Skirmisher

Skirmishersarelight infantryorlight cavalry soldiersdeployed as avanguard,flank guard orrearguardtoscreena tactical position or a larger body of friendly troops from enemy advances. They are usually deployed in askirmish line,an irregular open formation that is much more spread out in depth and in breadth than a traditionalline formation.Their purpose is toharassthe enemy by engaging them in only light or sporadic combat to delay their movement, disrupt their attack, or weaken their morale. Such tactics are collectively calledskirmishing.

Abattlewith only light, relatively indecisive combat is often called askirmisheven if heavier troops are sometimes involved.

Skirmishers can be eitherregular armyunits that are temporarily detached to perform skirmishing or specialty units that are specifically armed and trained for such low-levelirregular warfaretactics. Light infantry, light cavalry, andirregularunits often specialize in skirmishing. Skirmishers' open formations and smaller numbers can give them superior mobility over the regular forces, allowing them to engage only on favorable terms, taking advantage of better position or terrain, and quickly withdrawing from any threat of superior enemy forces.

Though often critical in protecting the main army from sudden enemy advances, skirmishers are poor at taking or defending ground fromheavy infantryorheavy cavalry.In modern times, following the obsolescence of such heavy troops, all infantry has become indistinguishable from skirmishers, and the term has effectively lost its original military meaning as a distinct class of soldier, although skirmishing as a combat role is commonplace.

Ancient history

AnAgrianian peltastholding three javelins, one in his throwing hand and two in hispeltehand as additional ammunition

Slinger from theBalearic islands,famous for the skill of itsslingers

Inancient warfare,skirmishers typically carriedbows,javelins,slingsand sometimes lightshields.Acting aslight infantrywith their light arms and minimal armour, they could run ahead of the main battle line; release a volley of arrows, sling stones, or javelins; and retreat behind their main battle line before the clash of the opposing main forces. The aims of skirmishing were to disrupt enemy formations by causing casualties before the main battle and to tempt the opposinginfantryinto attacking prematurely, thus throwing their organization into disarray. Skirmishers could also be effectively used to surround opposing soldiers in the absence of friendlycavalry.

Once preliminary skirmishing was over, skirmishers participated in the main battle by shooting into the enemy formation, or they joined inmeléecombat with daggers or short swords. Their mobility made skirmishers also valuable forreconnaissance,especially in wooded or urban areas.

InClassical Greece,skirmishers originally had a low status. For example,Herodotus,in his account of theBattle of Plataeaof 479 BC, mentioned that theSpartan Armyfielded 35,000 lightly armedhelotsto 5,000hoplites,but there is no mention of them in his account of the fighting.^[1]Often, Greek historians ignored them altogether,^[1]butXenophondistinguished them explicitly from thestatarytroops.^[2]It was far cheaper to equip oneself as lightly armed than a fully-armed hoplite. Indeed, it was common for the lightly armed to go into battle equipped with stones.^[3]The low status of skirmishers reflected the low status of the poorer sections of society that made up skirmishers.^[4]Additionally,hit-and-run tacticswent against the Greek ideal of heroism.Platogives the skirmisher a voice to advocate "flight without shame" but only to denounce it as an inversion of decent values.^[5]

Nevertheless, skirmishers then chalked up significant victories, such as theAthenian defeat at the hands of the Aetolian javelin menin 426 BC and, during the same war, the Athenian victory at theBattle of Sphacteria.^[4]

Skirmisher infantry gained more respect in subsequent years, as their usefulness was more widely recognised and as the ancient bias against them waned.Peltasts,light javelin infantry, played a vital role in thePeloponnesian War,and well-equipped skirmisher troops such asthureophoroiandthorakiteswould be developed to provide a strong mobile force for the Greek and the Macedonian armies.

TheCeltsdid not, in general, favourranged weapons.The exceptions tended not to include the use of skirmishers. TheBritonsused the sling and javelin extensively but for siege warfare, not skirmishing.^[6]Among theGauls,likewise, the bow was employed to defend a fixed position.^[7]The Celts' lack of skirmishers cost them dearly during theGallic Invasion of Greeceof 279 BC when they found themselves helpless in the face of Aetolian skirmishing tactics.^[8]Thracians were famous for their skirmish war tactics and offered their services as mercenaries more than once in the Greek civil wars in ancient times.^[9]

In thePunic Wars,despite the Roman and Carthaginian armies' different organisations, both had the role for skirmishers as screening the main armies.^[10]The Roman legions had a specialised infantry class,Velites,which acted as skirmish troops who engaged the enemy before the Roman heavy infantry made contact, and the Carthaginians recruited their skirmishers from the native peoples across theCarthaginian Empire.

The Roman army of the late republican and early imperial periods frequently recruited foreignauxiliary troopsto act as skirmishers to supplement the citizenlegions.

