Wikipedia

Silla

For the district in Fujian Province, China, seeXinluo, Longyan.
For other uses, seeSilla (disambiguation).

Silla(Korean pronunciation:[ɕiɭ.ɭa];Old Korean:Từ la phạtSyerapel;[8]RR:Seorabeol;IPA:Korean pronunciation:[sʌɾabʌɭ]), was a Korean kingdom that existed between 57 BCE[9]– 935 CE and located on the southern and central parts of theKorean Peninsula.Silla, along withBaekjeandGoguryeo,formed theThree Kingdoms of Korea.Silla had the lowest population of approximately 850,000 people (170,000 households), which was significantly smaller than those ofBaekje(3,800,000 people) andGoguryeo(3,500,000 people).[10]

Silla
Tân la(Hanja)
Từ la phạt(Old Korean)
Yale:Syerapel(RR:Seorabeol)
Pronunciation: [sʌɾabʌɭ]
Phonetic Hangul: [서라벌]
Tư la hỏa(Old Korean)
Sïrapïr
57 BCE – 935 CE
Silla in the 6th century, during the reign of King Jinheung.
Silla in the 6th century, during the reign of King Jinheung.
StatusKingdom
CapitalSeorabeol[a][b]
Common languagesOld Korean,
Classical Chinese,(literary)[1]
Religion
  • Buddhism(State and official religion 527 CE – 935 CE)[2]
GovernmentMonarchy
King
• 57 BCE–4 CE
Hyeokgeose(first)
• 57–80
Talhae
• 356–402
Naemul
• 540–576
Jinheung
• 654–661
Muyeol
• 661–681
Munmu
• 927–935
Gyeongsun(last)
LegislatureHwabaek
History
• Establishment
57 BCE
• Introduction ofBuddhism
530
• Campaigns ofKing Jinheung
551–585
668–676
668–935
• Handover to theGoryeo
935 CE
Population
• 200
250,000[5]
• 660
1,000,000[6]
• 676
4,500,000[7]
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Jinhan confederacy
Gojoseon
Unified Silla
Goryeo
Today part ofNorth Korea
South Korea
Silla
Hangul
신라
Hanja
Revised RomanizationSilla
McCune–ReischauerShilla

Its foundation can be traced back to the semi-mythological figure ofHyeokgeose of Silla(Old Korean: *pulkunae, "light of the world" ), of thePark clan.The country was first ruled intermittently by theMiryang Park clanfor 232 years and theWolseong Seokclan for 172 years and beginning with the reign ofMichu IsageumtheGyeongju Kim clanfor 586 years. Park, Seok and Kim have no contemporary attestations and went by the Old Korean names of cư tây cànGeoseogan(1st century BCE), thứ thứ hùngChachaung(1st century CE), nê sư kimIsageum(Old Korean: *nisokum)[11]and ma lập cànMaripkan(5th-6th century)[12]instead. It began as achiefdomin theJinhanconfederacy, part of theSamhanand after consolidating its power in the immediate area, conquered the Gaya confederacy. Eventually allying withSui Chinaand thenTang China,it eventually conquered the other two kingdoms,Baekjein 660 andGoguryeoin 668. Thereafter,Unified Sillaoccupied most of theKorean Peninsula,while the northern part re-emerged asBalhae,a successor-state ofGoguryeo.After nearly 1,000 years of rule, Silla fragmented into the briefLater Three Kingdomsof Silla,Later Baekje,andTaebong,handing over power toGoryeoin 935.[13]

Etymology

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Until the official adoption of Hanja names for its administration, Silla was recorded using the Hundok reading of Hanja to phonetically approximate its native Korean name, includingTư lư(사로;Saro),Tư la(사라;Sara),Từ na ( phạt )(서나[벌];Seona[beol]),Từ gia ( phạt )(서야[벌];Seoya[beol]),Từ la ( phạt )(서라[벌];Seora[beol]), andTừ phạt(서벌;Seobeol).[14]

In 504,Jijeung of Sillastandardized the characters intoTân la(신라), which in Modern Korean is pronouncedShilla.According to theSamguk Sagi,the name ofTân la(Shinra), consisting of the componentsShin(Tân), as inDeokupilsin(Đức nghiệp nhật tân) andRa,as inMangrasabang(Võng la tứ phương) is thought to be a later Confucian interpretation.[14]

