Slaveryis theownershipof a person asproperty,especially in regards to their labour.[1]Slavery typically involves compulsory work, with the slave's location of work and residence dictated by the party that holds them in bondage.Enslavementis the placement of a person into slavery, and the person is called aslaveor anenslaved person(see§ Terminology).
Many historical cases of enslavement occurred as a result of breaking the law, becoming indebted, suffering a military defeat, or exploitation for cheaper labor; other forms of slavery were instituted along demographic lines such asraceorsex.Slaves may be kept in bondage for life, or for a fixed period of time after which they would begranted freedom.[2]Although slavery is usually involuntary and involves coercion, there are also cases where peoplevoluntarily enter into slaveryto pay a debt or earn money due topoverty.In the course ofhuman history,slavery was a typical feature ofcivilization,[3]and was legal in most societies, but it is nowoutlawedin most countries of the world, except as apunishment for a crime.[4][5]
Inchattel slavery,the slave is legally rendered thepersonal property(chattel) of the slave owner. In economics, the termde facto slaverydescribes the conditions ofunfree labourandforced labourthat most slaves endure.[6]
Mauritaniawas the last country in the world to officially ban slavery, in 1981,[7]with legal prosecution of slaveholders established in 2007.[8]However, in 2019, approximately 40 million people, of whom 26% were children, were still enslaved throughout the world despite slavery being illegal. In the modern world, more than 50% of slaves provideforced labour,usually in the factories andsweatshopsof theprivate sectorof a country's economy.[9]In industrialised countries,human traffickingis a modern variety of slavery; in non-industrialised countries,debt bondageis a common form of enslavement,[6]such as captivedomestic servants,people inforced marriages,andchild soldiers.[10]
Etymology
The wordslavewas borrowed intoMiddle Englishthrough theOld Frenchesclavewhich ultimately derives fromByzantine Greekσκλάβος(sklábos) orεσκλαβήνος(ésklabḗnos).
According to the widespread view, which has been known since the 18th century, the ByzantineΣκλάβινοι(Sklábinoi),Έσκλαβηνοί(Ésklabēnoí), borrowed from a Slavic tribe self-name *Slověne, turned intoσκλάβος,εσκλαβήνος(Late Latinsclāvus) in the meaning 'prisoner of war slave', 'slave' in the 8th/9th century, because they often became captured and enslaved.[11][12][13][14]However this version has been disputed since the 19th century.[15][16]
An alternative contemporary hypothesis states thatMedieval Latinsclāvusvia*scylāvusderives from Byzantineσκυλάω(skūláō,skyláō) orσκυλεύω(skūleúō,skyleúō) with the meaning "to strip the enemy (killed in a battle)" or "to make booty / extract spoils of war".[17][18][19][20]This version has been criticized as well.[21]
Terminology
There is a dispute among historians about whether terms such as "unfree labourer"or" enslaved person ", rather than" slave ", should be used when describing the victims of slavery. According to those proposing a change in terminology,slaveperpetuates the crime of slavery in language by reducing its victims to a nonhuman noun instead of "carry[ing] them forward as people, not the property that they were" (see alsoPeople-first language). Other historians preferslavebecause the term is familiar and shorter, or because it accurately reflects the inhumanity of slavery, withpersonimplying a degree of autonomy that slavery does not allow.[22]
Chattel slavery
As a social institution, chattel slavery classes slaves aschattels(personal property) owned by the enslaver; like livestock, they can be bought and sold at will.[23] Chattel slavery was historically the normal form of slavery and was practiced in places such as theRoman Empireandclassical Greece,where it was considered a keystone of society.[24][25][26] Other places where it was extensively practiced includeMedieval Egypt,[27]Subsaharan Africa,[where?][when?][28]Brazil,[when?]the United States[when?]and parts of the Caribbean such as Cuba and Haiti.[when?][29][30] The Iroquois enslaved others in ways that “looked very like chattel slavery."[31]
Beginning in the 18th century, a series ofabolitionistmovements saw slavery as a violation of the slaves' rights as people ( "all men are created equal"), and sought to abolish it. Abolitionism encountered extreme resistance but was eventually successful. Several of the states of the United States began abolishing slavery during the American Revolutionary War. The French Revolution tried to abolish slavery in 1794, but a permanent abolition did not occur until 1848. In much of the British Empire, slavery was subject to abolition in 1833, throughout the United States it was abolished in 1865 and in Cuba in 1886. The last country in the Americas to abolish slavery was Brazil,in 1888.[32]
Chattel slavery survived longest inthe Middle East.After theTrans-Atlantic slave tradehad been suppressed, the ancientTrans-Saharan slave trade,theIndian Ocean slave tradeand theRed Sea slave tradecontinued to traffic slaves from the African continent to the Middle East. During the 20th century, the issue of chattel slavery was addressed and investigated globally by international bodies created by theLeague of Nationsand the United Nations, such as theTemporary Slavery Commissionin 1924–1926, theCommittee of Experts on Slaveryin 1932, and theAdvisory Committee of Experts on Slaveryin 1934–1939.[33] By the time of the UNAd Hoc Committee on Slaveryin 1950–1951, legal chattel slavery still existed only in the Arabian Peninsula:in Oman,in Qatar,in Saudi Arabia,in the Trucial Statesandin Yemen.[33]Legal chattel slavery was finally abolished in the Arabian Peninsula in the 1960s: Saudi Arabia and Yemen in 1962, in Dubai in 1963, and Oman as the last in 1970.[33]
The last country to abolish slavery,Mauritania,did so in 1981.The 1981 ban on slavery was not enforced in practice, as there were no legal mechanisms to prosecute those who used slaves, these only came in 2007.[7][34]
Bonded labour
Indenture, also known as bonded labour or debt bondage, is a form of unfree labour in which a person works to pay off a debt by pledging himself or herself as collateral. The services required to repay the debt, and their duration, may be undefined. Debt bondage can be passed on from generation to generation, with children required to pay off their progenitors' debt.[35]It is the most widespread form of slavery today.[36]Debt bondage is most prevalent in South Asia.[35]Money marriagerefers to a marriage where a girl, usually, is married off to a man to settle debts owed by her parents.[37]TheChukri systemis adebt bondagesystem found in parts ofBengalwhere a female can be coerced intoprostitutionin order to pay off debts.[38]
Dependents
The wordslaveryhas also been used to refer to a legal state of dependency to somebody else.[39][40]For example, inPersia,the situations and lives of such slaves could be better than those of common citizens.[41]
Forced labour
Forced labour, or unfree labour, is sometimes used to describe an individual who is forced to work against their own will, under threat of violence or other punishment. This may also include institutions not commonly classified as slavery, such asserfdom,conscriptionandpenal labour.As slavery has been legally outlawed in all countries, forced labour in the present day (frequently referred to as "modern slavery") revolves around illegal control.
Human trafficking primarily involves women and children forced intoprostitutionand is the fastest growing form of forced labour, with Thailand, Cambodia, India, Brazil and Mexico having been identified as leading hotspots ofcommercial sexual exploitation of children.[42][43]
Child soldiers and child labour
In 2007,Human Rights Watchestimated that 200,000 to 300,000 children served as soldiers in then-current conflicts.[44]More girls under 16 work asdomestic workersthan any other category of child labour, often sent to cities by parents living in rural poverty as with the Haitianrestaveks.[45]
Forced marriage
Forced marriagesor early marriages are often considered types of slavery. Forced marriage continues to be practiced in parts of the world including some parts of Asia and Africa and in immigrant communities in the West.[46][47][48][49]Marriage by abductionoccurs in many places in the world today, with a 2003 study finding a national average of 69% of marriages in Ethiopia being through abduction.[50]
Other uses of the term
The wordslaveryis often used as a pejorative to describe any activity in which one is coerced into performing. Some argue thatmilitary draftsand other forms of coerced government labour constitute "state-operated slavery."[51][52]Somelibertariansandanarcho-capitalistsview government taxation as a form of slavery.[53]
"Slavery" has been used by someanti-psychiatryproponents to define involuntary psychiatric patients, claiming there are no unbiased physical tests for mental illness and yet the psychiatric patient must follow the orders of the psychiatrist. They assert that instead of chains to control the slave, the psychiatrist uses drugs to control the mind.[54]Drapetomaniawas a pseudoscientific psychiatric diagnosis for a slave who desired freedom; "symptoms" included laziness and the tendency to flee captivity.[55][56]
Some proponents ofanimal rightshave applied the termslaveryto the condition of some or all human-owned animals, arguing that their status is comparable to that of human slaves.[57]
The labour market, as institutionalized under contemporary capitalist systems, has been criticized by mainstreamsocialistsand byanarcho-syndicalists,who utilise the termwage slaveryas apejorativeordysphemismforwage labour.[58][59][60]Socialists draw parallels between the trade of labour as a commodity and slavery.Cicerois also known to have suggested such parallels.[61]
Characteristics
Economics
Economists have modeled the circumstances under which slavery (and variants such asserfdom) appear and disappear. One theoretical model is that slavery becomes more desirable forlandownerswhere land is abundant, but labour is scarce, such that rent is depressed and paid workers can demand high wages. If the opposite holds true, then it is more costly for landowners to guard the slaves than to employ paid workers who can demand only low wages because of the degree of competition.[62]Thus, first slavery and then serfdom gradually decreased in Europe as the population grew. They were reintroduced in the Americas and in Russia as large areas of land with few inhabitants became available.[63]
Slavery is more common when the tasks are relatively simple and thus easy to supervise, such as large-scalemonocropssuch assugarcaneandcotton,in which output depended oneconomies of scale.This enables systems of labour, such as thegang systemin the United States, to become prominent on large plantations where field hands toiled with factory-like precision. Then, each work gang was based on an internal division of labour that assigned every member of the gang to a task and made each worker's performance dependent on the actions of the others. The slaves chopped out the weeds that surrounded the cotton plants as well as excess sprouts. Plow gangs followed behind, stirring the soil near the plants and tossing it back around the plants. Thus, the gang system worked like anassembly line.[64]
Since the 18th century, critics have argued that slavery hinders technological advancement because the focus is on increasing the number of slaves doing simple tasks rather than upgrading their efficiency. For example, it is sometimes argued that, because of this narrow focus, technology in Greece – and later in Rome – was not applied to ease physical labour or improve manufacturing.[65][66]
Scottish economistAdam Smithstated that free labour was economically better than slave labour, and that it was nearly impossible to end slavery in a free, democratic, or republican form of government since many of its legislators or political figures were slave owners and would not punish themselves. He further stated that slaves would be better able to gain their freedom under centralized government, or a central authority like a king or church.[67][68]Similar arguments appeared later in the works ofAuguste Comte,especially given Smith's belief in theseparation of powers,or what Comte called the "separation of the spiritual and the temporal" during theMiddle Agesand the end of slavery, and Smith's criticism of masters, past and present. As Smith stated in theLectures on Jurisprudence,"The great power of the clergy thus concurring with that of the king set the slaves at liberty. But it was absolutely necessary both that the authority of the king and of the clergy should be great. Where ever any one of these was wanting, slavery still continues..."[69]
Even after slavery became a criminal offense, slave owners could get high returns. According to researcherSiddharth Kara,the profits generated worldwide by all forms of slavery in 2007 were $91.2 billion. That was second only to drug trafficking, in terms of global criminal enterprises. At the time the weighted average global sales price of a slave was estimated to be approximately $340, with a high of $1,895 for the average trafficked sex slave, and a low of $40 to $50 for debt bondage slaves in part of Asia and Africa. The weighted average annual profits generated by a slave in 2007 was $3,175, with a low of an average $950 for bonded labour and $29,210 for a trafficked sex slave. Approximately 40% of slave profits each year were generated by trafficked sex slaves, representing slightly more than 4% of the world's 29 million slaves.[70]
Identification
A widespread practice wasbranding,either to explicitly mark slaves as property or as punishment.
Legal aspects
Private versus state-owned slaves
Slaves have been owned privately by individuals but have also been under state ownership. For example, thekisaengwere women from low castes in pre modern Korea, who were owned by the state under government officials known ashojangand were required to provide entertainment to the aristocracy. In the 2020s, inNorth Korea,Kippumjo( "Pleasure Brigades" ) are made up of women selected from the general population to serve as entertainers and as concubines to the rulers of North Korea.[71][72]"Tribute labor" is compulsory labor for the state and has been used in various iterations such ascorvée,mit'aandrepartimiento.Theinternment campsoftotalitarianregimes such as the Nazis and the Soviet Union placed increasing importance on the labor provided in those camps, leading to a growing tendency among historians to designate such systems as slavery.[73]
A combination of these include theencomiendawhere the Spanish Crown granted private individuals the right to the free labour of a specified number of natives in a given area.[74]In the "Red Rubber System" of both theCongo Free Stateand French ruledUbangi-Shari,[75]labour was demanded as taxation; private companies were conceded areas within which they were allowed to use any measures to increase rubber production.[76]Convict leasingwas common in the Southern United States where the state would lease prisoners for their free labour to companies.
