, led aninvasion of Moldaviathat was intended to place Sigismund on its throne. This, too, was a disastrous failure. Finally, his eldest brotherVladislaus II,King of Bohemia and Hungary, granted him the duchies ofGłogów(1499) andOpava(1501), and in 1504 Sigismund became governor of Silesia andLower Lusatia.[2]

John I Albert died suddenly in 1501, and was succeeded by Alexander I, who died in 1506. After his death, Sigismund arrived inVilnius,where he was elected by the Lithuanian Ducal Council on 13 September 1506 asGrand Duke of Lithuania,contrary to theUnion of Mielnik(1501), which proposed a joint Polish-Lithuanian election of a monarch. On 8 December 1506, during the session of the Polish Senate inPiotrków,Sigismund was elected King of Poland. He arrived inKrakówon 20 January 1507 and was crowned four days later inWawel Cathedralby Primate Andrzej Boryszewski.[3][4]

Internal politics

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Crown of the Kingdom of Poland

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Sigismund grants a noble status to the professors of theJagiellonian University,1535. Painting byJan Matejko

The internal situation in Poland was characterised by broad authorisation of the Chamber of Deputies, confirmed and extended in the constitution ofNihil novi.During Alexander's reign, the law ofNihil novihad been instituted, which forbade kings of Poland from enacting laws without the consent of theSejm.Sigismund had little control over the act, unlike the senators, whom he personally appointed. Eventually, during his reign, Sigismund benefited from the advice of the local nobility, competent ministers in charge of the royal judiciary system, and the wealthy influential treasurers of Kraków. Although he was reluctant to the parliamentary system and political independence of the nobility, he recognised the authority of legal norms, supported legalism and summoned annual sessions of the Sejm, usually obtaining funds on state defence. However he was unsuccessful at attempting to create a permanent fund for defence from the annual income tax. Despite this, in 1527 he established a conscript army and the bureaucracy needed to finance it. He set up the legal codes that formalisedserfdomin Poland, placing the peasants into the private estates of nobles.[5]

Medal featuring the profile of Sigismund I, byGiovanni Maria Mosca

Likely related to tax matters was an unsuccessful attempt on the life of the king, made on 5 May 1523. The identity of the would-be assassin - who shot the ruler while he was strolling in the evening around the cloisters of theWawel castle- and his potential supporters was never established. Unclear motives remained after the assassination attempt. Three weeks before the event, Sigismund I introduced a new edict that was very unfavourable and somewhat hostile to the high-ranking nobles and their interests.

Sigismund I achieved several economic successes, including partial debt reduction, separation of accounts of public taxation from the royal treasury, strengthening of the activities of the mint operating in Kraków, and the attempt to organise the processing of income from operating salt mines.[6]Furthermore, he issued a statute for theArmenians(1519) and strongly intended to harmonise the judicial system across the country.[7]

Between 1530 and 1538 the king issued two statutes defining the rules for the selection of the monarch, which permanently established the electionviritim.The laws held that all social groups, regardless of their wealth, could watch the election process (unusquisque qui vellet), and the election was to be free (electio Regis libera).

Sigismund successfully organised the agricultural economy, looked after the development of the royal cities and recovered numerous goods of the treasury belonging to the crown that were under lien. During the financial activities, the King received full support of his wife, Queen Bona, who aimed to expand the royal estates by purchasing and improving economic efficiency. In 1514 he set up theCouncil of Four Landsand putAbraham of Bohemiain charge of it.[8]

Chicken War Rebellion

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Chicken War in 1537byHenryk Rodakowski.Seated Sigismund is accompanied by his wife Bona Sforza and royal court whilst being surrounded by an angry mob atLwów High Castle

At the start of his reign, King Sigismund I the Old inherited a Kingdom of Poland with a century-long tradition of liberties of the nobility, confirmed in numerous privileges. A rebellion inLwówwidely known as theChicken War(Polish:Wojna kokosza) was an anti-royalist and anti-absolutistrokosz(revolt) by the Polish nobility that occurred in 1537. The derisive name was coined by the magnates, who for the most part supported the King and claimed that the "war's" only effect was the near-extinction of the local chickens, eaten by the nobles gathered for the rebellion at Lwów in eastern part ofLesser Poland.[9]

To strengthen his power, Sigismund initiated a set of reforms, establishing a permanent conscription army in 1527 and extending the bureaucratic apparatus necessary to govern the state and finance the army. Supported by his Italian consort Bona Sforza, he began buying up land and issue agriculture reformas to enlarge the royal treasury. He initiated a process of restitution of royal properties, previously pawned or rented to the nobles.