The modernSeoulis a shortened form of Seorabeol, meaning "capital city", and was continuously used throughout theGoryeoandJoseonperiods even in official documents, despite the formal name having been Hanyang or Hanseong. The name of the Silla capital changed into its Late Middle Korean formSyeobeul(셔블), meaning "royal capital city," which changed toSyeoul(셔울) soon after, and finally resulted inSeoul(서울) in the Modern Korean language.[citation needed]

The name of either Silla or its capital Seorabeol was widely used throughout Northeast Asia as the ethnonym for the people of Silla, appearing asShiragiinJapaneseand asSolgoorSolhoin the language of the medievalJurchensand their later descendants, theManchus,respectively. Koreans are still known asСолонгос(Solongos) in Mongolian, which is according to popularfolk etymologyis believed to be derived from the Mongolian word for "rainbow"(солонгоsolongo). In a paper published in 2023 regarding the etymology of the Mongolian wordSolongos"Korea, Koreans," the following seven etymological hypotheses regarding the origin ofSolongoshave been enumerated: (1) It comes from the Mongolian wordsolongomeaning "rainbow"; (2) It comes from the Mongolian wordsolongomeaning "weasel";(3) It comes from the Mongolian/Manchurian ethnonymSolon;(4) It comes from the name of the ancient kingdom of Silla; (5) It comes fromJurchen*Solgo(r)~Solhowhich in turn stems from Old Korean 수릿골suɾiskol> 솔골solkol"Goguryeo";(later) Korea, Korean"; (6) It comes from the Mongolian wordsolgoi"left, east"; (7) It comes from the name of the medieval kingdom ofGoryeo(via *Hoɾyo> *Solo(n)-). The authors of this paper have ended up supporting the sixth hypothesis,i.e.that MongolianSolongos"Korea, Koreans" ultimately should be cognate with Mongoliansoluγai>solγoi"left, wrong side of the body, left-handed, enemy to the east (from the perspective of the Mongols)". "[15]

Silla was also referred to asGyerim(계림;Kê lâm), literally "rooster forest", a name that has itsoriginsin the forest near the Silla capital. Legend has it that the state's founder was born in the same forest, hatched from the egg of acockatrice(계룡;Kê long;gyeryong;lit.rooster-dragon).[16]

History

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Founding

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During theProto–Three Kingdomsperiod, central and southern Korea consisted of three confederacies called theSamhan.Silla began as "Saro-guk", a statelet within the 12-member confederacy known asJinhan.Saro-guk consisted of six clans later known as the Six Clans of Jinhan (진한 6부;Thần hàn lục bộ) from Gojoseon.[17][18]

According to Korean records, Silla was founded byBak Hyeokgeose of Sillain 57 BCE, around present-dayGyeongju.Hyeokgeose is said to have been hatched from an egg laid from a white horse, and when he turned 13, six clans submitted to him as king and established the kingdom of "Saro (pronounced [si.raʔ] at the time)" which later became the kingdom of Silla.

In various inscriptions on archaeological founding such as personal gravestones and monuments, it is recorded that Silla royals considered themselves havingXiongnuancestry through the Xiongnu prince Kim Il-je, also known asJin Midiin Chinese sources.[19][20]According to several historians, it is possible that this unknown tribe was originally ofKoreanicorigin in the Korean peninsula and joined the Xiongnu confederation. Later the tribe's ruling family returned to Korea from Liaodong peninsula where they thrive, and after coming back to the peninsula they got married into the royal family of Silla. There are also some Korean researchers that point out that the grave goods of Silla and of the eastern Xiongnu are alike,[21][19][20][22][23]and some researchers insist that the Silla king is descended from Xiongnu.[24][25][21][19][26][20][excessive citations]Nonetheless, this hypothesis in respect to the origins of Silla royalty are not accepted in mainstream academia, but rather stand as a minor opinion. Considering the situation of the era when the Monument ofKing Munmuwas created, it is presumed to be propaganda created for friendship with China and northerners and the legitimacy of the dynasty.

Nihon ShokiandKojikialso mentions Silla as the place where the Japanese god,Susanoofirst descended from the heavens after his banishment in a place called "Soshimori (Tằng thi mậu lê) ".[27][28]Up until theliberation of Koreain 1945,Meiji eraJapanese historians claimed that Susanoo had ruled over Silla and that the Koreans were the descendants of him,[29]thus finding justification and legitimizing theJapanese occupation of Koreathrough the use ofNissen dōsoron.[30]According to theShinsen Shōjiroku,Inahi no Mikotothe brother of the mythologicalEmperor Jimmu[31]was the ancestor to the kings of Silla. Another source found inSamguk Sagiclaims that a Japanese man named,Hogonghelped build the kingdom of Silla.