Middle Ages

Medieval skirmishers were generallycommonersarmed with crossbows or longbows. In the 14th century, although long held indisdainby the aristocratic Castilian heavy cavalry, the crossbowmen contributed greatly to the Portuguese victory at theBattle of Aljubarrota.Similarly, Englisharchersplayed a key role in the English victory over French heavy cavalry at theBattle of Crécy.In the next century, they largely repeated that feat at theBattle of Agincourt.Such disasters have been seen as marking the beginning of the end of the dominance of medieval cavalry in general and of theheavy cavalryin particular.

Early modern period

Americas

TheSeven Years' WarandAmerican Revolutionary Warwere two early conflicts in which the modernriflebegan to make a significant contribution to warfare. Despite its lower rate of fire, its accuracy at long range offered advantages over the smoothboremusket,then commonly used by regular armies. In both wars, many American frontiersmen served in themilitia.TheContinental Armyduring theAmerican Revolutionary Warwas assisted by such irregular troops, such as theMinutemen,who engaged in skirmishing tactics by firing from cover, rather than in the open-field engagements that were customary at the time. Their tactics were influenced by experiences in fightingNative Americans.Militia in a skirmish role was particularly effective in theBattle of Cowpens.The character ofNatty BumppoinJames Fenimore Cooper's novelThe Last of the Mohicanswas notably calledLa Longue Carabineby the French because of his skill with thelong rifle,which was common among the Colonials.

Napoleonic Wars

AustrianJägeraround 1800, showing the relatively drab uniforms of soldiers specializing in skirmishing in Napoleonic times, as an aid in using cover

During theNapoleonic Wars,skirmishers played a key role in battles; they attempted to disrupt the main enemy force by firing into their close-packed ranks and to prevent enemy skirmishers from doing the same to friendly troops. Because skirmishers generally fought in open order, they could take cover behind trees, houses, towers and similar items, thereby presenting unrewarding targets forsmall armsandartilleryfire. Such tactics often made them vulnerable to cavalry. Some skirmishers had a minorsapperrole by placingcheval de friseto deter cavalry.

A skirmish force screening the main body of infantry became so important to any army in the field that eventually, all major European powers developed specialised skirmishing infantry. Examples included the GermanJäger,the Frenchvoltigeursand the Britishriflemen.

Muskets were the predominant infantry weapon of the late 18th century, but theBritish Armylearned firsthand of the importance of rifles during theAmerican Revolutionary Warand began experimenting with them shortly thereafter, resulting in theBaker rifle.Although slower to reload and more costly to produce than a musket, it was much more accurate and proved its worth during thePeninsular War.Throughout the conflict, British riflemen could selectively target and eliminate the officers and NCOs of French forces from outside musket range.^[11]

During theWar of 1812,American riflemen again contributed to British casualties but also had to contend with the revised British light infantry tactics.

A consequence of those wars' experiences was a trend to training line troops to adopt tactics that had been used only by skirmishers.^[12]

American Civil War

The treatiseNew American Tactics,by GeneralJohn Watts de Peyster,advocated making the skirmish line the new line of battle, which was then a revolutionary idea.^[13]During theAmerican Civil War,cavalrymenoften dismounted and formed a skirmish line to delay enemy troops who were advancing toward an objective. An example was the action of the Union cavalrymen led by Brigadier GeneralJohn Bufordon thefirst day of the Battle of Gettysburg.Skirmish lines were also used to harass enemy probing missions, hampering the other force from gaining an effective intelligence picture by engaging their scouts, and likewise forcing them to deploy.^[14]

Late modern period

Modernreconnaissance vehiclescan perform skirmishing duties, as is shown here by members of the British4 Mechanised Brigade,Brigade Reconnaissance Force mounted onJackals,on atraining exerciseinJordan,in preparation fordeployment to Afghanistanin 2009

By thelate 19th century,the concept of fighting in formation was on the wane.Heavy infantryhad disappeared, and all infantry effectively became skirmishers. The term has become obsolete, but as late asWorld War I,it continued to be associated with battlefieldreconnaissancescreens, which are essentially modern skirmish lines. As in the American Civil War, the primary role of the infantry skirmish line was to screen the advance of a parent force and to disrupt the enemy's own reconnaissance efforts.^[15]With the mechanization ofmodern warfare,the role of infantry skirmishers was more or less combined with those oflight cavalry,as mounted scouts in specializedreconnaissance vehiclestook over the responsibility of screening large formations during maneuvers, in addition to conducting their own probing actions.^[16]

Cold War and beyond

Some modern military units still use light and heavily armed units in conjunction. For example, theSoviet Armyroutinely deployed more lightly armed motorized rifle regiments as skirmishers on the flanks or secondary sectors of a motorized rifle division on the offensive, and the heaviest units, backed by the heaviest armour, would fight in the division's main effort. The modernUS militaryhas light rapid-deploymentStryker brigade combat teamsworking with heavy-mechanized and armored units, with trackedM2 Bradleyinfantry fighting vehicles andM1 Abramstanks forming the primary combat force.