Legal rights
Depending upon the era and the country, slaves sometimes had a limited set of legal rights. For example, in theProvince of New York,people who deliberately killed slaves were punishable under a 1686 statute.[77]And, as already mentioned, certain legal rights attached to the nobi in Korea, to slaves in various African societies, and to black female slaves in theFrench colony of Louisiana.Giving slaves legal rights has sometimes been a matter of morality, but also sometimes a matter of self-interest. For example, inancient Athens,protecting slaves from mistreatment simultaneously protected people who might be mistaken for slaves, and giving slaves limited property rights incentivized slaves to work harder to get more property.[78]In the southern United States prior tothe extirpation of slavery in 1865,a proslavery legal treatise reported that slaves accused of crimes typically had a legal right to counsel, freedom fromdouble jeopardy,a right to trial by jury in graver cases, and the right to grand jury indictment, but they lacked many other rights such as white adults' ability to control their own lives.[79]
History
Slavery predates written records and has existed in many cultures.[3]Slavery is rare amonghunter-gathererpopulations because it requires economic surpluses and a substantial population density. Thus, although it has existed among unusually resource-rich hunter gatherers, such as theAmerican Indianpeoples of thesalmon-rich rivers of thePacific Northwestcoast, slavery became widespread only with the invention ofagricultureduring theNeolithic Revolutionabout 11,000 years ago.[80]Slavery was practiced in almost every ancient civilization.[3]Such institutions included debt bondage, punishment for crime, the enslavement ofprisoners of war,child abandonment,and the enslavement of slaves' offspring.[81]
Africa
Slavery was widespread in Africa, which pursued both internal and external slave trade.[82]In theSenegambiaregion, between 1300 and 1900, close to one-third of the population was enslaved. In early Islamic states of the westernSahel,includingGhana,Mali,Segou,andSonghai,about a third of the population were enslaved.[83]
In European courtly society, and European aristocracy, black African slaves and their children became visible in the late 1300s and 1400s. Starting withFrederick II, Holy Roman Emperor,black Africans were included in theretinue.In 1402 anEthiopianembassy reachedVenice.In the 1470s black Africans were painted as court attendants in wall paintings that were displayed inMantuaandFerrara.In the 1490s black Africans were included on the emblem of theDuke of Milan.[84]
During thetrans-Saharan slave trade,slaves fromWest Africawere transported across theSahara deserttoNorth Africato be sold toMediterraneanandMiddle easterncivilizations. During theRed Sea slave trade,slaves were transported from Africa across the Red Sea to the Arabian Peninsula. TheIndian Ocean slave trade,sometimes known as the east African slave trade, was multi-directional. Africans were sent as slaves to theArabian Peninsula,toIndian Oceanislands (includingMadagascar), to theIndian subcontinent,and later to the Americas. These traders capturedBantu peoples(Zanj) from the interior in present-dayKenya,MozambiqueandTanzaniaand brought them to the coast.[86][87]There, the slaves gradually assimilated in rural areas, particularly onUngujaandPembaislands.[88]
Some historians assert that as many as 17 million people were sold into slavery on the coast of the Indian Ocean, the Middle East, and North Africa, and approximately 5 million African slaves were bought by Muslim slave traders and taken from Africa across the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and Sahara Desert between 1500 and 1900.[89]The captives were sold throughout the Middle East. This trade accelerated as superior ships led to more trade and greater demand for labour onplantationsin the region. Eventually, tens of thousands of captives were being taken every year.[88][90][91]The Indian Ocean slave trade was multi-directional and changed over time. To meet the demand for menial labour, Bantu slaves bought by east African slave traders from southeastern Africa were sold in cumulatively large numbers over the centuries to customers in Egypt, Arabia, the Persian Gulf, India, European colonies in the Far East, theIndian Ocean islands,Ethiopia and Somalia.[92]
According to theEncyclopedia of African History,"It is estimated that by the 1890s the largest slave population of the world, about 2 million people, was concentrated in the territories of theSokoto Caliphate.The use of slave labour was extensive, especially in agriculture. "[93][94]The Anti-Slavery Society estimated there were 2 million slaves in Ethiopia in the early 1930s out of an estimated population of 8 to 16 million.[95]
Slave labour in East Africa was drawn from theZanj,Bantu peoples that lived along the East African coast.[87][96]The Zanj were for centuries shipped as slaves by Arab traders to all the countries bordering the Indian Ocean during theIndian Ocean slave trade.The Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs recruited many Zanj slaves as soldiers and, as early as 696, there were slave revolts of the Zanj against their Arab enslavers during theirslavery in the Umayyad Caliphatein Iraq. TheZanj Rebellion,a series of uprisings that took place between 869 and 883 nearBasra(also known as Basara), against theslavery in the Abbasid Caliphatesituated in present-day Iraq, is believed to have involved enslaved Zanj that had originally been captured from theAfrican Great Lakesregion and areas further south inEast Africa.[97]It grew to involve over 500,000 slaves and free men who were imported from across theMuslim empireand claimed over "tens of thousands of lives in lower Iraq".[98]
The Zanj who were taken as slaves to the Middle East were often used in strenuous agricultural work.[99]As theplantation economyboomed and the Arabs became richer, agriculture and other manual labour work was thought to be demeaning. The resulting labour shortage led to an increased slave market.
InAlgiers,the capital of Algeria, captured Christians and Europeans were forced into slavery. In about 1650, there were as many as 35,000 Christian slaves in Algiers.[100]By one estimate, raids byBarbary slave traderson coastal villages and ships extending from Italy to Iceland, enslaved an estimated 1 to 1.25 million Europeans between the 16th and 19th centuries.[101][102][103]However, this estimate is the result of an extrapolation which assumes that the number of European slaves captured by Barbary pirates was constant for a 250-year period:
There are no records of how many men, women and children were enslaved, but it is possible to calculate roughly the number of fresh captives that would have been needed to keep populations steady and replace those slaves who died, escaped, were ransomed, or converted to Islam. On this basis it is thought that around 8,500 new slaves were needed annually to replenish numbers – about 850,000 captives over the century from 1580 to 1680. By extension, for the 250 years between 1530 and 1780, the figure could easily have been as high as 1,250,000.[104]
Davis' numbers have been refuted by other historians, such as David Earle, who cautions that true picture of Europeans slaves is clouded by the fact the corsairs also seized non-Christian whites from eastern Europe.[104]In addition, the number of slaves traded was hyperactive,[clarification needed]with exaggerated estimates relying on peak years to calculate averages for entire centuries, or millennia. Hence, there were wide fluctuations year-to-year, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, given slave imports, and also given the fact that, prior to the 1840s, there are no consistent records. Middle East expert, John Wright, cautions that modern estimates are based on back-calculations from human observation.[105]Such observations, across the late 16th and early 17th century observers, account for around 35,000 European Christian slaves held throughout this period on the Barbary Coast, across Tripoli, Tunis, but mostly in Algiers. The majority were sailors (particularly those who were English), taken with their ships, but others were fishermen and coastal villagers. However, most of these captives were people from lands close to Africa, particularly Spain and Italy.[34]This eventually led to thebombardment of Algiersby an Anglo-Dutch fleet in 1816.[106][107]
Under Omani Arabs, Zanzibar became East Africa'smain slave port,with as many as 50,000 African slaves passing through every year during the 19th century.[108][109]Some historians estimate that between 11 and 18 million African slaves crossed the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and Sahara Desert from 650 to 1900 AD.[3][failed verification][110]Eduard Rüppelldescribed the losses of Sudanese slaves being transported on foot to Egypt: "after the Daftardar bey's 1822 campaign in the southern Nuba mountains, nearly 40,000 slaves were captured. However, through bad treatment, disease and desert travel barely 5,000 made it to Egypt."[111]W.A. Veenhoven wrote: "The German doctor,Gustav Nachtigal,an eye-witness, believed that for every slave who arrived at a market three or four died on the way...Keltie(The Partition of Africa,London, 1920) believes that for every slave the Arabs brought to the coast at least six died on the way or during the slavers' raid.Livingstoneputs the figure as high as ten to one. "[112]
Systems of servitude and slavery were common in parts of Africa, as they were in much of theancient world.In many African societies where slavery was prevalent, the slaves were not treated aschattel slavesand were given certain rights in a system similar toindentured servitudeelsewhere in the world. The forms of slavery in Africa were closely related tokinshipstructures. In many African communities, where land could not be owned, enslavement of individuals was used as a means to increase the influence a person had and expand connections.[113]This made slaves a permanent part of a master's lineage and the children of slaves could become closely connected with the larger family ties.[114]Children of slaves born into families could be integrated into the master's kinship group and rise to prominent positions within society, even to the level of chief in some instances. However, stigma often remained attached and there could be strict separations between slave members of a kinship group and those related to the master.[113]Slavery was practiced in many different forms: debt slavery, enslavement of war captives, military slavery, and criminal slavery were all practiced in various parts of Africa.[115]Slavery for domestic and court purposes was widespread throughout Africa.
When theAtlantic slave tradebegan, many of the local slave systems began supplying captives for chattel slave markets outside Africa. Although the Atlantic slave trade was not the only slave trade from Africa, it was the largest in volume and intensity. As Elikia M'bokolo wrote inLe Monde diplomatique:
The African continent was bled of its human resources via all possible routes. Across the Sahara, through the Red Sea, from the Indian Ocean ports and across the Atlantic. At least ten centuries of slavery for the benefit of theMuslim countries(from the ninth to the nineteenth).... Four million enslaved people exported via theRed Sea,another four million through theSwahiliports of the Indian Ocean, perhaps as many as nine million along thetrans-Saharancaravan route, and eleven to twenty million (depending on the author) across the Atlantic Ocean.[116]
The trans-Atlantic slave trade peaked in the late 18th century, when the largest number of slaves were captured on raiding expeditions into the interior of West Africa.
These expeditions were typically carried out byAfrican kingdoms,such as theOyo Empire(Yoruba), theAshanti Empire,[117]the kingdom ofDahomey,[118]and theAro Confederacy.[119]It is estimated that about 15 percent of slaves died during thevoyage,with mortality rates considerably higher in Africa itself in the process of capturing and transporting indigenous peoples to the ships.[120][121]
Americas
Slavery in Mexicocan be traced back to theAztecs.[122]OtherAmerindians,such as theIncaof the Andes, theTupinambáof Brazil, theCreekof Georgia, and theComancheof Texas, also practiced slavery.[3]
Slavery in Canadawas practiced byFirst Nationsand byEuropean settlers.[123]Slave-owning people of what became Canada were, for example, the fishing societies, such as theYurok,that lived along the Pacific coast from Alaska to California,[124]on what is sometimes described as the Pacific or Northern Northwest Coast. Some of theindigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast,such as theHaidaandTlingit,were traditionally known as fierce warriors and slave-traders, raiding as far as California. Slavery was hereditary, the slaves beingprisoners of warand their descendants were slaves.[125]Some nations in British Columbia continued to segregate and ostracize the descendants of slaves as late as the 1970s.[126]
Slavery in America remains a contentious issue and played a major role in the history and evolution of some countries, triggering arevolution,a civil war,and numerous rebellions.
The countries that controlled most of the transatlantic slave market in terms of number of slaves shipped were the UK, Portugal and France.
In order to establish itself as an American empire, Spain had to fight against the relatively powerful civilizations of theNew World.TheSpanishconquest of the indigenous peoples in the Americas included using the Natives as forced labour. TheSpanish colonieswere the first Europeans to use African slaves in the New World on islands such asCubaandHispaniola.[127]It was argued by some contemporary writers to be intrinsically immoral.[128][129][130]Bartolomé de las Casas,a 16th-centuryDominicanfriarand Spanish historian, participated in campaigns in Cuba (atBayamoandCamagüey) and was present at the massacre ofHatuey;his observation of that massacre led him to fight for a social movement away from the use of natives as slaves. Also, the alarming decline in thenativepopulation had spurred the firstroyal laws protecting the native population.The first African slaves arrived in Hispaniola in 1501.[131]This era saw a growth in race-based slavery.[132]England played a prominent role in the Atlantic slave trade. The "slave triangle"was pioneered byFrancis Drakeand his associates, though English slave-trading would not take off until the mid-17th century.
Many whites who arrived in North America during the 17th and 18th centuries came under contract as indentured servants.[133]The transformation from indentured servitude to slavery was a gradual process in Virginia. The earliest legal documentation of such a shift was in 1640 where a black man,John Punch,was sentenced to lifetime slavery, forcing him to serve his master,Hugh Gwyn,for the remainder of his life, for attempting to run away. This case was significant because it established the disparity between his sentence as a black man and that of the two white indentured servants who escaped with him (one described as Dutch and one as a Scotchman). It is the first documented case of a black man sentenced to lifetime servitude and is considered one of the first legal cases to make a racial distinction between black and white indentured servants.[134][135]
After 1640, planters started to ignore the expiration of indentured contracts and keep their servants as slaves for life. This was demonstrated by the 1655 caseJohnson v. Parker,where the court ruled that a black man,Anthony Johnsonof Virginia, was granted ownership of another black man,John Casor,as the result of a civil case.[136]This was the first instance of a judicial determination in theThirteen Coloniesholding that a person who had committed no crime could be held in servitude for life.[137][138]
Spanish colonial America
In 1519,Hernán Cortésbrought the firstmodern slaveto the area.[139]In the mid-16th century, the Spanish NewLaws,prohibited slavery of the indigenous people, including theAztecs.A labour shortage resulted. This led to the African slaves being imported, as they were not susceptible to smallpox. In exchange, many Africans were afforded the opportunity to buy their freedom, while eventually others were granted their freedom by their masters.[139]In Jamaica, the Spanish enslaved many of theTaino;some escaped, but most died from European diseases and overwork. The Spaniards also introduced the first African slaves.[140]
Spain practically did not trade in slaves until 1810 after the rebellions and independence of its American territories or viceroyalties. After the Napoleonic invasions, Spain had lost its industry and its American territories, except in Cuba and Puerto Rico, where the African slave trade to Cuba began on a massive scale from 1810 onwards. It was started by French planters exiled from the French lost colony Saint Domingue (Haiti) who settled in the eastern part of Cuba.
In 1789, the Spanish Crown led an effort to reform slavery, as the demand for slave labour in Cuba was growing. The Crown issued a decree,Código Negro Español(Spanish Black Code), that specified food and clothing provisions, put limits on the number ofwork hours,limited punishments, required religious instruction, and protected marriages, forbidding the sale of young children away from their mothers. The British made other changes to the institution of slavery in Cuba. However, planters often flouted the laws and protested against them, considering them a threat to their authority and an intrusion into their personal lives.[141]
English and Dutch Caribbean
In the early 17th century, the majority of the labour in Barbados was provided by European indentured servants, mainlyEnglish,IrishandScottish,withAfricanand native American slaves providing little of the workforce. The introduction ofsugar canein 1640 completely transformed society and the economy. Barbados eventually had one of the world's largest sugar industries.[142]The workable sugar plantation required a large investment and a great deal of heavy labour. At first, Dutch traders supplied the equipment, financing, and African slaves, in addition to transporting most of the sugar to Europe. In 1644, the population of Barbados was estimated at 30,000, of which about 800 were of African descent, with the remainder mainly of English descent. By 1700, there were 15,000 free whites and 50,000 enslaved Africans. In Jamaica, although the African slave population in the 1670s and 1680s never exceeded 10,000, by 1800 it had increased to over 300,000. The increased implementation ofslave codesor black codes, which created differential treatment between Africans and the white workers and ruling planter class. In response to these codes, several slave rebellions were attempted or planned during this time, but none succeeded.