Early period

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In its early days, Silla started off as a city-state by the name of Saro (사로국;Tư lư quốc), initially founded byYemaekrefugees[32][33]fromGojoseon.[17][18]It has also accepted dispersed people fleeing from the Lelang Commandery after Goguryeo's invasion,[34]while later on incorporating native Jin people in the vicinity andYepeople to the North.

Talhae of Silla(57 CE–80 CE) was the son-in-law ofNamhae of Silla(4 CE–24 CE). According to theSamguk Sagi,Seoktalhae was the prince ofYongseongguk( long thành quốc ) orDapana( đa bà na quốc ), located 1,000-ri( lí ), northeast of Japan (?). Following the will of Namhae of Silla, he became the fourth king of Silla. One day, he found a low peak next to Mt. Toham ( thổ hàm sơn ) and packed it with his own house, and he buried charcoal next to the house of a Japonic official named Hogong ( hồ công ), who lived there, and deceived him that his ancestors were blacksmiths, but the Hogong family took their home. Hogong was tricked into handing over his house and property to the Seoktalhae. During this period,Kim Al-chi,the ancestor ofGyeongju Kim,was adopted by Talhae of Silla.[35]

The territory outside the capital was greatly conquered during the period ofPasa of Silla(80–112). As soon as he ascended the throne, he ordered officials to encourage agriculture, silkworm farming and train soldiers. There was a territorial dispute between theEumjipbeol and Siljikgok,and the two countries first asked Pasa of Silla to mediate, Pasa of Silla was handed over toKing Suro of Gimhae,who was the local leader at the time. King Suro instead resolved the territorial issue and ruled in favor of Eumjipbeol. However, King Suro sent an assassin to kill the head of the six Silla divisions, who hid in the Eumjipbeol while the assassin was escaping, and King Tachugan ( đà trâu càn ) protected the assassin. In response, Pasa of Silla invaded Eumjipbeol in 102 and Tachugan surrendered, and the Siljikgok and Apdok, which were frightened by Silla, also surrendered. Six years later, it entered the inland area and attacked and mergedDabulguk,Bijigukuk, and Chopalguk.[36]

During theNaehae of Sillaperiod (196–230), the Eight Port Kingdoms War ( phổ thượng bát quốc loạn ) broke out to determine hegemony in the southern part of the peninsula. In 209, when the "eight upper countries (of the estuary)" ( phổ thượng bát quốc ) in theNakdong Riverbasin attacked the Silla-friendlyAragaya,the prince of Aragaya asked Silla for a rescue army, and the king ordered Crown Prince Seok Uro to gather his troops and attack the eight kingdoms. Crown Prince SeokUro saved Aragaya and rescued 6,000 of the pro-Silla Gaya people who had been captured and returned to their homeland. Three years later, three among the eight countries ( phổ thượng bát quốc ), Golpo-guk, Chilpo-guk, and Gosapo-guk, will launch counterattacks against Silla. A battle took place inYeomhae,the southeastern part of the capital, and the war ended when the Silla king came out to fight against it, and the soldiers of the three kingdoms were defeated.[37] [38]

By the 2nd century, Silla existed as its own distinct political entity in the southeastern area of theKorean peninsula.It expanded its influence over the neighboring Jinhan chiefdoms, but throughout the 3rd century was probably no more than the strongest constituent in the Jinhan confederacy.

To the west,Baekjehad centralized into a kingdom by about 250 CE, overtaking theMahan confederacy.To the southwest,Byeonhanwas being replaced by theGaya confederacy.In northern Korea,Goguryeo,founded around 50 CE, destroyed the last Chinese commandery in 313 CE and had grown into the largest regional power.

Emergence of a centralized monarchy

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Naemul of Silla(356–402) of the Kim clan established a hereditary monarchy and took the royal title ofMaripgan( ma lập càn; 마립간). However, in the Samguk Sagi,Naemul of Sillastill appears as a title ofIsageum( nê sư kim; 이사금). He is considered by many historians as the starting point of theGyeongju Kimperiod, which lasted more than 550 years. However, even when the Kim monopolized the throne for more than 500 years, the veneration of the founder Bak Hyeokgeose continued.

Royal crown of Silla (second half of the fifth century)

In 377, Silla sent emissaries to China and established relations withGoguryeo.Facing pressure fromBaekjein the west and Japan in the south,[39]in the later part of the 4th century, Silla allied withGoguryeo.However, after KingGwanggaeto's unification campaign,Silla lost its status as a sovereign country becoming a vassal of Goguryeo. When Goguryeo began to expand its territory southward, moving its capital toPyongyangin 427,Nulji of Sillawas forced to ally with Baekje.