The nobility gathered near the city to meet to alevée en masseand called for a military campaign againstMoldavia.However, the lesser and middle strata of the nobility organised a revolt to force the King to abandon his risky reforms. The nobles presented him with 36 demands, most notably a cessation of further land acquisitions by Queen Bona, exemption of the nobility from thetithe,confirmation and extension of privileges for nobles and adoption of a law concerningIncompatibilitas— an individual wouldn't be able to hold two or more official administrative positions in the country. The role of the Incompatibilitas was to prevent wealthymagnatesfrom usurping too much power at the expense of lesser nobles.

However, the revolt soon transpired that the nobility's leaders were divided and that achieving a settlement was almost impossible. Too weak to start a civil war against the King, the protesters finally agreed to what was thought a compromise. Sigismund rejected most of their demands, while accepting the principle of Incompatibilitas the following year and agreeing not to force the election of the future king invivente rege.Thereupon, the nobility returned to their homes having achieved little.

Foreign politics

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War with Moscow

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Further information:Muscovite Wars
Polish-Lithuanian army during theBattle of Orshain 1514, byHans Krell

Sigismund was intermittently at war withVasili IIIofMuscovybeginning in 1507, before the Polish army was fully under his command. Further tensions escalated when Vasili also discovered that Sigismund was bribing KhanMeñli I Girayto attack theGrand Duchy of Moscow.[10]In December 1512, Muscovite forces marched into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania seeking to captureSmolensk,a major trading center between Russia and Europe.[11]The initial six- and four-week sieges in 1513 were a failure,[12]but thecity fell to the Muscovites in July 1514.[10]

Sigismund's halfarmour,Polish Army Museum

Russia subsequently suffered a series of disastrous defeats in the field. In 1512,Grand Hetman of Lithuania,Konstanty Ostrogski,ransacked the region ofSeveriaand vanquished a Russian force of approximately 6,000 men. On 8 September 1514, Muscovy suffered a major defeat at theBattle of Orsha,which prevented the Russians to place all the formerKievan Rus' lands under their lordship.[13]Poland exploited the battle forpropagandapurposes with strong anti-Russian sentiment. A letter sent toRomestated that "Muscovites are not Christians; they are cruel and barbaric; they are Asians and not Europeans; they are in league with Turks and the Tatars to destroy Christendom".[14] Regardless of victory, thePolish–Lithuaniantroops were incapable of moving quickly enough to retake Smolensk.[15]In 1518, Russian forces were again beaten during thesiege of Polotsk,[16]when according to legend the Lithuanian forces were inspired by the sight of theirpatron saint,Saint Casimir,the older brother of Sigismund. However, this was dubbed by historians as a folk tale. In 1522, a truce was signed between Lithuania and Muscovy which extended until 1534.

In 1534, when Grand HetmanJerzy Radziwiłłand theTatarspillaged western Russia, the Muscovites in retaliation invaded Lithuania once more. They were eventually stopped by Polish commanderJan Amor Tarnowskiand allies atStarodubin 1535.[17]Their defeat strengthened the Polish-Lithuanian union's eastern flank until the beginning of theLivonian Warin 1558.[17]

Europe

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Further information:Franco-Polish alliance (1524),Duchy of Masovia,andNeapolitan sums
QueenBona Sforzawas instrumental in establishing alliances for Poland. She was known for being a notorious conspirator.

In 1515 Sigismund entered into an alliance with theHoly Roman EmperorMaximilian I.In return for Maximilian lending weight to the provisions of theSecond Peace of Thorn (1466),Sigismund consented to the marriage of the children ofVladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary,his brother, to the grandchildren of Maximilian. Through this double marriage contract,BohemiaandHungarypassed to the House ofHabsburgin 1526, on the death of Sigismund's nephew,Louis II,who led his forces against Suleiman the Magnificent of theOttoman Empirein the disastrousBattle of Mohács.