The planters of the Dutch colony of Suriname relied heavily on African slaves to cultivate, harvest and process the commodity crops of coffee, cocoa, sugar cane and cotton plantations.[143]The Netherlands abolished slavery in Suriname in 1863.
Many slaves escaped the plantations. With the help of the native South Americans living in the adjoining rain forests, these runaway slaves established a new and unique culture in the interior that was highly successful in its own right. They were known collectively in English asMaroons,in French asNèg'Marrons(literally meaning "brown negroes", that is "pale-skinned negroes" ), and in Dutch asMarrons.The Maroons gradually developed several independent tribes through a process ofethnogenesis,as they were made up of slaves from different African ethnicities. These tribes include theSaramaka,Paramaka,Ndyukaor Aukan,Kwinti,Alukuor Boni, and Matawai. The Maroons often raided plantations to recruit new members from the slaves and capture women, as well as to acquire weapons, food and supplies. They sometimes killed planters and their families in the raids.[144]The colonists also mounted armed campaigns against the Maroons, who generally escaped through the rain forest, which they knew much better than did the colonists. To end hostilities, in the 18th century the European colonial authorities signed several peace treaties with different tribes. They granted the Maroons sovereign status and trade rights in their inland territories, giving them autonomy.
Brazil
Slavery in Brazilbegan long before thefirst Portuguese settlementwas established in 1532, as members of one tribe would enslave captured members of another.[145]
Later, Portuguese colonists were heavily dependent on indigenous labour during the initial phases of settlement to maintain the subsistence economy, and natives were often captured by expeditions calledbandeiras.The importation of African slaves began midway through the 16th century, but the enslavement of indigenous peoples continued well into the 17th and 18th centuries.
During the Atlantic slave trade era, Brazil imported more African slaves than any other country. Nearly 5 million slaves were brought from Africa to Brazil during the period from 1501 to 1866.[146]Until the early 1850s, most African slaves who arrived on Brazilian shores were forced to embark at West Central African ports, especially inLuanda(in present-day Angola). Today, with the exception of Nigeria, the country with the largest population of people of African descent is Brazil.[147]
Slave labour was the driving force behind the growth of thesugareconomy in Brazil, and sugar was the primary export of the colony from 1600 to 1650. Gold and diamond deposits were discovered in Brazil in 1690, which sparked an increase in the importation of African slaves to power this newly profitable market. Transportation systems were developed for the mining infrastructure, and population boomed from immigrants seeking to take part in gold and diamond mining. Demand for African slaves did not wane after the decline of the mining industry in the second half of the 18th century. Cattle ranching and foodstuff production proliferated after the population growth, both of which relied heavily on slave labour. 1.7 million slaves were imported to Brazil from Africa from 1700 to 1800, and the rise of coffee in the 1830s further enticed expansion of the slave trade.
Brazil was the last country in the Western world to abolish slavery. Forty percent of the total number of slaves brought to the Americas were sent to Brazil. For reference, the United States received 10 percent. Despite being abolished, there are still people working in slavery-like conditions in Brazil in the 21st century.
Haiti
Slavery in Haitistarted with the arrival ofChristopher Columbuson the island in 1492. The practice was devastating to the native population.[148]Following the indigenousTaíno's near decimation from forced labour, disease and war, the Spanish, underadvisementof the Catholic priestBartolomé de las Casas,and with the blessing of the Catholic church, who also wishedto protectthe indigenous people, began engaging in earnest in the use of African slaves.[clarification needed]During theFrench colonial periodbeginning in 1625, the economy of Haiti (then known asSaint-Domingue) was based on slavery, and the practice there was regarded as the most brutal in the world.
Following theTreaty of Ryswickof 1697,Hispaniolawas divided betweenFranceandSpain.France received the western third and subsequently named it Saint-Domingue. To develop it into sugarcane plantations, the French imported thousands of slaves from Africa. Sugar was a lucrative commodity crop throughout the 18th century. By 1789, approximately 40,000 white colonists lived in Saint-Domingue. The whites were vastly outnumbered by the tens of thousands of African slaves they had imported to work on their plantations, which were primarily devoted to the production of sugarcane. In the north of the island, slaves were able to retain many ties to African cultures, religion and language; these ties were continually being renewed by newly imported Africans. Blacks outnumbered whites by about ten to one.
The French-enactedCode Noir( "Black Code" ), prepared byJean-Baptiste Colbertand ratified byLouis XIV,had established rules on slave treatment and permissible freedoms. Saint-Domingue has been described as one of the most brutally efficient slave colonies; one-third of newly imported Africans died within a few years.[149]Many slaves died from diseases such assmallpoxandtyphoid fever.[150]They hadbirth ratesaround 3 percent, and there is evidence that some womenabortedfetuses, or committedinfanticide,rather than allow their children to live within the bonds of slavery.[151][152]
As in itsLouisiana colony,theFrench colonialgovernment allowed some rights tofree people of color:themixed-racedescendants of white male colonists and black female slaves (and later, mixed-race women). Over time, many were released from slavery. They established a separate social class. White FrenchCreolefathers frequently sent their mixed-race sons to France for their education. Some men of color were admitted into the military. More of the free people of color lived in the south of the island, nearPort-au-Prince,and many intermarried within their community. They frequently worked as artisans and tradesmen, and began to own some property. Some became slave holders. Thefree people of colorpetitioned the colonial government to expand their rights.
Slaves that made it to Haiti from the trans-Atlantic journey and slaves born in Haiti were first documented in Haiti's archives and transferred to France's Ministry of Defense and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. As of 2015[update],these records are in The National Archives of France. According to the 1788 Census, Haiti's population consisted of nearly 40,000 whites, 30,000 free coloureds and 450,000 slaves.[153]
TheHaitian Revolutionof 1804, the only successfulslave revoltin human history, precipitated the end of slavery in all French colonies, which came in1848.
United States
Slavery in the United Stateswas the legal institution of human chattel enslavement, primarily of Africans andAfrican Americans,that existed in the United States of America in the 18th and 19th centuries, after it gained independence from the British and before the end of theAmerican Civil War.Slavery had been practiced inBritish Americafromearly colonial daysand was legal in allThirteen Colonies,at the time of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. By the time of theAmerican Revolution,the status of slave had been institutionalized as a racial caste associated with African ancestry.[154]The United States became polarized over the issue of slavery, represented by theslave and free statesdivided by theMason–Dixon line,which separated free Pennsylvania from slave Maryland and Delaware.
Congress, during theJeffersonadministration,prohibited the importation of slaves,effective 1808, although smuggling (illegal importing) was not unusual.[155]Domestic slave trading, however, continued at a rapid pace, driven by labour demands from the development of cottonplantations in the Deep South.Those states attempted to extend slavery into the new western territories to keep their share of political power in the nation. Such laws proposed to Congress to continue the spread of slavery into newly ratified states include theKansas-Nebraska Act.
The treatment of slaves in the United States varied widely depending on conditions, times, and places. The power relationships of slavery corrupted many whites who had authority over slaves, with children showing their own cruelty. Masters and overseers resorted to physical punishments to impose their wills. Slaves were punished by whipping, shackling,hanging,beating, burning, mutilation, branding and imprisonment. Punishment was most often meted out in response to disobedience or perceived infractions, but sometimes abuse was carried out to re-assert the dominance of the master or overseer of the slave.[156]Treatment was usually harsher on large plantations, which were often managed by overseers and owned by absentee slaveholders.
William Wells Brown,who escaped to freedom, reported that on one plantation, slave men were required to pick 80 pounds (36 kg) of cotton per day, while women were required to pick 70 pounds (32 kg) per day; if any slave failed in their quota, they were subject to whip lashes for each pound they were short. The whipping post stood next to the cotton scales.[157]A New York man who attended a slave auction in the mid-19th century reported that at least three-quarters of the male slaves he saw at sale had scars on their backs from whipping.[158]By contrast, small slave-owning families had closer relationships between the owners and slaves; this sometimes resulted in a more humane environment but was not a given.[156]
More than one million slaves were sold from theUpper South,which had a surplus of labour, and taken to the Deep South in a forced migration, splitting up many families. New communities of African American culture were developed in the Deep South, and the total slave population in the South eventually reached 4 million before liberation.[159][160]In the 19th century, proponents of slavery often defended the institution as a "necessary evil". White people of that time feared that emancipation of black slaves would have more harmful social and economic consequences than the continuation of slavery. The French writer and travelerAlexis de Tocqueville,inDemocracy in America(1835), expressed opposition to slavery while observing its effects on American society. He felt that a multiracial society without slavery was untenable, as he believed that prejudice against black people increased as they were granted more rights. Others, likeJames Henry Hammondargued that slavery was a "positive good" stating: "Such a class you must have, or you would not have that other class which leads progress, civilization, and refinement."
The Southern state governments wanted to keep a balance between the number of slave and free states to maintain a political balance of power inCongress.The newterritoriesacquired fromBritain,France,and Mexico were the subject of major political compromises. By 1850, the newly rich cotton-growing South was threatening to secede from theUnion,and tensions continued to rise. Many white Southern Christians, including church ministers, attempted to justify their support for slavery as modified by Christian paternalism.[161]The largest denominations, the Baptist, Methodist, and Presbyterian churches, split over the slavery issue into regional organizations of the North and South.
WhenAbraham Lincolnwon the1860 electionon a platform of halting the expansion of slavery, according to the1860 U.S. census,roughly 400,000 individuals, representing 8% of all U.S. families, owned nearly 4,000,000 slaves.[162]One-third of Southern families owned slaves.[163]The South was heavily invested in slavery. As such, upon Lincoln's election, seven states broke away to form theConfederate States of America.The first six states to secede held the greatest number of slaves in the South. Shortly after, over the issue of slavery, the United States erupted into an all-outCivil War,with slavery legally ceasing as an institution following the war in December 1865.
In 1865, the United States ratified the13th Amendmentto theUnited States Constitution,which banned slavery and involuntary servitude "except as punishment for a crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted," providing a legal basis for forced labor to continue in the country. This led to the system ofconvict leasing,which affected primarily African Americans. ThePrison Policy Initiative,an American criminal justice think tank, cites the 2020 US prison population as 2.3 million, and nearly all able-bodied inmates work in some fashion. InTexas,Georgia,AlabamaandArkansas,prisoners are not paid at all for their work. In other states, prisoners are paid between $0.12 and $1.15 per hour.Federal Prison Industriespaid inmates an average of $0.90 per hour in 2017. Inmates who refuse to work may be indefinitely remanded intosolitary confinementor have family visitation revoked. From 2010 to 2015 andagain in 2016andin 2018,some prisoners in the USrefused to work,protesting for better pay, better conditions, and for the end of forced labor. Strike leaders were punished with indefinite solitary confinement. Forced prison labor occurs in both government-run prisons andprivate prisons.CoreCivicandGEO Groupconstitute half the market share of private prisons, and they made a combined revenue of $3.5 billion in 2015. The value of all labor by inmates in the United States is estimated to be in the billions. InCalifornia,2,500 incarcerated workers fought wildfires for only $1 per hour through the CDCR'sConservation Camp Program,which saves the state as much as $100 million a year.[164]
Asia-Pacific
East Asia
Slavery existed in ancient China as early as theShang dynasty.[165]Slavery was employed largely by governments as a means of maintaining a public labour force.[166][167]Until theHan dynasty,slaves were sometimes discriminated against but their legal status was guaranteed. As can be seen from the some historical records as “Duansheng,Marquisof Shouxiang, had histerritoryconfiscated because he killed a female slave” (Han dynasty records in DongGuan), “Wang Mang's son Wang Huo murdered a slave, Wang Mang severely criticized him and forced him to commit suicide” (Book of Han:Biography of Wang Mang), Murder against slaves was as taboo as murder against free people, and perpetrators were always severely punished. Han dynasty can be said to be very distinctive compared to other countries of thesame period(In most cases, lords were free to kill their slaves) in terms of slaveshuman rights.
After theSouthern and Northern Dynasties,Due to years of poor harvests, the influx of foreign tribes, and the resulting wars, The number of slaves exploded. They became a class and were called "jianmin(Chinese:Tiện dân ) ", The word literally means" inferior person ". As stated inThe commentary of Tang Code:“Slaves and inferior people are legally equivalent tolivestockproducts”, They always had a low social status, and even if they were deliberately murdered, the perpetrators received only a year in prison, and were punished even when they reported the crimes of their lords.[168]However, in the Later period of the dynasty, perhaps because the increase in the number of slaves slowed down again, the penalties for crimes against them became harsh again. For example, the famous contemporary female poetYu Xuanji,she was publicly executed for murdering her own slave.