By the time ofBeopheung of Silla(514–540), Silla was a full-fledged kingdom, with Buddhism as state religion, and its ownKorean era name.Silla absorbed the Gaya confederacy during theGaya–Silla Wars,annexingGeumgwan Gayain 532 and conqueringDaegayain 562, thereby expanding its borders to theNakdong Riverbasin.

Jinheung of Silla(540–576) established a strong military force. Silla helpedBaekjedriveGoguryeoout of theHan River(Seoul) area, and then wrested control of the entire central western Korea region from Baekje in 553, breaching the 120-year Baekje-Silla alliance. Also, King Jinheung established theHwarang.

The early period ended with the death ofJindeok of Sillaand the demise of the "hallowed bone" (성골;seonggol) rank system.

Etymology of title

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The royal titleMaripgan(마립간) is analyzed into two elements in many popular explanations, with the first element alleged to be from theKoreanroot

  • mari(마리) from Middle Korean 마리〮màlí,"head" /countableof "head / per head" or "hair"
  • mang-ripormang-nip( võng lạp ), "atraditional-style hatmade of horsehair "
  • mo-rip( mao lạp ), "a kind of hat worn by servants in the old days"
  • mi-ripormi-reup,meaning "a knack, a trick, the hang of something"
  • madi(맏이) ormaji(맏히), meaning "the firstborn, the eldest (child of a family); an elder, a senior, a person whose age is greater than someone else's age"
  • mat-jip(맛집), meaning "the house in which the head of a household lives, the main house on an estate"
  • mŏrŏormaru(마루), meaning "ridge, peak, crest (of a roof, a mountain, a wave,etc.); zenith, climax, prime; the first, the standard "
  • maru(마루) ormallu,meaning "floor"

or from a word related to Middle Koreanmarhmeaning "stake, post, pile, picket, peg, pin (of a tent)".

The second element,gan(Hangul:간), is a likely cognate tohan(Hangul:한) and the word for "big, great"keun,first attested as Late Old Korean hắc căn *hùkú-n. Both carry the meaning of "great, leader", which was previously used by the princes of southern Korea, and is sometimes also speculated to have an external relationship with the Mongolic/Turkic title ofKhan.

Unified Silla

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Main article:Unified Silla
See also:North South States Period

In the 7th century, Silla allied itself with theChineseTang dynasty.In 660, underMuyeol of Silla(654–661), the Silla–Tang alliance subjugated Baekje after theBaekje–Tang War.In 668, underKing Munmu of Silla(King Muyeol's successor) and GeneralKim Yu-sin,the Silla–Tang alliance conquered Goguryeo to its north after theGoguryeo–Tang War.Silla thenfought against the Tang dynastyfor nearly a decade to expel Chinese forces on the peninsula intent on creating Tang colonies there to finally establish a unified kingdom as far north as modern Pyongyang.[40]The northern region of the defunct Goguryeo state later reemerged asBalhae.

Silla's middle period is characterized by the rising power of the monarchy at the expense of thejingolnobility. This was made possible by the new wealth and prestige garnered as a result of Silla's unification of the peninsula, as well as the monarchy's successful suppression of several armed aristocratic revolts following early upon unification, which afforded the king the opportunity of purging the most powerful families and rivals to central authority. Further, for a brief period of about a century from the late 7th to late 8th centuries the monarchy made an attempt to divest aristocratic officialdom of their landed base by instituting a system of salary payments, or office land (jikjeon,직전, chức điền ), in lieu of the former system whereby aristocratic officials were given grants of land to exploit as salary (the so–called tax villages, ornog-eup,녹읍, lộc ấp ).

By the late 8th century, however, these royal initiatives had failed to check the power of the entrenched aristocracy. The mid to late 8th century saw renewed revolts led by branches of the Kim clan which effectively limited royal authority. Most prominent of these was a revolt led byKim Daegongthat persisted for three years. One key evidence of the erosion of kingly authority was the rescinding of the office land system and the re-institution of the former tax village system as salary land for aristocratic officialdom in 757.

In Jinjin and Silla, the king was referred to as Gan, and during the Unified Silla Period, the title "Gan" was also used as Chungji Jagan and Agan.