Worried about the growing ties between theHabsburgsand Russia, in 1524 Sigismund signed aFranco-Polish alliancewith KingFrancis I of Franceto avoid a possible war on two fronts.[18]Francis I himself was looking for allies inCentral Europeto curtail the increasing power of Habsburg EmperorCharles V,whose realms were labelled "the empire on which the sun never sets".[19]Furthermore, Queen Bona was instrumental in establishing an alliance between Poland and France, with the objective of recoveringMilan.[18]The official negotiations were conducted byAntonio Rinconin 1524, who was then followed byJerome Laski.[19]Through the agreement, the son of Francis,Henry, Duke of Orléans,was to marry one of Sigismund's daughters, and Sigismund's eldest son was to marry a daughter of Francis I.[19]

The negotiations came to an end and the alliance was disbanded when Francis' troops were defeated by Charles V at theBattle of Paviain 1525.[19]Disturbed by the failure of his campaign, Francis turned to Hungary instead and formed aFranco-Hungarian alliancewith KingJohn Zápolyain 1528.[19]

After the death ofJanusz III of Masoviain 1526, Sigismund succeeded in uniting theDuchy of MasoviaandWarsawwith the Kingdom of Poland. There was speculation whether Janusz and his younger brotherStanisławwere poisoned by a subject of Queen Bona.[20][21]The accusations were so pervasive and rampant that Sigismund ordered an investigation, as a result of which a special edict was declared on 9 February 1528 confirming that the Masovian princes died naturally or due to related illness. According to chroniclerJan Długosz,the real cause of the death of both princes could have been inheritedtuberculosis.[22]

In other matters of policy, Sigismund sought peaceful coexistence with theKhanate of Crimea,but was unable to completely endborder skirmishes.[23]

Teutonic Knights

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Prussian Homage,byJan Matejko,1882.Albrecht Hohenzollernreceives the Duchy of Prussia in fief from Poland's King Sigismund I the Old, 1525

Over two centuries of wars against theTeutonic Knightsended in 1525 with theTreaty of Krakówafter the finalPolish–Teutonic War (1519–1521).[24]Previously, theSecond Peace of Thorn (1466)placed the Teutonic Order under Polish suzerainty and interfered with German interests inLivonia,Pomerania,WarmiaandMasuria.The Order attempted to avoid paying tribute to Polish monarchs which was a demonstration of weakness and dependence.

In accordance with the new Treaty of Kraków, the Order was abruptlysecularizedand turnedde factointo a puppet state of Poland which lasted until theTreaty of Brombergin 1655. Sigismund's nephewAlbert, Duke of Prussia,converted toLutheranismunder the persuasion ofMartin Luther,and paid a feudal homage to Sigismund.[25]In return he was granted the domains of the Order as the First Duke ofPrussia.This became known in Polish and Lithuanian history as the "Prussian Homage",which was often featured in arts. ThePrussian Landtagand parliament assembled inKönigsberg,where envoys embraced both the new Duke and theProtestant Reformation.Thereupon, the Teutonic Order lost its importance as amilitary orderin Prussia and retreated to the Holy Roman Empire where it became secluded.[24]

Renaissance and legacy

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Further information:Renaissance in Poland,Sigismund's Chapel,Sigismund Bell,andWawel Castle
A posthumous portrait byLucas Cranach the Youngermade in around 1553

Sigismund had a profound interest inRenaissancehumanism and the revival of classical antiquity. His second consort Bona Sforza, daughter ofGian Galeazzo Sforzaof Milan, was also instrumental in developing thePolish Renaissanceand brought renowned Italian artists, architects and sculptors from her native country. It was under Sigismund's reign that Renaissance began to flourish in Poland and in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Sigismund II Augustus later continued his father's legacy.