ManyHan Chinesewere enslaved in the process of theMongol invasionofChina proper.[169]According to Japanese historians Sugiyama Masaaki ( sam sơn chính minh ) and Funada Yoshiyuki ( thuyền điền thiện chi ), Mongolian slaves were owned byHan Chineseduring theYuan dynasty.[170][171]Slavery has taken various forms throughout China's history. It was reportedly abolished as a legally recognized institution, including in a 1909 law[172][173]fully enacted in 1910,[174]although the practice continued until at least 1949.[169]Tang Chinese soldiers and pirates enslaved Koreans, Turks, Persians, Indonesians, and people from Inner Mongolia, central Asia, and northern India.[175][176]The greatest source of slaves came from southern tribes, including Thais and aboriginals from the southern provinces of Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, and Guizhou. Malays, Khmers, Indians, and "black skinned" peoples (who were either AustronesianNegritosof Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands, or Africans, or both) were also purchased as slaves in the Tang dynasty.[177]
In the 17th centuryQing dynasty,there was a hereditarily servile people calledBooi Aha(Manchu:booi niyalma;Chinese transliteration: Bao y a cáp ), which is a Manchu word literally translated as "household person" and sometimes rendered as "nucai."The Manchu was establishing close personal and paternalist relationship between masters and their slaves, as Nurhachi said," The Master should love the slaves and eat the same food as him ".[178]However, booi aha "did not correspond exactly to the Chinese category of" bond-servant slave "(Chinese: Nô phó ); instead, it was a relationship of personal dependency on a master which in theory guaranteed close personal relationships and equal treatment, even though many western scholars would directly translate" booi "as" bond-servant "(some of the" booi "even had their own servant).[169]Chinese Muslim(Tungans) Sufis who were charged with practicing xiejiao (heterodox religion), were punished by exile to Xinjiang and being sold as a slave to other Muslims, such as the Sufibegs.[179]Han Chinesewho committed crimes such as those dealing with opium became slaves to the begs, this practice was administered by Qing law.[180]Most Chinese inAltishahrwere exile slaves to Turkestani Begs.[181]While free Chinese merchants generally did not engage in relationships with East Turkestani women, some of the Chinese slaves belonging to begs, along with Green Standard soldiers, Bannermen, and Manchus, engaged in affairs with the East Turkestani women that were serious in nature.[182]
Slavery in Koreaexisted since before theThree Kingdoms of Koreaperiod, in the first century BCE.[183]Slavery has been described as "very important in medieval Korea, probably more important than in any otherEast Asiancountry, but by the 16th century, population growth was making [it] unnecessary ".[184]Slavery went into decline around the 10th century but came back in the lateGoryeoperiod when Korea also experienced multipleslave rebellions.[183]In theJoseonperiod of Korea, members of the slave class were known asnobi.The nobi were socially indistinct from freemen (i.e., themiddleandcommonclasses) other than the rulingyangbanclass, and some possessed property rights, and legal and civil rights. Hence, some scholars argue that it is inappropriate to call them "slaves",[185]while some scholars describe them asserfs.[186][187]The nobi population could fluctuate up to about one-third of the total, but on average the nobi made up about 10% of the total population.[183]In 1801, the majority of government nobi were emancipated,[188]and by 1858, the nobi population stood at about 1.5 percent of the Korean population.[189]During theJoseonperiod, thenobipopulation could fluctuate up to about one-third of the population, but on average the nobi made up about 10% of the total population.[183]The nobi system declined beginning in the 18th century.[190]Since the outset of the Joseon dynasty and especially beginning in the 17th century, there was harsh criticism among prominent thinkers in Korea about the nobi system. Even within the Joseon government, there were indications of a shift in attitude toward the nobi.[191]King Yeongjoimplemented a policy of gradualemancipationin 1775,[184]and he and his successorKing Jeongjomade many proposals and developments that lessened the burden on nobi, which led to the emancipation of the vast majority of government nobi in 1801.[191]In addition, population growth,[184]numerous escaped slaves,[183]growing commercialization of agriculture, and the rise of the independent small farmer class contributed to the decline in the number of nobi to about 1.5% of the total population by 1858.[189]The hereditary nobi system was officially abolished around 1886–87,[183][189]and the rest of the nobi system was abolished with theGabo Reformof 1894.[183][192]However, slavery did not completely disappear in Korea until 1930, during Imperial Japanese rule. During theImperial Japanese occupation of Koreaaround World War II, some Koreans were used in forced labour by the Imperial Japanese, in conditions which have been compared to slavery.[183][193]These included women forced into sexual slavery by the Imperial Japanese Army before and during World War II, known as "comfort women".[183][193]
Afterthe Portuguese first made contact with Japanin 1543, slave trade developed in which Portuguese purchased Japanese as slaves in Japan and sold them to various locations overseas, including Portugal, throughout the 16th and 17th centuries.[194][195]Many documents mention the slave trade along with protests against the enslavement of Japanese. Japanese slaves are believed to be the first of their nation to end up in Europe, and the Portuguese purchased numbers of Japanese slave girls to bring to Portugal for sexual purposes, as noted by the Church[196]in 1555. Japanese slave women were even sold asconcubinesto Asianlascarand African crew members, along with their European counterparts serving on Portuguese ships trading in Japan, mentioned by Luis Cerqueira, a Portuguese Jesuit, in a 1598 document.[197]Japanese slaves were brought by the Portuguese toMacau,where they were enslaved to Portuguese or became slaves to other slaves.[198][199]Some Korean slaves were bought by the Portuguese and brought back to Portugal from Japan, where they had been among the tens of thousands of Korean prisoners of war transported to Japan during theJapanese invasions of Korea (1592–98).[200][201]Historians pointed out that at the same time Hideyoshi expressed his indignation and outrage at the Portuguese trade in Japanese slaves, he was engaging in a mass slave trade of Korean prisoners of war in Japan.[202][203] Fillippo Sassetti saw some Chinese and Japanese slaves in Lisbon among the large slave community in 1578, although most of the slaves were black.[204][205][206][207][208]
The Portuguese also valued Oriental slaves more than the black Africans and the Moors for their rarity. Chinese slaves were more expensive than Moors and blacks and showed off the high status of the owner.[209]The Portuguese attributed qualities like intelligence and industriousness to Chinese, Japanese and Indian slaves.[210][206]KingSebastian of Portugalfeared rampant slavery was having a negative effect on Catholic proselytization, so he commanded that it be banned in 1571.[211]Hideyoshiwas so disgusted that his own Japanese people were being solden masseinto slavery onKyushu,that he wrote a letter to Jesuit Vice-Provincial Gaspar Coelho on July 24, 1587, to demand the Portuguese, Siamese (Thai), and Cambodians stop purchasing and enslaving Japanese and return Japanese slaves who ended up as far as India.[212][213][214]Hideyoshi blamed the Portuguese and Jesuits for this slave trade and banned Christian proselytizing as a result.[215][self-published source][216]In 1595, a law was passed by Portugal banning the selling and buying of Chinese and Japanese slaves.[217]
South Asia
Slavery in Indiawas widespread by the 6th century BC, and perhaps even as far back as theVedic period.[218]Slavery intensified during theMuslim domination of northern Indiaafter the 11th-century.[219]Slavery existed inPortuguese Indiaafter the 16th century. The Dutch, too, largely dealt in Abyssian slaves, known in India as Habshis or Sheedes.[220]Arakan/Bengal, Malabar, andCoromandelremained the largest sources of forced labour until the 1660s.
Between 1626 and 1662, the Dutch exported on an average 150–400 slaves annually from the Arakan-Bengal coast. During the first 30 years of Batavia's existence, Indian and Arakanese slaves provided the main labour force of the Dutch East India Company, Asian headquarters. An increase in Coromandel slaves occurred during a famine following the revolt of the Nayaka Indian rulers of South India (Tanjavur, Senji, and Madurai) against Bijapur overlordship (1645) and the subsequent devastation of the Tanjavur countryside by the Bijapur army. Reportedly, more than 150,000 people were taken by the invading Deccani Muslim armies to Bijapur and Golconda. In 1646, 2,118 slaves were exported to Batavia, the overwhelming majority from southern Coromandel. Some slaves were also acquired further south at Tondi, Adirampatnam, and Kayalpatnam. Another increase in slaving took place between 1659 and 1661 from Tanjavur as a result of a series of successive Bijapuri raids. At Nagapatnam, Pulicat, and elsewhere, the company purchased 8,000–10,000 slaves, the bulk of whom were sent to Ceylon, while a small portion were exported to Batavia and Malacca. Finally, following a long drought in Madurai and southern Coromandel, in 1673, which intensified the prolonged Madurai-Maratha struggle over Tanjavur and punitive fiscal practices, thousands of people from Tanjavur, mostly children, were sold into slavery and exported by Asian traders from Nagapattinam to Aceh, Johor, and other slave markets.
In September 1687, 665 slaves were exported by the English from Fort St. George, Madras. And, in 1694–96, when warfare once more ravaged South India, a total of 3,859 slaves were imported from Coromandel by private individuals into Ceylon.[221][222][223][224]The volume of the total Dutch Indian Ocean slave trade has been estimated to be about 15–30% of the Atlantic slave trade, slightly smaller than the trans-Saharan slave trade, and one-and-a-half to three times the size of the Swahili and Red Sea coast and the Dutch West India Company slave trades.[225]
According to SirHenry Bartle Frere(who sat on the Viceroy's Council), there were an estimated 8 or 9 million slaves in India in 1841. About 15% of the population ofMalabarwere slaves. Slavery was legally abolished in the possessions of theEast India Companyby theIndian Slavery Act, 1843.[3]
South East Asia
The hill tribe people inIndochinawere "hunted incessantly and carried off as slaves by the Siamese (Thai), the Anamites (Vietnamese), and the Cambodians".[226]A Siamese military campaign in Laos in 1876 was described by a British observer as having been "transformed into slave-hunting raids on a large scale".[226]The census, taken in 1879, showed that 6% of the population in theMalaysultanate ofPerakwere slaves.[227]Enslaved people made up about two-thirds of the population in part ofNorth Borneoin the 1880s.[227]
Oceania
Slaves (he mōkai) had a recognised social role in traditionalMāori societyin New Zealand.[228]
Blackbirdingoccurred on islands in the Pacific Ocean and Australia, especially in the 19th century.
Europe
Ancient Greece and Rome
Records ofslavery in Ancient Greecebegin withMycenaean Greece.Classical Athenshad the largest slave population, with as many as 80,000 in the 6th and 5th centuries BC.[229]As theRoman Republicexpanded outward, entire populations were enslaved, across Europe and the Mediterranean. Slaves were used for labour, as well as for amusement (e.g.,gladiatorsandsex slaves). This oppression by an elite minority eventually led toslave revolts(seeRoman Servile Wars); theThird Servile Warwas led bySpartacus.
By the late Republican era, slavery had become an economic pillar of Roman wealth, as well as Roman society.[230]It is estimated that 25% or more of the population ofAncient Romewas enslaved, although the actual percentage is debated by scholars and varied from region to region.[231][232]Slaves represented 15–25% ofItaly's population,[233]mostly war captives,[233]especially fromGaul[234]andEpirus.Estimates of the number of slaves in theRoman Empiresuggest that the majority were scattered throughout theprovincesoutside of Italy.[233]Generally, slaves in Italy were indigenous Italians.[235]Foreigners (including both slaves and freedmen) born outside of Italy were estimated to have peaked at 5% of the total in the capital, where their number was largest. Those from outside of Europe were predominantly of Greek descent. Jewish slaves never fully assimilated into Roman society, remaining an identifiable minority. These slaves (especially the foreigners) had higher death rates and lower birth rates than natives and were sometimes subjected to mass expulsions.[236]The average recorded age at death for the slaves in Rome was seventeen and a half years (17.2 for males; 17.9 for females).[237]
Medieval and early modern Europe
Slavery in early medieval Europewas so common that theCatholic Churchrepeatedly prohibited it, or at least the export of Christian slaves to non-Christian lands, as for example at theCouncil of Koblenz(922), theCouncil of London (1102)(which aimed mainly at the sale of English slaves to Ireland)[238]and the Council of Armagh (1171).Serfdom,on the contrary, was widely accepted. In 1452,Pope Nicholas Vissued thepapal bullDum Diversas,granting the kings of Spain and Portugal the right to reduce any "Saracens (Muslims), pagans and any other unbelievers" to perpetual slavery, legitimizing the slave trade as a result of war.[239]The approval of slavery under these conditions was reaffirmed and extended in hisRomanus Pontifexbull of 1455. Large-scale trading in slaves was mainly confined to the South and East ofearly medievalEurope: theByzantine Empireand theMuslim worldwere the destinations, whilepaganCentralandEastern Europe(along with theCaucasusandTartary) were important sources.Viking,Arab,Greek,andRadhaniteJewishmerchants were all involved in the slave trade during the Early Middle Ages.[240][241][242]The trade in European slaves reached a peak in the 10th century following theZanj Rebellion,which dampened the use of African slaves in the Arab world.[243][244]
In Britain, slavery continued to be practiced following the fall of Rome, while sections ofÆthelstan's andHywel the Good's laws dealt with slaves inmedieval Englandandmedieval Walesrespectively.[245][246]The trade particularly picked up after the Viking invasions, with major markets atChester[247]andBristol[248]supplied by Danish, Mercian, and Welsh raiding of one another's borderlands. At the time of theDomesday Book,nearly 10% of theEnglishpopulation were slaves.[249]William the Conquerorintroduced a law preventing the sale of slaves overseas.[250]According to historianJohn Gillingham,by 1200 slavery in the British Isles was non-existent.[251]Slavery had never been authorized by statute within England and Wales, and in 1772, in the caseSomerset v Stewart,Lord Mansfield declared that it was also unsupported within England by the common law. The slave trade was abolished by theSlave Trade Act 1807,although slavery remained legal in possessions outside Europe until the passage of theSlavery Abolition Act 1833and theIndian Slavery Act, 1843.[252]However, when England began to have colonies in the Americas, and particularly from the 1640s, African slaves began to make their appearance in England and remained a presence until the eighteenth century. In Scotland, slaves continued to be sold as chattels until late in the eighteenth century (on the second May 1722, an advertisement appeared in theEdinburgh Evening Courant,announcing that a stolen slave had been found, who would be sold to pay expenses, unless claimed within two weeks).[253]For nearly two hundred years in thehistory of coal miningin Scotland, miners were bonded to their "maisters" by a 1606 Act "Anent Coalyers and Salters". TheColliers and Salters (Scotland) Act 1775stated that "many colliers and salters are in a state of slavery and bondage" and announced emancipation; those starting work after July 1, 1775, would not become slaves, while those already in a state of slavery could, after 7 or 10 years depending on their age, apply for a decree of the Sheriff's Court granting their freedom. Few could afford this, until a further law in 1799 established their freedom and made this slavery and bondage illegal.[253][254]
TheByzantine-Ottoman warsand theOttoman wars in Europebrought large numbers of slaves into the Islamic world.[255]To staff its bureaucracy, the Ottoman Empire established ajanissary systemwhich seized hundreds of thousands of Christian boys through thedevşirmesystem. They were well cared for but were legally slaves owned by the government and were not allowed to marry. They were never bought or sold. The empire gave them significant administrative and military roles. The system began about 1365; there were 135,000 janissaries in 1826, when the system ended.[256]After theBattle of Lepanto,12,000 Christian galley slaves were recaptured and freed from theOttoman fleet.[257]Eastern Europe suffered a series ofTatar invasions,the goal of which was to loot and capture slaves for selling them to Ottomans asjasyr.[258]Seventy-five Crimean Tatar raids were recorded intoPoland–Lithuaniabetween 1474 and 1569.[259]
Medieval SpainandPortugalwere the scene of almost constant Muslim invasion of the predominantly Christian area. Periodic raiding expeditions were sent fromAl-Andalusto ravage the Iberian Christian kingdoms, bringing back booty and slaves. In a raid against Lisbon in 1189, for example, theAlmohadcaliphYaqub al-Mansurtook 3,000 female and child captives, while his governor ofCórdoba,in a subsequent attack uponSilves,Portugal, in 1191, took 3,000 Christian slaves.[260]From the 11th to the 19th century, North AfricanBarbary Piratesengaged in raids on European coastal towns to capture Christian slaves to sell atslave marketsin places such as Algeria and Morocco.[261]
The maritime town ofLagoswas the first slave market created in Portugal (one of the earliest colonizers of the Americas) for the sale of imported African slaves – theMercado de Escravos,opened in 1444.[262][263]In 1441, the first slaves were brought to Portugal from northern Mauritania.[263]By 1552, black African slaves made up 10% of the population ofLisbon.[264][265]In the second half of the 16th century, the Crown gave up the monopoly on slave trade, and the focus of European trade in African slaves shifted from import to Europe to slave transports directly to tropical colonies in the Americas – especially Brazil.[263]In the 15th century one-third of the slaves were resold to the African market in exchange of gold.[266]
Until the late 18th century, theCrimean Khanate(a Muslim Tatar state) maintained amassive slave tradewith the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East.[258]The slaves were captured in southern Russia,Poland-Lithuania,Moldavia,Wallachia,andCircassiabyTatarhorsemen[267]and sold in the Crimean port ofKaffa.[268]About 2 million mostly Christian slaves were exported over the 16th and 17th centuries[269]until the Crimean Khanate was destroyed by theRussian Empirein 1783.[270]
InKievan RusandMuscovy,slaves were usually classified askholops.According to David P. Forsythe, "In 1649 up to three-quarters of Muscovy's peasants, or 13 to 14 million people, were serfs whose material lives were barely distinguishable from slaves. Perhaps another 1.5 million were formally enslaved, with Russian slaves serving Russian masters."[272]Slavery remained a major institution inRussiauntil 1723, whenPeter the Greatconverted the household slaves into house serfs. Russian agricultural slaves were formally converted into serfs earlier in 1679.[273]Slavery in Poland was forbidden in the 15th century; in Lithuania, slavery was formally abolished in 1588; they were replaced by the second serfdom.