The middle period of Silla came to an end with the assassination ofHyegong of Sillain 780, terminating the kingly line of succession ofMuyeol of Silla,the architect of Silla's unification of the peninsula. Hyegong's demise was a bloody one, the culmination of an extended civil war involving most of the kingdom's high–ranking noble families. With Hyegong's death, during the remaining years of Silla, the king was reduced to little more than a figurehead as powerful aristocratic families became increasingly independent of central control.

Thereafter the Silla kingship was fixed in the house ofWonseong of Silla(785–798), though the office itself was continually contested among various branches of the Kim lineage.

Nevertheless, the middle period of Silla witnessed the state at its zenith, the brief consolidation of royal power, and the attempt to institute a Chinese style bureaucratic system.

Decline and fall

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The final century and a half of the Silla state was one of nearly constant upheaval and civil war as the king was reduced to little more than a figurehead and powerful aristocratic families rose to actual dominance outside the capital and royal court.

The tail end of this period, called theLater Three Kingdomsperiod, briefly saw the emergence of the kingdoms ofLater BaekjeandTaebong,which were really composed of military forces capitalizing on their respective region's historical background, and Silla's submission toGoryeo.

Society and politics

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See also:Bone rank system
Bone Rank System
True Bone Sixth Head Fifth Head Fourth Head
Ibeolchan
Ichan
Japchan
Pajinchan
Dae-achan
Achan
Ilgilchan
Sachan
Geupbeolchan
Dae-Nama
Nama
Daesa
Saji
Gilsa
Dae-oh
So-oh
Jowi

From at least the 6th century, when Silla acquired a detailed system of law and governance, social status and official advancement were dictated by thebone rank system.This rigid lineage-based system also dictated clothing, house size, and the permitted range of marriage.

Since its emergence as a centralized polity Silla society had been characterized by its strict aristocratic makeup. Silla had two royal classes: "sacred bone" (seonggol,성골, thánh cốt ) and "true bone" (jingol,진골, chân cốt ). Up until the reign of King Muyeol this aristocracy had been divided into "sacred bone" and "true bone" aristocrats, with the former differentiated by their eligibility to attain the kingship. This duality had ended when Queen Jindeok, the last ruler from the "sacred bone" class, died in 654.[41]The numbers of "sacred bone" aristocrats had been decreasing for generations, as the title was only conferred to those whose parents were both "sacred bones", whereas children of a "sacred" and a "true bone" parent were considered as "true bones". There were also many ways for a "sacred bone" to be demoted to a "true bone", thus making the entire system even more likely to collapse eventually.

The king (or queen) theoretically was an absolute monarch, but royal powers were somewhat constrained by a strong aristocracy.

The "Hwabaek"(화백, hòa bạch ) served as royal council with decision-making authorities on some vital issues like succession to the throne or declarations of war. The Hwabaek was headed by a person (Sangdaedeung) chosen from the "sacred bone" rank. One of the key decisions of this royal council was the adoption ofBuddhismas state religion.[42]

Following unification Silla began to rely more upon Chinese models of bureaucracy to administer its greatly expanded territory. This was a marked change from pre-unification days when the Silla monarchy stressed Buddhism, and the Silla monarch's role as a "Buddha-king". Another salient factor in post-unification politics were the increasing tensions between the Korean monarchy and aristocracy.


Military

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The early Silla military was built around a small number of Silla royal guards designed to protect royalty and nobility and in times of war served as the primary military force if needed. Due to the frequency of conflicts betweenBaekjeandGoguryeoas well asYamatoJapan, Silla created six local garrisons one for each district. The royal guards eventually morphed into "sworn banner" orSodangunits. In 625 another group of Sodang was created. Garrison soldiers were responsible for local defense and also served as a police force.

A number of Silla's greatest generals and military leaders wereHwarang(equivalent to the Western knights or chevaliers). Originally a social group, due to the continuous military rivalry between theThree Kingdoms of Korea,they eventually transformed from a group of elite male aristocratic youth into soldiers and military leaders. Hwarang were key in the fall of Goguryeo (which resulted in the unification of theKorean PeninsulaunderUnified Silla) and theSilla–Tang Wars,which expelled Tang forces in the other two Korean kingdoms.