Apartheid South Africa's military doctrine stressed the use of highly-mobile, light-mechanized forces that could cover ground swiftly while they kept heavier enemy armoured and infantry formations off balance and did not engage until the conditions were favourable.^[17]The lightly armed South African units used tactics such as rapid movement, flank harassment and confusing the enemy with continuous maneuvering to compensate for their inferiority in firepower when they were faced withAngolanandCubanforces during theSouth African Border War.^[17]The innovative use of South African reconnaissance units to throw Angolan tank formations into disarray before it lured them into ambushes, effectively deploying the units as skirmishers, was another consistent feature of that conflict.^[18]

References

^^a ^bGreek Warfare, Myths and Realities, Hans van Wees p61
^Xenophon, (tr. Bingham, John). The Historie of Xenophon. 1623. Publ: Theatrum Orbis Terrarum.ISBN 9789022107041
^Greek Warfare, Myths and Realities, Hans van Wees p64p
^^a ^bGreek Warfare, Myths and Realities, Hans van Wees p65
^Greek Warfare, Myths and Realities, Hans van Wees p65.Laws706c
^The Ancient Celts, Barry Cunliffe pp 94–95
^Caesar,De Bello Gallico,Book 7, XLI
^Peter Green, Alexander to Actium, p 133
^"Thracian Skirmishers - Odrysian Kingdom - Total War: Rome II".Royal Military Academy.Retrieved2021-12-20.
^Hannibal's Last Battle: Zama and the Fall of Carthage, Brian Todd Carey p. 12 (Carthage) and p. 18 (Rome)
^Urban, Mark.Rifles: Six Years with Wellington's Legendary Sharpshooters.Faber & Faber 2004,ISBN 978-0571216819
^History of the Art of War, Vol IV Hans Delbrück p449-51
^Randolph, pp.82–88
^Williamson, David (2009).The Third Battalion Mississippi Infantry and the 45th Mississippi Regiment: A Civil War History.Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Publishers. pp. 105–106.ISBN 978-0786443444.
^Clarke, Dale (2014).World War I Battlefield Artillery Tactics.Oxford: Osprey Publishing. pp. 15–16.ISBN 978-1782005902.
^Glantz, David (1990).Soviet Military Intelligence in War.Abingdon-on-Thames: Routledge Books. pp. 364–365.ISBN 978-0714633749.
^^a ^bScholtz, Leopold (2013).The SADF in the Border War, 1966–1989.Cape Town: Tafelberg. pp. 40–41.ISBN 978-0-624-05410-8.
^"Mobile firepower for contingency operations: Emerging concepts for US light armour forces"(PDF).Defense Technical Information Center. 1993-01-04.Archived(PDF)from the original on October 22, 2014.Retrieved2015-08-18.

Sources

Randolph, Lewis Hamersly,Biographical Sketches of Distinguished Officers of the Army and Navy,Henry E. Huntington Library: New York, 1905.

External links

Skirmish tactics during the Napoleonic wars: skirmishing, skirmishers

[Greek_Warfare_p61-1] Greek Warfare, Myths and Realities, Hans van Wees p61

[2] Xenophon, (tr. Bingham, John). The Historie of Xenophon. 1623. Publ: Theatrum Orbis Terrarum.ISBN 9789022107041

[3] Greek Warfare, Myths and Realities, Hans van Wees p64p

[Greek_Warfare_p65-4] Greek Warfare, Myths and Realities, Hans van Wees p65

[5] Greek Warfare, Myths and Realities, Hans van Wees p65.Laws706c

[6] The Ancient Celts, Barry Cunliffe pp 94–95

[7] Caesar,De Bello Gallico,Book 7, XLI

[8] Peter Green, Alexander to Actium, p 133

[9] "Thracian Skirmishers - Odrysian Kingdom - Total War: Rome II".Royal Military Academy.Retrieved2021-12-20.

[10] Hannibal's Last Battle: Zama and the Fall of Carthage, Brian Todd Carey p. 12 (Carthage) and p. 18 (Rome)

[Urban-11] Urban, Mark.Rifles: Six Years with Wellington's Legendary Sharpshooters.Faber & Faber 2004,ISBN 978-0571216819

[12] History of the Art of War, Vol IV Hans Delbrück p449-51

[13] Randolph, pp.82–88

[Williamson-14] Williamson, David (2009).The Third Battalion Mississippi Infantry and the 45th Mississippi Regiment: A Civil War History.Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Publishers. pp. 105–106.ISBN 978-0786443444.

[Clarke-15] Clarke, Dale (2014).World War I Battlefield Artillery Tactics.Oxford: Osprey Publishing. pp. 15–16.ISBN 978-1782005902.

[Glantz-16] Glantz, David (1990).Soviet Military Intelligence in War.Abingdon-on-Thames: Routledge Books. pp. 364–365.ISBN 978-0714633749.

[Scholtz-17] Scholtz, Leopold (2013).The SADF in the Border War, 1966–1989.Cape Town: Tafelberg. pp. 40–41.ISBN 978-0-624-05410-8.

[DTIC1-18] "Mobile firepower for contingency operations: Emerging concepts for US light armour forces"(PDF).Defense Technical Information Center. 1993-01-04.Archived(PDF)from the original on October 22, 2014.Retrieved2015-08-18.

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