In Scandinavia,thralldomwas abolished in the mid-14th century.[274]
World War II
During theSecond World War,Nazi Germany effectively enslaved about 12 million people,both those considered undesirable and citizens of conquered countries, with the avowed intention of treating theseUntermenschen(sub-humans) as a permanent slave-class of inferior beings who could be worked until they died, and who possessed neither the rights nor the legal status of members of theAryan race.[275]
Besides Jews, the harshest deportation and forced labour policies were applied to the populations of Poland,[276]Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia. By the end of the war, half of Belarus' population had been killed or deported.[277][278]
Communist states
Between 1930 and 1960, theSoviet Unioncreated a system of, according toAnne Applebaumand the "perspective of theKremlin",slave labor camps called theGulag(‹See Tfd›Russian:ГУЛаг,romanized:GULag).[279]
Prisoners in these camps were worked to death by a combination of extreme production quotas, physical and psychological brutality, hunger, lack of medical care, and the harsh environment.Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn,who survived eight years of Gulag incarceration, provided firsthand testimony about the camps with the publication ofThe Gulag Archipelago,after which he was awarded theNobel Prize in Literature.[280][281]Fatality rate was as high as 80% during the first months in many camps. Hundreds of thousands of people, possibly millions, died as a direct result of forced labour under the Soviets.[282]
Golfo Alexopoulos suggests comparing labor in the Gulag with"other forms of slave labor"and notes its"violence of human exploitation"inIllness and Inhumanity in Stalin's Gulag:[283]
Stalin's Gulag was, in many ways, less a concentration camp than a forced labor camp and less a prison system than a system of slavery. The image of the slave appears often in Gulag memoir literature. As Varlam Shalamov wrote:"Hungry and exhausted, we leaned into a horse collar, raising blood blisters on our chests and pulling a stone-filled cart up the slanted mine floor. The collar was the same device used long ago by the ancient Egyptians."Thoughtful and rigorous historical comparisons of Soviet forced labor andother forms of slave laborwould be worthy of scholarly attention, in my view. For as in the case of global slavery, the Gulag found legitimacy in an elaborate narrative of difference that involved the presumption of dangerousness and guilt. This ideology of difference and the violence of human exploitation have left lasting legacies in contemporary Russia.
Historian Anne Applebaum writes in the introduction of her book that the wordGULAGhas come to represent"the system of Soviet slave labor itself, in all its forms and varieties":[284]
The word"GULAG"is an acronym forGlavnoe Upravlenie Lagerei,or Main Camp Administration, the institution which ran the Soviet camps. But over time, the word has also come to signify the system of Soviet slave labor itself, in all its forms and varieties: labor camps, punishment camps, criminal and political camps, women's camps, children's camps, transit camps. Even more broadly, "Gulag" has come to mean the Soviet repressive system itself, the set of procedures that Alexander Solzhenitsyn once called "our meat grinder": the arrests, the interrogations, the transport in unheated cattle cars, the forced labor, the destruction of families, the years spent in exile, the early and unnecessary deaths.
Applebaum's introduction has been criticized by Gulag researcher Wilson Bell,[285]stating that her book "is,aside from the introduction,a well-done overview of the Gulag, but it did not offer an interpretative framework much beyondSolzhenitsyn's paradigms ".[286]
Middle East
In the earliest known records, slavery is treated as an established institution. TheCode of Hammurabi(c. 1760 BC), for example, prescribed death for anyone who helped a slave escape or who sheltered a fugitive.[287]The Biblementions slaveryas an established institution.[3]Slavery existed inPharaonic Egypt,but studying it is complicated by terminology used by theEgyptiansto refer to different classes of servitude over the course of history. Interpretation of the textual evidence of classes of slaves inancient Egypthas been difficult to differentiate by word usage alone.[288][289]The three apparent types of enslavement in Ancient Egypt: chattel slavery, bonded labour, and forced labour.[290][291][292]
Historically, slaves in theArab Worldcame from many different regions, includingSub-Saharan Africa(mainlyZanj),[293]theCaucasus(mainlyCircassians),[294]Central Asia (mainlyTartars), andCentraland Eastern Europe (mainly SlavsSaqaliba).[295] These slaves were trafficked to the Arab world from Africa via the Trans-Saharan slave trade, theBaqttreaty, theRed Sea slave tradeand theIndian Ocean slave trade;from Asia via theBukhara slave trade;and from Europe via thePrague slave trade,theVenetian slave tradeand theBarbary slave trade,respectively.
Between 1517 and 1917, most of the Middle East consisted of theOttoman Empire.In the Ottoman capital ofConstantinople,about one-fifth of the population consisted of slaves.[80]The city was a major centre of the slave trade in the 15th and later centuries.
Eastern European slaves were provided to the Ottoman Empire via theCrimean slave tradeby Tatar raids on Slavic villages[296]but also by conquest and the suppression of rebellions, in the aftermath of which entire populations were sometimes enslaved and sold across the Empire, reducing the risk of future rebellion. The Ottomans also purchased slaves from traders who brought slaves into the Empire from Europe and Africa. It has been estimated that some 200,000 slaves – mainlyCircassians– were imported into theOttoman Empirebetween 1800 and 1909.[227] In 1908, women slaves were still sold in the Ottoman Empire.[297] German orientalist,Gustaf Dalman,reported seeing slaves in Muslim houses inAleppo,belonging to Ottoman Syria, in 1899, and that boys could be bought as slaves inDamascusand Cairo in as late as 1909.[298]
A major center of slave trade to the Middle east was central Asia, where theBukhara slave tradehad supplied slaves to the Middle East for thousands of years from antiquity until the 1870s. A slave market for captured Russian andPersianslaves was theKhivan slave tradecentred in the Central Asiankhanate of Khiva.[299] In the early 1840s, the population of the Uzbek states ofBukharaand Khiva included about 900,000 slaves.[227]
By 1870, chattel slavery had been at least formally banned in most areas of the world, with the exception of Muslim lands in Caucasus, Africa, and the Gulf.[300] While slavery was by the 1870s viewed as morally unacceptable in the West, slavery was not considered to be imoral in the Muslim world since it was an institution recognized in the Quran and morally justified under the guise of warfare against non-Muslims, and non-Muslims were kidnapped and enslaved by Muslims around the Muslim world: in the Balkans, the Caucasus, the Baluchistan, India, South West Asia and the Philippines.[300] Slaves where marsched in schackles to the coasts of Sudan, Ethiopia and Somali, placed upondhowsand traffickedacross the Indian Oceanto the Gulf or Aden, oracross the Red Seato Arabia and Aden, while weak slaves being thrown in the sea; or across the Sahara desert via theTrans-Saharan slave tradeto the Nile, while dying from exposure and swollen feet.[300]
Ottoman anti slavery laws where not enforced in the late 19th-century, particularly not in Hejaz; the first attempt to ban the Red Sea slave trade in 1857 resulted in a rebellion in the Hejaz Province, which resulted in Hejza exempted from the ban.[301] TheAnglo-Ottoman Convention of 1880formally banned the Red Sea slave trade, but it was not enforced in the Ottoman Provinces in the Arabian Peninsula.[301] In the late 19th-century, the Sultan of Morocco stated to Western diplomats that it was impossible for him to ban slavery because such a ban would not be enforcable, but the British asked him to ensure that the slave trade in Morocco would at least be handled discreet and away from the eyes of foreign wittnesses.[301]
Chattel slavery lasted in most of the Middle East until the 20th-century. TheRed Sea slave tradestill provided enslaved people from Africa to the Arabian Peninsula after World War II. As recently as the 1960s,Saudi Arabia's slave populationwas estimated at 300,000.[302]Along with Yemen, the Saudis abolished slavery in 1962.[303]
Contemporary slavery
Even though slavery is now outlawed in every country, the number of slaves today is estimated as between 12 million and 29.8 million.[304][305][306]According to a broad definition of slavery, there were 27 million people in slavery in 1999, spread all over the world.[307]In 2005, the International Labour Organization provided an estimate of 12.3 million forced labourers.[308]Siddharth Karahas also provided an estimate of 28.4 million slaves at the end of 2006 divided into three categories:bonded labour/debt bondage(18.1 million), forced labour (7.6 million), and trafficked slaves (2.7 million).[70]Kara provides a dynamic model to calculate the number of slaves in the world each year, with an estimated 29.2 million at the end of 2009.