Silla is known to have operated crossbows called the Cheonbono (천보노) that was said to have had a range of one thousand steps and a special pike unit called the Jangchang-Dang (장창당) to counter enemy cavalry. In particular, Silla's crossbows were prized by Tang China due to its excellent functions and durability. Silla would later employ special crossbow units against its Korean counterparts such asGoguryeoandBaekje,as well as theTang dynastyduring theSilla–Tang War.[43]The pike unit, called Changchangdang that would later be known as the Bigeum Legion (비금서당) as part of the Nine Legions (구서당) and which was consisted of Silla folks, had a special purpose to counter theGöktürkscavalries operated by the Tang army during theSilla-Tang War.[44]

Earthenware Funerary Objects in the Shape of a Shilla Warrior on Horseback

In addition, Silla's central army, the Nine Legions (구서당), were consisted of Silla,Goguryeo,Baekje,andMohepeople. These nine legions aimed at defending thecapitalbecame complete in formation and compilation afterSilla unified the Three Kingdoms.Each Legions were known for their representative colors marked on their collars and were constituted by different groups. The Golden, Red, and Dark Blue Legion employed Goguryeoans while the Blue and White Legion accepted Baekje folks into their ranks. The Bigeum (also Red in color), Green, and Purple Legion were formed by Sillan people whilst the Black Legion took dispersed Mohe refugees into their fold that came along with Goguryeo refugees after theFall of Goguryeo.[45]

Silla is also known for its maritime prowess shown by the navy backed with master shipbuilding and seamanship. The boats employed were usually called 'Shillaseon(신라선)', which had an international reputation for its solid durability and effective capabilities that were said to 'enable men surf across the biggest of waves' amongst the Chinese and Japanese according to theShoku Nihon Koki.During the Silla-Tang War, the Silla navy under the command of general Shideuk defeated the Tang Navy 22 times out of 23 engagements in Gibeolpo, today'sSeocheon County.[46]Jang Bogo, a prominent maritime figure of Silla, was also famous for his navy based on theCheonghaejinGarrison.

Culture

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The astronomical observatoryCheomseongdae

A significant number of Silla tombs can still be found in Gyeongju, the capital of Silla. Silla tombs consist of a stone chamber surrounded by a soil mound. The historic area around Gyeongju was added to theUNESCOWorld Heritagelist in 2000.[47]Much of it is also protected as part ofGyeongju National Park.Additionally, two villages near Gyeongju namedHahoeandYangdong Folk Villagewere submitted for UNESCO heritages in 2008 or later by related cities and the South Korean government.[48]Since the tombs were harder to break into than those of Baekje, a larger number of objects has been preserved.[49]Notable amongst these are Silla's elaborate gold crowns and jewelry.

The massiveBronze BellofKing Seongdeok the Great of Sillais known to produce a distinctive sound.Cheomseongdaenear Gyeongju is the oldest extantastronomical observatoryin East Asia but some disagree on its exact functions. It was built during the reign of QueenSeondeok(632–647).

It was from Silla that Korea's oldest extant genre of poems, known ashyangga,developed and were recorded. Additionally, among the three kingdoms, Silla has the best preserved ancient Korean literature written inClassical Chinese,which includes thehanshipoetry ofCh'oe Ch'i-wŏn,as well as thetravelogueof Buddhist monkHyecho.

Muslim traders brought the name "Silla" to the world outside the traditional East Asian sphere through theSilk Road.Geographers of the Arab and Persian world, includingibn Khurdadhbih,al-Masudi,Dimashiki,Al-Nuwayri,andal-Maqrizi,left records about Silla.

The current descendants to the Silla dynasty fall under the Park name. Family records since the last ruler have been provided, but these records have yet to be fully verified.

Native ethnic religion/Shamanism/Animism

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The ancient indigenous native religion of Korea presented one of the most important aspects in early Korean society and involved the very lives of its people as well of its culture. One of the key features is the belief in the spirits of nature, that inhabit all the things in existence.[50]Its presence is seen in Korean culture itself and could be considered inseparable from it, from cultural and national festivals such asSeollalandChuseok,to many practices within Korean Buddhism that originate from it.

The ethnic religion of Silla was a key element within the Silla state and constituted the State religion around which many of the national rites, festivals and ceremonies revolved around.[50]The ruler of Silla was simultaneously its religious head and one of the most revered figures in the nation, having a near deity/saint like status due to their descendance from the spirits of the skies. The title of the second ruler of Silla,Nurye "Yuri" Isageum,calledChachaungwas one of the high shamans of the state for example.

The ruler also performed the national ceremonies to support the nation in upcoming times together with his sister serving as a high ranking shamaness figure only second to the ruler himself.[50]Silla's unique exceptionalist nationalism focused on the struggle for survival against the much more powerful neighbours of Goguryeo and Baekje.[50]

TheHwarang orderhad its origin in Silla's native religion as well, where the youth would strive to fight for their country and monarch. They would embark on nationalistic pilgrimages to seek out the spirits, who would grant them powers to vanquish their enemies.[51]TheHwarang segiis one of the manuscripts that give insight into their lives and practices.