Among the illustrious figures that guested or lived in Poland at the time wereBartholommeo Berecci,Francesco Fiorentino,SantiandMateo Gucci,Bernardo Morando,Giovanni Battista di QuadroandHans Dürer.Most of the decorators working for the court were foreigners, especially Italians andGermanswho had a profound impact on Poland's architecture as a whole.[26]The centrepiece of their work isWawel Castlein Kraków, the seat of Polish monarchs as well as one of the largest castles in Central Europe. Situated on ahilloverlookingOld Town,the fortified residence was extensively reconstructed in the Renaissance style and to the personal needs of the royal family. The Italiancloisteredcourtyard in the shape of aquadrangle,corridors, archways and portals were designed by Fiorentino with the help ofBenedykt from Sandomierz.A similar design was undertaken inNiepołomice Castle,the hunting retreat of the Jagiellons.[27]

Hanging of the Sigismund Bell in 1521,byJan Matejko

The most prominent example of Sigismund's architectural legacy is afunerary monument in the form of a chapelatWawel Cathedral.It was constructed between 1519 and 1533 according to plans by Bartolomeo Berrecci ofFlorence,and serves as amausoleumof the last Jagiellons.[28]The exteriordomeis gold-plated and interior tombs made of marble were designed by Santi Gucci.[28]Historians, experts and architects unanimously voted the chapel as "the most beautiful example of theTuscanRenaissancenorth of the Alps ".[29][30]The monarch also commissioned a 12.6-tonne bell which was named in his honour. TheRoyal Sigismund Bellwas installed 13 July 1521 on Wawel Cathedral's northernmost tower. Apart from religious and national holidays, the bell rung on some of the most significant moments in Polish history and is one ofPoland's national symbols.[31]

Death and succession

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Sigismund suffered from numerous illnesses and diseases, especially towards the end of his life. Most notably, he was tormented by constant fevers since youth as well asgoutand acuterheumatismin the autumn of 1528.[32][33]The condition, which severely affected his joints and right leg, was repetitive and continued in 1529 and 1534. It is likely that Sigismund Augustus was co-crownedvivente regein 1529 as a result of these pervasive pains and in case his father died unexpectedly.[34]Furthermore, bad eating habits and a poor diet contributed to the king's ailing health, in particular large amounts of beer andmead.[32]Eventually, the king's inability to walk forced him to be carried in alitter.However, despite his age, Sigismund was of sound mind throughout and remained active in politics until death.[33]In 1543, he recovered from aninfluenzawhich spread in Kraków and in 1545 he enjoyed a last hunting excursion to Niepołomice.[34]

Sigismund died on 1 April 1548, Easter day at the age of 81 and was buried on 7 July at Wawel Cathedral in Kraków. He was succeeded by his only legitimate son,Sigismund II Augustus,who became the last Jagiellon king of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania. In 1587 Sigismund the Old's grandson,Sigismund IIIfrom theHouse of Vasa,was elected King of Poland. He was the son ofCatherine Jagiellonand her husbandJohn III Vasa of Sweden.Hence, Sigismund III could not belong to the Jagiellonian dynasty by his mother, but the Jagiellon bloodline of Polish monarchs continued until the death of Sigismund Vasa's second sonJohn II Casimir.

Portraits and art

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Marriages and issue

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Medal of Sigismund I the Old.

In 1512, Sigismund marriedBarbara Zápolya(d. 1515), a Hungarian noblewoman, with whom he had two daughters:

In 1517, Sigismund marriedBona Sforza,[36]with whom he had two sons and four daughters:

By hismistress,Katarzyna Telniczanka(d. 1528),[37]he also fathered three children prior to his first marriage:

Ancestry

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See also

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Citations and references

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  1. ^"Zygmunt I Stary".dzieje.pl(in Polish). 23 April 2019.Retrieved19 January2024.
  2. ^Tafiłowski, Piotr (14 January 2012)."Bibliotheca Corviniana: Z dziejów kultury węgierskiej w późnym Średniowieczu"[Bibliotheca Corviniana: From the History of Hungarian Culture in the Late Middle Ages](PDF).UMCS(in Polish). Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 14 January 2012.Retrieved10 September2021.
  3. ^Ludwik Finkel,Elekcja Zygmunta I, Kraków 1910, s. 214.
  4. ^Duczmal, Małgorzata (1996).Jagiellonowie: leksykon biograficzny[Jagiellons: biographical lexicon]. Kraków: Wydawnictwo Literackie. p. 548.ISBN83-08-02577-3.
  5. ^Kamil Janicki (2 September 2021)."To nie szlachta upowszechniła w Polsce pańszczyznę. Ziemianie wzięli przykład z najpotężniejszej instytucji w kraju".wielkahistoria.pl(in Polish).Retrieved19 January2024.
  6. ^Michał Rzeczycki."SIGISMUND I THE OLD: A GOOD, THRIFTY KING".polishhistory.pl.Retrieved19 January2024.
  7. ^"Statut ormiański".muzhp.pl(in Polish).Retrieved19 January2024.
  8. ^"YIVO | Bohemus, Abraham Judeus".yivoencyclopedia.org.Retrieved19 January2024.
  9. ^Samsonowicz, Henryk (1976).Historia Polski do roku 1795[History of Poland to 1795] (in Polish). Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne. p. 157.
  10. ^abSoloviev (1976), p. 54
  11. ^Soloviev (1976), p. 55
  12. ^Stevens (2007), pp. 57–58
  13. ^Soloviev (1976), p. 59
  14. ^Poe, Marshall T. (2001).A People Born to Slavery: Russia in Early Modern European Ethnography, 1478-1748.Cornell University Press. p. 21.ISBN0-8014-3798-9.
  15. ^Soloviev (1976), p. 60
  16. ^Soloviev (1976), p. 78
  17. ^abChisholm, Hugh,ed. (1911)."Tarnowski, Jan".Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
  18. ^abThe Cambridge History of Poland.CUP Archive.ISBN9781001288024– via Google Books.
  19. ^abcdeSetton, Kenneth Meyer (2 January 1976).The Papacy and the Levant, 1204-1571.American Philosophical Society.ISBN9780871691613– via Google Books.
  20. ^"Fragment of a robe of the dukes of Masovia".
  21. ^"Mało czarujący koniec Piastów mazowieckich - Kwartalnik Przekrój".przekroj.pl.20 February 2018.
  22. ^"Ostatni książęta mazowieccy".www.wilanow-palac.pl.
  23. ^"Stosunki polsko-tureckie w czasach Zygmunta III Wazy | HISTORIA.org.pl - historia, kultura, muzea, matura, rekonstrukcje i recenzje historyczne".14 June 2014.
  24. ^ab"WHKMLA: History of the Teutonic Order, 1409-1525".www.zum.de.
  25. ^"Albert | duke of Prussia".Encyclopedia Britannica.13 May 2023.
  26. ^Ostrowski 1992,p. 47
  27. ^"STRONA GŁÓWNA".www.muzeum.niepolomice.pl.
  28. ^ab"Krakow info - Wawel Cathedral's Sigismund Chapel | The Renaissance masterpiece of Krakow architecture".www.krakow-info.com.
  29. ^Nimmrichter, Johann; Kautek, Wolfgang; Schreiner, Manfred (2007).LACONA 6 proceedings.p. 125.ISBN978-3-540-72129-1.
  30. ^Rouček, Joseph Slabey (1949).Slavonic encyclopaedia.Philosophical Library. p. 24.The much admired Sigismund Chapel, called 'the pearl of the Renaissance north of the Alps' by foreign scholars.
  31. ^"Królewska Katedra na Wawelu p.w. św. Stanisława BM i św. Wacława - The Royal Sigismund Bell".22 December 2010. Archived fromthe originalon 22 December 2010.
  32. ^ab"Na co chorowali Jagiellonowie? Podagra, syfilis, alkoholizm i inne choroby dynastii".17 October 2017.
  33. ^ab"Śmierć Zygmunta I Starego".www.wilanow-palac.pl.
  34. ^ab"Jak bardzo stary był… Zygmunt Stary?".CiekawostkiHistoryczne.pl.29 August 2014.
  35. ^Marcin Latka."Commissions from the territories of today's Poland in the workshop of Joos van Cleve".artinpoland.weebly.com.Retrieved18 January2016.
  36. ^Pastrnak 2018,p. 174.
  37. ^abMickūnaitė 2006,p. 209.

Cited sources

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Sigismund I the Old
Born:1 January 1467Died:1 April 1548
Regnal titles
Preceded by Grand Duke of Lithuania
1506–1548
withSigismund II Augustus(1529–1548) 		Succeeded byas sole ruler
King of Poland
1506–1548
withSigismund II Augustus(1530–1548)
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