According to a 2003 report byHuman Rights Watch,an estimated 15 million children indebt bondage in Indiawork in slavery-like conditions to pay off their family's debts.[310][311]
Slavoj Žižekasserts that new forms of contemporary slavery have been created in the post-Cold War era of globalcapitalism,including migrant workers deprived of basic civil rights on theArabian Peninsula,the total control of workers in Asiansweatshopsand the use of forced labor in the exploitation of natural resources inCentral Africa.[312]
Distribution
In June 2013,U.S. State Departmentreleased a report on slavery. It placedRussia,China,and Uzbekistan in the worst offenders category. Cuba, Iran, North Korea,Sudan,Syria, and Zimbabwe were at the lowest level. The list also included Algeria, Libya, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait among a total of 21 countries.[313][314]
In Kuwait, there are more than 600,000 migrant domestic workers who are vulnerable to forced labor and legally tied to their employers, who often illegally take their passports.[315]In 2019, online slave markets on apps such as Instagram were uncovered.[316]
In the preparations for the2022 World Cup in Qatar,thousands of Nepalese, the largest group of labourers, faced slavery in the form of denial of wages, confiscation of documents, and inability to leave the workplace.[317]In 2016, the United Nations gave Qatar 12 months to end migrant worker slavery or face investigation.[318]
TheWalk Free Foundationreported in 2018 that slavery in wealthy Western societies is much more prevalent than previously known, in particular the United States and Great Britain, which have 403,000 (one in 800) and 136,000 slaves respectively. Andrew Forrest, founder of the organization, said that "The United States is one of the most advanced countries in the world yet has more than 400,000 modern slaves working under forced labour conditions."[319]An estimated 40.3 million are enslaved globally, with North Korea having the most slaves at 2.6 million (one in 10). Of the estimated 40.3 million people in contemporary slavery, 71% are women and 29% are men. The report found of the 40.3 million in modern slavery, 15.4 million are inforced marriagesand 24.9 million are inforced labor.[320]The foundation defines contemporary slavery as "situations of exploitation that a person cannot refuse or leave because of threats, violence, coercion, abuse of power, or deception."[321]
China
In March 2020, the Chinese government was found to be using theUyghurminority for forced labour, insidesweat shops.According to a report published then by theAustralian Strategic Policy Institute (ASPI),no fewer than around 80,000 Uyghurs wereforcibly removedfrom the region ofXinjiangand used for forced labour in at least twenty-seven corporate factories.[322]According to the Business and Human Rights resource center, corporations such asAbercrombie & Fitch,Adidas,Amazon,Apple,BMW,Fila,Gap,H&M,Inditex,Marks & Spencer,Nike,North Face,Puma,PVH,Samsung,andUNIQLOhave each sourced products from these factories prior to the publication of the ASPI report.[323]
Libya
During theSecond Libyan Civil War,Libyans started capturingSub-Saharan African migrantstrying to get to Europe through Libya and selling them on slave markets or holding them hostage forransom[324]Women are often raped, used assex slaves,or sold tobrothels.[325][326][327]Child migrants suffer from abuse andchild rapein Libya.[328][329]
Mauritania
InMauritania,the last country to abolish slavery (in 1981), it is estimated that 20% of its population of 3 million people are enslaved as bonded labourers.[330][331][332]Slavery in Mauritania was criminalized in August 2007.[333]However, although slavery, as a practice, was legally banned in 1981, it was not a crime to own a slave until 2007.[334]Although many slaves have escaped or have been freed since 2007, as of 2012[update],only one slave owner had been sentenced to serve time in prison.[335]
North Korea
North Korea's human rights record is often considered to be the worst in the world and has been globally condemned, with theUnited Nations,theEuropean Unionand groups such asHuman Rights Watchall critical of the country's record. Forms oftorture,forced labour, and abuses are all widespread. Most international human rights organizations consider North Korea to have no contemporary parallel[336]with respect to violations of liberty.[337][338][339][340]
Taiwan
Taiwan's migrant worker population—estimated in 2018 to be up to 660,000 in number—have reportedly faced slavery-like conditions involving sexual abuse in thedomestic worksector[341]and forced labor infishingsectors.[342][343]Taiwan is among a minority of places in the world that legally allows labor brokers to charge migrant workers for services which elsewhere are covered by employers as human resource costs.[344]A few Taiwanese universities have reportedly tricked students fromEswatini,[345]UgandaandSri Lankainto forced labour at factories as payment for the university programs.[346]Some charity groups in 2007 also insisted that foreign women—mostly from China and Southeast Asia—were being forced into prostitution, although local police inTainandisagreed and said they deliberately came to Taiwan "to sell sex".[347]
Economics
While American slaves in 1809 were sold for around $40,000 (in inflation adjusted dollars), a slave nowadays can be bought for just $90, making replacement more economical than providing long-term care.[348]Slavery is a multibillion-dollar industry with estimates of up to $35 billion generated annually.[349]
Trafficking
Victims ofhuman traffickingare typically recruited through deceit or trickery (such as a false job offer, false migration offer, or false marriage offer), sale by family members, recruitment by former slaves, or outright abduction. Victims are forced into a "debt slavery" situation by coercion, deception, fraud, intimidation, isolation, threat, physical force, debt bondage or evenforce-feedingwith drugs to control their victims.[350]"Annually, according to U.S. government-sponsored research completed in 2006, approximately 800,000 people are trafficked across national borders, which does not include millions trafficked within their own countries. Approximately 80% of transnational victims are women and girls, and up to 50% are minors, reports the U.S. State Department in a 2008 study.[351]
While the majority of trafficking victims are women who areforced into prostitution(in which case the practice is called sex trafficking), victims also include men, women and children who are forced intomanual labour.[352]Because of the illegal nature of human trafficking, its extent is unknown. A U.S. government report, published in 2005, estimates that about 700,000 people worldwide are trafficked across borders each year. This figure does not include those who are trafficked internally.[352]Another research effort revealed that roughly 1.5 million individuals are trafficked either internally or internationally each year, of which about 500,000 are sex trafficking victims.[70]
Abolitionism
Slavery has existed, in one form or another, throughout recorded human history – as have, in various periods, movements to free large or distinct groups of slaves.[citation needed]
In antiquity
EmperorAshoka,who ruled theMaurya Empirein theIndian subcontinentfrom 269 to 232 BCE, abolished the slave trade but not slavery.[354]TheQin dynasty,which ruled China from 221 to 206 BC, abolished slavery and discouraged serfdom. However, many of its laws were overturned when the dynasty was overthrown.[355]Slavery was again abolished byWang Mangin China in 17 CE but was reinstituted after his assassination.[356]
Americas
TheSpanish colonization of the Americassparked a discussion about the right to enslave Native Americans. A prominent critic ofslavery in the Spanish New World colonieswas the Spanish missionary and bishop,Bartolomé de las Casas,who was "the first to expose the oppression of indigenous peoples by Europeans in the Americas and to call for the abolition of slavery there."[357]
In the United States, all of the northern states had abolished slavery by 1804, with New Jersey being the last to act.[358]Abolitionist pressure produced a series of small steps towards emancipation. After theAct Prohibiting Importation of Slaveswent into effect on January 1, 1808, the importation of slaves into the United States was prohibited,[359]but not theinternal slave trade,nor involvement in the international slave trade externally. Legal slavery persisted outside the northern states; most of those slaves already in the U.S. werelegally emancipatedonly in 1863. Many American abolitionists took an active role in opposing slavery by supporting theUnderground Railroad.Violent clashes between anti-slavery and pro-slavery Americans includedBleeding Kansas,a series of political and armed disputes in 1854–1858 as to whether Kansas would join the United States as aslave or free state.By 1860, the total number of slaves reached almost four million, and theAmerican Civil War,beginning in 1861, led to the end of slavery in the United States.[360]In 1863, Lincoln issued theEmancipation Proclamation,which freed slaves held in the Confederate States; the13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitutionprohibited most forms of slavery throughout the country.
Many of the freed slaves became sharecroppers and indentured servants. In this manner, some became tied to the very parcel of land into which they had been born a slave having little freedom or economic opportunity because ofJim Crow lawswhich perpetuated discrimination, limited education, promoted persecution without due process and resulted in continued poverty. Fear of reprisals such as unjust incarcerations and lynchings deterred upward mobility further.
Europe
France abolished slavery in 1794 during the Revolution,[361]but it was restored in 1802 under Napoleon.[362]It has been asserted that, before the Revolution, slavery was illegal in metropolitan France (as opposed to its colonies),[363]but this has been refuted.[364]
One of the most significant milestones in the campaign to abolish slavery throughout the world occurred in England in 1772, with British JudgeLord Mansfield,whose opinion inSomersett's Casewas widely taken to have held that slavery was illegal in England. This judgement also laid down the principle that slavery contracted in other jurisdictions could not be enforced in England.[365]
Sons of Africawas a late 18th-century British group that campaigned to end slavery. Its members were Africans in London, freed slaves who includedOttobah Cugoano,Olaudah Equianoand other leading members of London's black community. It was closely connected to theSociety for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade,a non-denominational group founded in 1787, whose members includedThomas Clarkson.British Member of ParliamentWilliam Wilberforceled the anti-slavery movement in the United Kingdom, although the groundwork was an anti-slavery essay by Clarkson. Wilberforce was urged by his close friend, Prime MinisterWilliam Pitt the Younger,to make the issue his own and was also given support by reformed EvangelicalJohn Newton.TheSlave Trade Actwas passed by the British Parliament on March 25, 1807, making the slave trade illegal throughout theBritish Empire,[366]Wilberforce also campaigned for abolition of slavery in the British Empire, which he lived to see in theSlavery Abolition Act 1833.
After the 1807 act abolishing the slave trade was passed, these campaigners switched toencouraging other countriesto follow suit, notably France and the British colonies. Between 1808 and 1860, the BritishWest Africa Squadronseized approximately 1,600 slave ships and freed 150,000 Africans who were aboard.[367]Action was also taken against African leaders who refused to agree to British treaties to outlaw the trade, for example against "the usurping King of Lagos", deposed in 1851. Anti-slavery treaties were signed with over 50 African rulers.[368]
Worldwide
In 1839, the world's oldest international human rights organization,Anti-Slavery International,was formed in Britain byJoseph Sturge,which campaigned to outlaw slavery in other countries.[369]There were celebrations in 2007 to commemorate the 200th anniversary of the abolition of the slave trade in the United Kingdom through the work of the BritishAnti-Slavery Society.
In the 1860s,David Livingstone's reports of atrocities within the Arab slave trade in Africa stirred up the interest of the British public, reviving the flagging abolitionist movement. The Royal Navy throughout the 1870s attempted to suppress "this abominable Eastern trade", atZanzibarin particular. In 1905, the French abolished indigenous slavery in most ofFrench West Africa.[370]
On December 10, 1948, theUnited Nations General Assemblyadopted theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights,which declared freedom from slavery is an internationally recognizedhuman right.Article 4 of theUniversal Declaration of Human Rightsstates:
No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.[371]
In 2014, for the first time in history, major leaders of many religions, Buddhist, Hindu, Christian, Jewish, and Muslim met to sign a shared commitment against modern-day slavery; the declaration they signed calls for the elimination of slavery and human trafficking by 2020.[372]The signatories were:Pope Francis,Mātā Amṛtānandamayī,Bhikkhuni Thich NuChân Không(representing Zen MasterThích Nhất Hạnh), Datuk K Sri Dhammaratana, Chief High Priest of Malaysia, RabbiAbraham Skorka,Rabbi David Rosen, Abbas Abdalla Abbas Soliman, Undersecretary of State of Al Azhar Alsharif (representing Mohamed Ahmed El-Tayeb, Grand Imam of Al-Azhar), Grand Ayatollah Mohammad Taqi al-Modarresi, Sheikh Naziyah Razzaq Jaafar, Special advisor of Grand Ayatollah (representing Grand Ayatollah Sheikh Basheer Hussain al Najafi), Sheikh Omar Abboud, Justin Welby, Archbishop of Canterbury, and Metropolitan Emmanuel of France (representing Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew.)[372]
Groups such as theAmerican Anti-Slavery Group,Anti-Slavery International,Free the Slaves,the Anti-Slavery Society, and the Norwegian Anti-Slavery Society continue to campaign to eliminate slavery.[citation needed]
UNESCOhas been working to break the silence surrounding the memory of slavery since 1994, throughThe Slave Route Project.[373]
Apologies
On May 21, 2001, theNational Assembly of Francepassed theTaubiralaw, recognizing slavery as acrime against humanity.Apologies on behalf of African nations, for their role in trading their countrymen into slavery, remain an open issue since slavery was practiced in Africa even before the first Europeans arrived and theAtlantic slave tradewas performed with a high degree of involvement of several African societies. The black slave market was supplied by well-established slave trade networks controlled by local African societies and individuals.[374]
There is adequate evidence citing case after case of African control of segments of the trade. Several African nations such as the Calabar and other southern parts of Nigeria had economies depended solely on the trade. African peoples such as the Imbangala of Angola and the Nyamwezi of Tanzania would serve as middlemen or roving bands warring with other African nations to capture Africans for Europeans.[375]
Several historians have made important contributions to the global understanding of the African side of the Atlantic slave trade. By arguing that African merchants determined the assemblage of trade goods accepted in exchange for slaves, many historians argue for African agency and ultimately a shared responsibility for the slave trade.[376]
In 1999, PresidentMathieu Kérékouof Benin issued a national apology for the central role Africans played in the Atlantic slave trade.[117]Luc Gnacadja,minister of environment and housing for Benin, later said: "The slave trade is a shame, and we do repent for it."[377]Researchers estimate that 3 million slaves were exported out of theSlave Coastbordering theBight of Benin.[377]PresidentJerry Rawlingsof Ghana also apologized for his country's involvement in the slave trade.[117]
The issue of an apology is linked toreparations for slaveryand is still being pursued by entities across the world. For example, the Jamaican Reparations Movement approved its declaration and action plan. In 2007, British Prime MinisterTony Blairmade a formal apology for Great Britain's involvement in slavery.[378]
On February 25, 2007, theCommonwealth of Virginiaresolved to 'profoundly regret' and apologize for its role in the institution of slavery. Unique and the first of its kind in the U.S., the apology was unanimously passed in both Houses as Virginia approached the 400th anniversary of the founding ofJamestown.[379]
On August 24, 2007,Mayor of LondonKen Livingstoneissued a public apology for London's role in Atlantic slave trade, which took place at an event commemorating the 200th anniversary of the British slave trade's abolition. In his speech, Livingstone described the slave trade as "the racial murder of not just those who were transported but generations of enslaved African men, women and children. To justify this murder and torture black people had to be declared inferior or not human... We live with the consequences today."[380]City officials inLiverpool,which was a large slave trading port, apologized in 1999.[381]
On July 30, 2008, theUnited States House of Representativespassed a resolution apologizing for American slavery and subsequent discriminatory laws.[382]In June 2009, theU.S. Senatepassed a resolution apologizing to African-Americans for the "fundamental injustice, cruelty, brutality, and inhumanity of slavery". The news was welcomed by PresidentBarack Obama,the nation's first president of African descent.[383]Some of President Obama's ancestors may have been slave owners.[384]
In 2010, Libyan leaderMuammar Gaddafiapologized for Arab involvement in the slave trade, saying: "I regret the behavior of the Arabs... They brought African children to North Africa, they made them slaves, they sold them like animals, and they took them as slaves and traded them in a shameful way."[385]
Reparations
There have been movements to achieve reparations for those formerly held as slaves or for their descendants. Claims for reparations for being held in slavery are handled as acivil lawmatter in almost every country. This is often decried as a serious problem, since former slaves' relatives lack of money means they often have limited access to a potentially expensive and futilelegal process.Mandatory systems of fines and reparations paid to an as yet undetermined group of claimants from fines, paid by unspecified parties, and collected by authorities have been proposed by advocates to alleviate this "civil court problem." Since in almost all cases there are no living ex-slaves or living ex-slave owners these movements have gained little traction. In nearly all cases the judicial system has ruled that thestatute of limitationson these possible claims has long since expired.
In June 2023,The Brattle Grouppresented a report at an event at theUniversity of the West Indiesin which reparations were estimated, for harms both during and after the period of transatlantic chattel slavery, at over 100 trillion dollars.[386][387]
Media
Film has been the most influential medium in the presentation of the history of slavery to the general public around the world.[388]The American film industry has had a complex relationship with slavery and until recent decades often avoided the topic. Films such asThe Birth of a Nation(1915)[389]andGone with the Wind(1939) became controversial because they gave a favourable depiction. In 1940The Santa Fe Trailgave a liberal but ambiguous interpretation ofJohn Brown's attacks on slavery.[390]Song of the Southgave a favorable outlook on slavery in the United States in 1946.[citation needed]
TheCivil Rights Movementin the 1950s made defiant slaves into heroes.[391]The question of slavery in American memory necessarily involves its depictions in feature films.[392]
Most Hollywood films used American settings, althoughSpartacus(1960),dealt with an actual revolt in the Roman Empire known as theThird Servile War.The revolt failed, and all the rebels were executed, but their spirit lived on according to the film.[393]Spartacusstays surprisingly close to the historical record.[394]
The Last Supper(La última cenain Spanish) was a 1976 film directed by CubanTomás Gutiérrez Aleaabout the teaching of Christianity to slaves in Cuba, and emphasizes the role of ritual and revolt.Burn!takes place on the imaginary Portuguese island of Queimada (where the locals speak Spanish) and it merges historical events that took place in Brazil, Cuba, Santo Domingo, Jamaica, and elsewhere.