Springs and Mountains are some of the sources, where the spirits of life originate from, who sometimes take on the form of animals and girls.[50]

When Silla adopted Buddhism, the previous ethnic religion was syncretized with the new faith and largely became synonymous to it. Buddhist deities are often treated the same way deities from the native religion are. Buddhism subsequently also found its way into native folk beliefs.

Shamanism remained important well into the Goryeo period, with a nativist uprising nominally led by a Buddhist court monk namedMyocheongoccurring in the 12th century.

The national festivals of Goryeo, Palgwanhoe and Yeondeunghoe, while they were Buddhist festivals were originally native shamanistic ones.[52]

During Joseon shamans were still reached out to by the common folk, who for example often went to them to decide the names of their kids.

Buddhism

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See also:Korean Buddhism,Buddhism in China,andSilk Road transmission of Buddhism

Centuries afterBuddhism emerged in India,the strand calledMahayana Buddhismspread out ofCentral Asia,modern-dayAfghanistan,and arrived in Silla the very last out ofGoguryeoandBaekjedue to its geographic isolation. In Korea, it was adopted as the state religion of 3 constituent polities of the Three Kingdoms Period, first byGoguryeoin 372 CE, by Silla in 528 CE, and byBaekjein 552 CE.[2]Buddhism was introduced much more reluctantly compared to the two others to Silla in 528.[53]Silla had been exposed to the religion for over a century during which the faith had certainly made inroads into the native populace and mixed with the native Shamanist and Animist folk religion to form the Korean specific form of Buddhism. The Buddhist monkAdointroduced Silla to Buddhism when he arrived to proselytize in the mid 5th century.[54]TheSamguk yusaandSamguk sagifollowing 3 monks among the first to bringBuddhistteaching, orDharma,toKorea:Malananta(late 4th century) – anIndianBuddhistmonk who brought Buddhism to KingBaekjeofBaekjein the southernKorean peninsulain 384,Sundo– a Chinese Buddhist monk who brought Buddhism toGoguryeoin northern Korea in 372, andAdo– a Buddhist monk who brought Buddhism to Silla in central Korea.[55][56]However, according to legend, the Silla monarchy was convinced to adopt the faith only by the martyrdom of the Silla generalIchadon,who was executed for his Buddhist faith by the Silla monarch in 527 only to have his blood flow the color of milk.

The importance ofBuddhismin Silla society of the late early period is difficult to exaggerate. From King Beopheung and for the following six reigns Silla kings adopted Buddhist names and came to portray themselves as Buddhist–kings.[57]

The Temple of the Golden Dragon, also known asHwangryongsa,would later be destroyed during theMongol Invasions.

By the time of the 7th century, Buddhism in Korea reached its golden age with the advent of prominent, elite scholar-monks such asWonhyo,Uisang,andJajangthat influenced East Asian philosophy and played pivotal roles in laying key ideas withinEast Asian BuddhismlikeEssence-Function.With the support of the government, massive temples like theTemple of the Golden Dragon,Temple of the Buddhist RealmsandhermitageslikeSeokguramwere built across the nation.[58][59]Buddhist ideals and practices permeated the people's daily lives regardless of class and the court, as well as the government, actively promoted Buddhism as a symbol of patriotism in times of invasions.[60]The main assessment is that relics and temple ruins related to Silla found today were ahead of their time and surpassed those of Goryeo and Joseon in terms of size and extravagancy. Many Sillan monks who were part of the elite caste chose to expand their experience and knowledge by studying abroad in Tang China or travelling far west to India.Hyecho,known for his travelogue "An Account of Travel to the Five Indian Kingdoms",was one of the many Korean monks that ventured to territories west to China yet to be visited by Koreans at that time.

Silla's strong Buddhist nature is also reflected by the thousands of remnant Buddhist stone figures and carvings, mostly importantly onNamsan.The international influence of theTang dynastyon these figures and carvings can be witnessed in the hallmarks of a round full form, a stern expression of the face, and drapery that clings to the body, but stylistic elements of native Korean culture can still be identified.[61]

Foreign relations

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(left to right) A Baekje, Goguryeo, and Shilla envoy depicted in a 6th-century painting.