Historians agree that films have largely shaped historical memories, but they debate issues of accuracy, plausibility, moralism,sensationalism,how facts are stretched in search of broader truths, and suitability for the classroom.[395][393]Berlin argues that critics complain if the treatment emphasizes historical brutality, or if it glosses over the harshness to highlight the emotional impact of slavery.[396]
See also
- Bodmin manumissions,the names and details of slaves freed in MedievalBodmin
- International Day for the Abolition of Slavery
- International Slavery Museum
- Involuntary servitude
- List of slaves
- List of slave owners
- Mukataba
- Slave rebellion
- Slave-owning slaves
- Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery
- Wilberforce Institute for the Study of Slavery and Emancipation
References
- ^Allain, Jean (2012). "The Legal Definition of Slavery into the Twenty-First Century". In Allain, Jean (ed.).The Legal Understanding of Slavery: From the Historical to the Contemporary.Oxford:Oxford University Press.pp. 199–219.ISBN978-0-19-164535-8.
- ^Baker-Kimmons, Leslie C. (2008)."Slavery".In Schaefer, Richard T. (ed.).Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society.Vol. 3.SAGE Publishing.p. 1234.ISBN9781412926942.
- ^abcdefg"Historical survey: Slave-owning societies".Encyclopædia Britannica.Archived fromthe originalon February 23, 2007.
- ^Bales 2004,p. 4.
- ^White, Shelley K.; White, Jonathan M.; Korgen, Kathleen Odell (2014).Sociologists in Action on Inequalities: Race, Class, Gender, and Sexuality.SAGE Publishing.p. 43.ISBN978-1-4833-1147-0.
- ^ab"Slavery in the 21st century".Newint.org. Archived fromthe originalon May 27, 2010.RetrievedAugust 29,2010.
- ^abOkeowo, Alexis (September 8, 2014)."Freedom Fighter: A slaving society and an abolitionist's crusade".The New Yorker.Archived fromthe originalon January 6, 2018.RetrievedOctober 16,2014.
- ^Corrigan, Terence (September 6, 2007)."Mauritania: Country Made Slavery Illegal Last Month".The East African Standard. Archived fromthe originalon August 4, 2011.RetrievedJanuary 21,2008.
- ^Hodal, Kate (May 31, 2016)."One in 200 people is a slave. Why?".The Guardian.Archived fromthe originalon April 30, 2019.
- ^"Religion & Ethics – Modern slavery: Modern forms of slavery".BBC.January 30, 2007. Archived fromthe originalon January 6, 2014.RetrievedJune 16,2009.
- ^"slave".Oxford English Dictionary(2nd ed.). 1989.
- ^Jankowiak, Marek (February 2017)."What Does the Slave Trade in the Saqaliba Tell Us about Early Islamic Slavery?".International Journal of Middle East Studies.49(1): 169–172.doi:10.1017/S0020743816001240.ISSN0020-7438.
- ^"The international slave trade".Encyclopædia Britannica.
- ^Lewis 1992,Chapter 1.
- ^Kluge, Friedrich(1899)."Artikel Sklave"[Article Slave].Etymologisches Wörterbuch Der Deutschen Sprache[Etymological dictionary of the German language] (in German) (6 ed.). Strassburg: Trübner. p. 366.
- ^Dostoevsky, Fyodor(1981). "Самое последнее слово цивилизации". In В. Г. Базанов и др., ИРЛИ (ed.).Polnoye sobraniye sochineniy. V 30 tomakhПолное собрание сочинений. В 30 томах[Full composition of writings. In 30 volumes] (in Russian). Vol. 23. Дневник писателя за 1876 год. Май-октябрь. Leningrad: Наука. Ленингр. отд-ние. pp. 63, 382. Archived fromthe originalon May 20, 2018.
- ^Korth, Georg(1970). "Zur Etymologie des Wortes 'Slavus' (Sklave)" [On the etymology of the word 'Slavus' (slave)].Glotta, Zeitschrift fur Griechische und Lateinische Sprache(in German).48(1/2). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht (GmbH & Co. KG): 145–153.JSTOR40266114.
- ^Kluge, Friedrich(1989)."Artikel Sklave".In Elmar Seebold (ed.).Etymologisches Wörterbuch Der Deutschen Sprache(in German) (22 ed.). Berlin & New York:De Gruyter.p. 676.ISBN3-11-006800-1.
- ^Köbler, Gerhard(1995)."Sklave"[Slave].Deutsches Etymologisches Rechtswörterbuch[German Etymological Legal Dictionary] (in German). Tübingen: Mohr. p. 371.ISBN978-3-8252-1888-1.
- ^Scholten, Daniel(2020). "Sklave und Slawe" [Slave and Slav].Deutsch für Dichter und Denker: Unsere Muttersprache in neuem Licht[German for poets and thinkers: Our mother tongue in a new light] (in German). Bright Star Books.ISBN978-3-948287-06-1.Archived fromthe originalon October 24, 2020.
- ^Ditten, Hans (1972). "Kritik an G. Korth".Byzantinoslavica.Vol. 33. Prague: Academia, de l'Academie Tchecoslovaque des Sciences et Lettres. pp. 183–184.
- ^Waldman, Katy (May 19, 2015)."Slave or Enslaved Person? It's not just an academic debate for historians of American slavery".Slate.Archivedfrom the original on May 21, 2015.
- ^Brace, Laura (2004).The Politics of Property: Labour, Freedom and Belonging.Edinburgh University Press.p. 162.ISBN978-0-7486-1535-3.RetrievedMay 31,2012.
- ^Keith Bradley (March 7, 2016)."slavery, Roman".Oxford Classical Dictionary.Oxford University Press.doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.7311.ISBN978-0-19-938113-5.RetrievedJune 27,2023.
chattel-slavery, whereby the slave‐owner enjoyed complete mastery (dominium) over the slave's physical being […] was evident throughout the central era of Roman history, and in Roman no less than Greek thought was regarded as both the necessary antithesis of civic freedom
- ^Bradley, Keith (November 2, 2020)."'The Bitter Chain of Slavery': Reflections on Slavery in Ancient Rome ".Harvard University.Archived fromthe originalon April 11, 2021.RetrievedNovember 15,2022.
- ^Finley, Moses I. (1980).Ancient Slavery and Modern Ideology.Viking Press. p. 71.ISBN9780670122776.
- ^Alexander, J. (2001). "Islam, Archaeology and Slavery in Africa".World Archaeology.33(1): 51.doi:10.1080/00438240120047627.JSTOR00438243.
Chattel-slaves were needed, especially from the ninth to thirteenth centuries, in the gold and emerald (carbuncle) mines of the Wadi Allaqi in the deserts east of the Nile's 2nd Cataract
- ^Burkholder, Mark A.; Johnson, Lyman L. (2019). "1. America, Iberia, and Africa Before the Conquest".Colonial Latin America(10th ed.).Oxford University Press.p. 10.
Wealth rested heavily on the possession of slaves across the large empires of West Africa as well as in Benin and other kingdoms […] Slave owners in sub-Saharan Africa also employed their chattel in a variety of occupations.
- ^Bergad, Laird W. (2007).The Comparative Histories of Slavery in Brazil, Cuba, and the United States.New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 57, 132, 165, 166.ISBN9780521872355.
- ^Slavery and Social Death: A Comparative Study, Orlando (1982).Patterson.Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. pp. X.ISBN9780674986909.
- ^Wendy Warren(2016).New England Bound(1st. ed.).W. W. Norton & Company.pp. 110–111.ISBN978-0-87140-672-9.
the Iroquois confederacy, people who practiced a form of captive taking that in some ways looked very like chattel slavery
- ^"Traditional or Chattel Slavery".FSE Project.The Feminist Sexual Ethics Project.RetrievedAugust 31,2014.
- ^abcMiers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. USA: AltaMira Press.
- ^ab"Mauritanian MPs pass slavery law".BBC News.August 9, 2007.RetrievedMay 23,2010.Cite error: The named reference "BBC" was defined multiple times with different content (see thehelp page).
- ^abBales 2004,pp. 15–18.
- ^"Debt bondage remains the most prevalent form of forced labour worldwide".United Nations.September 15, 2016.RetrievedJuly 27,2021.
- ^"Nigeria's young daughters are sold as 'money wives'".Al Jazeera.September 21, 2018.RetrievedMay 12,2020.
- ^Sleightholme; Indrani (1996).Guilty Without Trial.Rutgers University Press. pp. 11–12.ISBN0-8135-2381-8.
- ^Chatterjee, Indrani; Eaton, Richard (2006).Slavery and South Asian History.Indiana University Press.p. 3.ISBN978-0-253-11671-0.
- ^Dandamayev, M. A.; Barda; Bardadārī.Encyclopædia Iranica.
- ^Farazmand, Ali (1998). "Persian/Iranian Administrative Tradition". In Shafritz, Jay M. (ed.).International Encyclopedia of Public Edict and Administration.Boulder, CO:Westview Press.pp. 1640–1645 (1642).
Persians never practiced mass slavery, and in many cases the situations and lives of semi-slaves (prisoners of war) were in fact better than the common citizens of Persia.
- ^"Experts encourage action against sex trafficking".November 2, 2009. Archived fromthe originalon December 23, 2009.
- ^"Rights–Mexico: 16,000 Victims of Child Sexual Exploitation".ipsnews.net.August 13, 2007.RetrievedFebruary 11,2016.
- ^"Campaign Page: Child Soldiers".Human Rights Watch.June 2001. Archived fromthe originalon February 13, 2008.[verification needed]
- ^Sullivan, Kevin (December 26, 2008)."In Togo, a 10-Year-Old's Muted Cry: 'I Couldn't Take Any More'".Archivedfrom the original on June 12, 2018.RetrievedJanuary 15,2024.
- ^"Two-year-old 'at risk' of forced marriage".BBC News.March 5, 2013.
- ^"Honor Diaries: Child/Forced Marriage: Factsheet"(PDF).Honordiaries.com. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on September 24, 2015.RetrievedSeptember 29,2015.
- ^Black, Debra (September 20, 2013)."Forced marriages rampant in Ontario".The Hamilton Spectator.Archived fromthe originalon March 26, 2017.RetrievedSeptember 20,2013.
- ^"Without Consent: Forced Marriage in Australia"(PDF).Archived(PDF)from the original on June 13, 2015.
- ^"UNICEF supports fight to end marriage by abduction in Ethiopia".reliefweb.int. November 9, 2004.RetrievedAugust 29,2013.
- ^Krembs, Peter (January 20, 2003)."An Idea Not Worth Drafting: Conscription is Slavery".Capmag.com.RetrievedSeptember 29,2015.
- ^Kopel, Dave."Nationalized Slavery; A policy Italy should dump".davidkopel.com.Archived fromthe originalon October 12, 2007..Refers to both the military andnational servicerequirements of Italy as slavery
- ^Machan, Tibor R. (April 13, 2000)."Tax Slavery".Ludwig von Mises Institute.RetrievedOctober 9,2006.
- ^Valenstein, Elliot (2002).Blaming the Brain: The Truth About Drugs and Mental Health.Simon & Schuster.p. 26.ISBN978-0-7432-3787-1.
- ^Szasz, Thomas Stephen.Psychiatric Slavery.RetrievedSeptember 29,2015– via Google Books.
- ^Schaler, J. A. (2003)."Slavery and psychiatry".British Journal of Psychiatry.183:77–78.doi:10.1192/bjp.183.1.77-a.PMID12835252.
- ^Spiegel, Marjorie (1996).The Dreaded Comparison: Human and Animal Slavery.New York: Mirror Books.
- ^For sources about the concept of"wage slavery"and its various interpretations, see"wage slave".dictionary.com.RetrievedMarch 4,2013.
- ^Ellerman 1992.
- ^"wage slave".merriam-webster.com.RetrievedMarch 4,2013.
- ^"Constitution Society – Advocates and enforcers of the U.S. and State Constitutions".Archived fromthe originalon December 21, 2020.RetrievedFebruary 6,2021.
...vulgar are the means of livelihood of all hired workmen whom we pay for mere manual labour, not for artistic skill; for in their case the very wage they receive is a pledge of their slavery.
- ^North, Douglass C.; Thomas, Robert Paul (December 1971). "The Rise and Fall of the Manorial System: A Theoretical Model".The Journal of Economic History.31(4): 777–803.doi:10.1017/S0022050700074623.JSTOR2117209.S2CID154616683.
- ^Domar, Evsey D. (March 1970). "The Causes of Slavery or Serfdom: A Hypothesis".The Journal of Economic History.30(1): 18–32.doi:10.1017/S0022050700078566.JSTOR2116721.S2CID154921369.
- ^Lagerlöf, Nils-Petter (November 12, 2006)."Slavery and other property rights".MPRA Paper 372.RetrievedMay 6,2009.
- ^"Technology".History.com. January 4, 2008. Archived fromthe originalon April 23, 2008.RetrievedMay 6,2009.
- ^Helper, Hinton Rowan(1857).The Impending Crisis of the South: How to Meet It.New York: Burdick Brothers.
- ^McKivigan, John R.; Snay, Mitchell (1998).Religion and the Antebellum Debate Over Slavery.University of Georgia Press.p. 68.ISBN978-0-8203-2076-2.RetrievedMay 31,2012.
- ^Griswold, Charles L. (1999).Adam Smith and the Virtues of Enlightenment.Cambridge University Press.p. 198.ISBN978-0-521-62891-4.RetrievedMay 31,2012.
- ^Forbes 1998,p. 74.
- ^abcKara, Siddharth (2008).Sex Trafficking – Inside the Business of Modern Slavery.Columbia University Press.ISBN978-0-231-13960-1.
- ^"Louis Dor (Saturday 30 April 2016) Kim Jong-un is recruiting a new 'pleasure squad' of teenage girls".April 30, 2016.
- ^Ryall, Julian (April 2, 2015)."Kim Jong-un brings back 'pleasure troupe' entertainers".The Telegraph.
- ^"From private to state slavery and back again".Eurozine.July 31, 2017.RetrievedAugust 12,2021.
- ^Lockhart, James; Schwartz, Stuart.Early Latin America.New York:Cambridge University Press.p. 138.
The encomienda in its early heyday granted a lifetime monopoly on the utilization of temporary Indian labor in a given area to one Spaniard, the encomendero.
- ^"One day we will start a big war".Foreign Policy.Archivedfrom the original on February 5, 2017.RetrievedFebruary 13,2017.