Korea's andIran's long-running relationship started with cultural exchanges dating back to theThree Kingdoms of Koreaera, more than 1600 years ago by the way of the Silk Road. A dark blue glass was found in the Cheonmachong Tomb, one of Silla's royal tombs unearthed in Gyeongju. An exotic golden sword was found in Gyerim-ro, a street also located in Gyeongju. These are all relics that are presumed to be sent to Silla from ancient Iran orPersiathrough the Silk Road. Other items uncovered during the excavation[which?]include a silver bowl engraved with an image of the Persian goddess Anahita; a golden dagger from Persia; clay busts; and figurines portraying Middle Eastern merchants.

It was only during the Goryeo dynasty during Hyeonjeong's reign when trade with Persia was officially recorded in Korean history. But in academic circles, it is presumed that both countries had active cultural exchanges during the 7th century Silla era which means the relationship between Korea and Iran began more than 1,500 years ago. "In a history book written by the Persian scholar Khurdadbid, it states that Silla is located at the eastern end of China and reads 'In this beautiful country Silla, there is much gold, majestic cities and hardworking people. Their culture is comparable with Persia'.Samguk Sagi— the official chronicle of the Three Kingdoms era, compiled in 1145—contains further descriptions of commercial items sold by Middle Eastern merchants and widely used in Silla society. The influence ofIranianculture was profoundly felt in other ways as well, most notably in the fields of music, visual arts, and literature. The popularity of Iranian designs in Korea can be seen in the widespread use of pearl-studded roundels and symmetrical,zoomorphicpatterns.

An ancient Persian epic poem, the Kushnameh, contains detailed descriptions of Silla.[62]Former South Korean presidentPark Geun-hyesaid during a festival celebrating Iran and Korea's 1,500 years of shared cultural ties, "The Kushnameh, that tells of a Persian prince who went to Silla in the seventh century and got married with a Korean princess, thus forming a royal marriage.”[63]

Silla also traded indirectly with theRoman Empirethrough theSilk Road.Many Roman relics were excavated from the royal tombs of Silla, and it is presumed that Roman glass was a particularly popular luxury product among the high-ranking class.[64]The Silla tombs where Roman glass has been proven to have been excavated include Geumnyeong Tomb,Cheonma Tomb,Hwangnamdae Tomb, and Nambun Tomb No. 98.

Silla was also a place of interest by the Japanese as theNihon Shokiand theKojikiboth claim that the Japanese god,Susanoo(brother ofAmaterasu) first emerged from the kingdom of Silla after being banished from the heavens, but soon left the peninsula for theJapanese archipelagoafter being dissatisfied with the land. He was also used as a means of spreading propaganda throughNissen dōsoronthat Susanoo once reigned over Silla and that the modern Koreans are his descendants (in turn the Japanese), ultimately using him to justify theJapanese occupation of Korea.

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  • Gold ornament from early Silla
  • A golden inner cap, 5–6th century Silla
  • An artifact from Silla
  • Reliquary from 7th century Silla
  • The last king of Silla,King Gyeongsun(r. 927–935)
  • A crown from late 5th or early 6th Silla
  • TheBell of King Seongdeokwas cast in 771 AD.
  • Seokguram
  • This standing statue of the Bhaisajyaguru Buddha is made of gilt bronze, made in the Silla period.

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^Other name(s): Geumseong (금성;Kim thành), Saro (사로;Tư lư), Sara (사라;Tư la), Seonabeol (서나벌;Từ na phạt), Seoyabeol (서야벌;Từ gia phạt), Seobeol (서벌;Từ phạt), Wanggyeong (왕경;Vương kinh)
  2. ^With the multiple capitals system; a Supreme capital with one to four secondary capitals (514-c.900)

References

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Citations

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  3. ^Lee (1991) reviews the writings of more than 15 Arabic geographers on Silla, which most refer to asal-silaoral-shila.
  4. ^Lee (1991, p. 26) cites the 10th-century chroniclerMas'udi.
  5. ^<경북신문>,신라의 인구수를 살펴보면, 중국측 기록에 나타나는 3세기 중엽경 진한과 변한의 인구는 25만 명 정도로 추정된다.
  6. ^<삼국사기>,신라의 인구수는 '삼국사기'를 보면 668년에 고구려를 정벌하는데 20만 명의 병력을 동원한 사실이 나타난다. 이 20만 명은 군역의 의무를 지닌 정남이 차지하는 비율이 '신라촌락문서'에는 21%에 해당하고 있다. 이를 감안한다면 5배를 곱한 숫자 100만이 인구였음을 추정해 볼 수 있다.
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Sources

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