- ^Stengers, Jean(1969). "The Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo before 1914". In Gann, L. H.; Duignan, Peter (eds.).Colonialism in Africa, 1870–1914.Vol. I. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.p. 272.
- ^Pollak, Michael (March 28, 2014)."Determining the Legal Rights of Slaves".The New York Times.ISSN0362-4331.RetrievedFebruary 11,2021.
- ^Ober, Josiah (June 26, 2018).Athenian Legacies: Essays on the Politics of Going On Together.Princeton University Press.ISBN978-0-691-19016-7.
- ^Cobb, Thomas (1999) [1858].An Inquiry into the Law of Negro Slavery in the United States of America.University of Georgia Press.pp. 268–269.
- ^abHellie, Richard(May 6, 2023)."Slavery".Encyclopædia Britannica.
- ^Harris, W. V. (February 3, 2011).Demography, Geography, and the Sources of Roman Slaves.Oxford University Press.pp. 88–110.doi:10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199595167.003.0005.ISBN978-0-19-959516-7.
{{cite book}}:|work=ignored (help) - ^Perbi, Akosua (April 5, 2001)."Slavery and the Slave Trade in Pre-colonial Africa"(PDF).latinamericanstudies.org.RetrievedAugust 11,2016.
- ^"Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History".Britannica.com.Archived fromthe originalon December 30, 2007.RetrievedMarch 19,2018.
- ^Bindman, David; Gates (Jr.), Henry Louis; Dalton, Karen C. C., eds. (2010).The Image of the Black in Western Art.Vol. 2.Belknap PressofHarvard University Press.p. 27.ISBN978-0-674-05271-0.
- ^Mohaiemen, Naeem (July 27, 2004)."Slaves in Saudi".The Daily Star.Vol. 5, no. 61.RetrievedFebruary 7,2021.
- ^Ochiengʼ, William Robert (1975).Eastern Kenya and Its Invaders.East African Literature Bureau. p. 76.RetrievedMay 15,2015– viaGoogle Books.
- ^abOgot, Bethwell A.(April 1970). "Zamani: a survey of East African history".African Affairs:104.doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a096007.ISSN1468-2621.
- ^abLodhi, Abdulaziz (2000).Oriental influences in Swahili: a study in language and culture contacts.Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis. p. 17.ISBN978-91-7346-377-5.
- ^"Focus on the slave trade".BBC.September 3, 2001. Archived fromthe originalon May 25, 2017.
- ^Fage, John Donnelly;Tordoff, William (2001).A History of Africa(4 ed.). Budapest:Routledge.p. 258.ISBN978-0-415-25248-5.
- ^Tannenbaum, Edward R.; Dudley, Guilford (1973).A History of World Civilizations.Wiley. p. 615.ISBN978-0-471-84480-8.
- ^Campbell 2004,p. ix.
- ^Shillington, Kevin (July 4, 2013).Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set.Routledge.p. 1401.ISBN978-1-135-45670-2.
- ^"Slow Death for Slavery: The Course of Abolition in Northern Nigeria, 1897–1936 (review)".Journal of World History.Archived fromthe originalon April 11, 2016.RetrievedDecember 31,2021.
- ^""Freedom is a good thing but it means a dearth of slaves": Twentieth Century Solutions to the Abolition of Slavery "(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on May 15, 2011.RetrievedAugust 29,2010.
- ^Bagley, H. R. C. (August 1, 1997).The Last Great Muslim Empires.BRILL.ISBN978-90-04-02104-4.
- ^Rodriguez 2007a,p. 585.
- ^Asquith, Christina."Revisiting the Zanj and Re-Visioning Revolt: Complexities of the Zanj Conflict – 868–883 AD – slave revolt in Iraq".Archived fromthe originalon March 6, 2016.
- ^"Islam, From Arab To Islamic Empire: The Early Abbasid Era".History-world.org. Archived fromthe originalon September 24, 2018.RetrievedMarch 23,2016.
- ^Kissling, H. J.; Spuler, Bertold; Barbour, N.; Trimingham, J. S.; Braun, H.; Hartel, H. (August 1, 1997).The Last Great Muslim Empires.BRILL.ISBN978-90-04-02104-4.
- ^Syed, Muzaffar Husain (2011).A Concise History of Islam.New Delhi: VIJ Books (India) Pty Ltd. p. 453.ISBN978-93-81411-09-4.
According to Robert Davis, from the 16th to 19th century, pirates captured 1 million to 1.25 million Europeans as slaves.
- ^Davis, R. (September 16, 2003).Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, The Barbary Coast, and Italy, 1500–1800.Palgrave MacmillanUK.ISBN978-1-4039-4551-8– viaGoogle Books.
- ^"When Europeans Were Slaves: Research Suggests White Slavery Was Much More Common Than Previously Believed".Research News. Archived fromthe originalon July 25, 2011.RetrievedOctober 10,2007.
- ^abCarroll, Rory (March 11, 2004)."New book reopens old arguments about slave raids on Europe".The Guardian.ISSN0261-3077.RetrievedDecember 11,2017.
- ^Wright, John (2007). "Trans-Saharan Slave Trade".Routledge.
- ^Baepler, B. (January 1999). "White Slaves, African Masters: An Anthology of American Barbary Captivity Narratives".The SHAFR Guide Online.University of Chicago Press:5.doi:10.1163/2468-1733_shafr_sim030170256.
- ^"History – British History in depth: British Slaves on the Barbary Coast".BBC.RetrievedMarch 12,2013.
- ^"Swahili Coast".National Geographic.October 17, 2002. Archived fromthe originalon December 30, 2007.RetrievedSeptember 30,2015.
- ^"Remembering East African slave raids".BBC News.March 30, 2007.RetrievedFebruary 6,2021.
- ^"Focus on the slave trade".BBC News.September 3, 2001.RetrievedFebruary 6,2021.
- ^Campbell 2007,p. 173.
- ^Veenhoven, Willem A. (1977).Case Studies on Human Rights And Fundamental Freedoms: A World Survey.Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 440.ISBN978-90-247-1956-3.RetrievedMay 31,2012.
- ^abSnell, Daniel C. (2011). "Slavery in the Ancient Near East". In Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge (ed.).The Cambridge World History of Slavery.New York:Cambridge University Press.pp. 4–21.
- ^Lovejoy, Paul E. (1989). "The Impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Africa: A Review of the Literature".Journal of African History:30.
- ^Foner, Eric (2012).Give Me Liberty: An American History.New York:W. W. Norton & Company.p. 18.
- ^M'bokolo, Elikia (April 1, 1998)."The impact of the slave trade on Africa".Le Monde diplomatique.RetrievedFebruary 7,2021.
- ^abcGates, Henry Louis Jr.(April 22, 2010)."Opinion | Ending the Slavery Blame-Game".The New York Times.ISSN0362-4331.RetrievedFebruary 13,2021.
- ^Bortolot, Alexander Ives."The Transatlantic Slave Trade]".metmuseum.org.RetrievedFebruary 6,2021.
- ^"Nigeria – The Slave Trade".countrystudies.us.U.S. Library of Congress.Archived fromthe originalon February 7, 2021.RetrievedFebruary 6,2021.
- ^Rubinstein, W. D. (2004).Genocide: a history.Pearson Education. pp. 76–78.ISBN978-0-582-50601-5.
- ^Mancke, Elizabeth; Shammas, Carole (May 31, 2005).The Creation of the British Atlantic World.Johns Hopkins University Press.pp. 30–31.ISBN978-0-8018-8039-1.
- ^"Aztec Social Structure".University of Texas at Austin.Archived fromthe originalon February 23, 2011.
- ^Lawson, Russell M.; Lawson, Benjamin A. (October 11, 2019).Race and Ethnicity in America: From Pre-contact to the Present [4 volumes].ABC-CLIO.p. 16.ISBN978-1-4408-5097-4.
- ^"Slavery in the New World".Encyclopædia Britannica.RetrievedFebruary 25,2011.
- ^Ames, Kenneth M. (June 2001). "Slaves, Chiefs and Labour on the Northern Northwest Coast".World Archaeology.33 (The Archaeology of Slavery) (1): 1–17.doi:10.1080/00438240120047591.JSTOR827885.S2CID162278526.
- ^ Donald, Leland (1997)."Aboriginal Slavery on the Northwest Coast of North America".University of California Press.ISBN978-0-520-91811-5.RetrievedDecember 25,2019– viaGoogle Books.
- ^"The World Factbook".CIA.Archived fromthe originalon June 29, 2011.RetrievedAugust 8,2010.
- ^"Sicut Dudem -Against the Enslavement of Black Natives of the Canary Islands".papalencyclicals.net.January 13, 1435.
- ^"Sublimus Dei – On the Enslavement and Evangelization of Indians".papalencyclicals.net.May 29, 1537.
- ^Hanke, Lewis (1974).All Mankind Is One: A Study of the Disputation Between Bartolomé de Las Casas and Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda on the Religious and Intellectual Capacity of the American Indians.Northern Illinois University Press.p. xi.ISBN0-87580-043-2."For the first time, and probably for the last, a colonizing nation organized a formal enquiry into the justice of the methods used to extend its empire. For the first time, too, in the modern world, we see an attempt to stigmatize an entire race as inferior, as born slaves according to the theory elaborated centuries before by Aristotle."
- ^"Health In Slavery".Archived fromthe originalon October 3, 2006.
- ^Panzer, Joel S. (1996).The Popes and Slavery.Alba House. p. 3.ISBN0-8189-0764-9."The earlier forms of servitude were varied, complex, and very often of a different sociological category than those which were prevalent after the 14th century. While all forms of servitude are certainly unacceptable to most people today, this has not always been the case. Formerly, the rules of war and society were such that servitude was often imposed as a penalty on criminals and prisoners of war, and was even freely chosen by many workers for economic reasons. Children born of those held in servitude were also at times considered to be in the same state as that of their parents. These types of servitude were the most common among those generally considered to establish the so-called 'just titles' of servitude."
- ^Galenson, David W. (March 1984). "The Rise and Fall of Indentured Servitude in the Americas: An Economic Analysis".The Journal of Economic History.XLIV(1): 1–26.doi:10.1017/S002205070003134X.JSTOR2120553.S2CID154682898.
- ^Bavis;Donoghue (2010),pp. 943–974;Higginbotham (1978),p. 7
- ^"Slave Laws".Virtual Jamestown.RetrievedNovember 4,2013.
- ^Billings, Warren M. (2009).The Old Dominion in the Seventeenth Century: A Documentary History of Virginia, 1606–1700: Easyread Super Large 18pt Edition.ReadHowYouWant.com. pp. 286–87.ISBN978-1-4429-6090-9.
- ^Federal Writers' Project(1954).Virginia: A Guide to the Old Dominion.US History Publishers. p. 76.ISBN978-1-60354-045-2.
- ^Danver (2010),p. 322;Kozlowski (2010),p. 78;Conway (2008),p.5;Toppin (2010),p. 46;Foner (1980);Burnham (1993)
- ^abAgurilar-Moreno, Manuel (2006).Handbook to Life in the Aztec World.California State University,Los Angeles.
- ^"Jamaican History I".Discover Jamaica. Archived fromthe originalon August 5, 2013.RetrievedAugust 23,2013.
- ^Childs, Matt D. (2006).1812 Aponte Rebellion in Cuba and the Struggle against Atlantic Slavery.University of North Carolina Press.ISBN978-0-8078-5772-4.
- ^Ali, Arif(1997).Barbados: Just Beyond Your Imagination.Hansib Publishing (Caribbean) Ltd. pp. 46, 48.ISBN978-1-870518-54-3.
- ^Streissguth, Tom (2009).Suriname in Pictures.Twenty-First Century Books. p.23.ISBN978-1-57505-964-8.
- ^Mentelle, Simon M. (1777)."Extract of the Dutch Map Representing the Colony of Surinam".wdl.org.Digital World Library via Library of Congress.RetrievedFebruary 7,2021.
- ^"Domínio Público – Pesquisa Básica"[Public Domain – Basic Research].dominiopublico.gov.br(in Brazilian Portuguese).
- ^"Vergonha Ainda Maior: Novas informações disponíveis em um enorme banco de dados mostram que a escravidão no Brasil foi muito pior do que se sabia antes"[Even Greater Shame: New information available from a huge database shows that slavery in Brazil was far worse than previously known].Veja(in Portuguese). Archived fromthe originalon March 13, 2015.RetrievedMarch 16,2015.
- ^"African Heritage and Memories of Slavery in Brazil and the South Atlantic World By Ana Lucia Araujo".cambriapress.com.Archived fromthe originalon March 22, 2023.RetrievedFebruary 7,2021.
- ^Reséndez, Andrés(2016).The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America.Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.p. 17.ISBN978-0-547-64098-3.
- ^Farmer, Paul (April 15, 2004)."Who removed Aristide?".London Review of Books.pp. 28–31. Archived fromthe originalon June 8, 2008.RetrievedFebruary 19,2010.
- ^Kiple, Kenneth F. (2002).The Caribbean Slave: A Biological History.Cambridge University Press.p. 145.ISBN978-0-521-52470-4.
- ^Campbell 2008,pp. 27–53.
- ^Moitt, Bernard (2001).Women and Slavery in the French Antilles, 1635–1848.Indiana University Press.p. 63.
- ^Coupeau, Steeve (2008).The History of Haiti.Greenwood Publishing Group.p. 18.ISBN978-0-313-34089-5.
- ^Wood, Peter (2003)."The Birth of Race-Based Slavery".Slate.Archived fromthe originalon January 20, 2023.
- ^Smith, Julia Floyd (1973).Slavery and Plantation Growth in Antebellum Florida, 1821–1860.Gainesville:University of Florida Press.p. 44.ISBN978-0-8130-0323-8– viaGoogle Books.
- ^abMoore, Wilbert Ellis (1980).American Negro Slavery and Abolition: A Sociological Study.Ayer Publishing.
- ^Clinton, Catherine (1999).Scholastic Encyclopedia of the Civil War.Scholastic Reference. p. 8.ISBN978-0-590-37228-2.
- ^McInnis, Maurie D. (2011).Slaves Waiting for Sale: Abolitionist Art and the American Slave Trade.University of Chicago Press.p. 129.ISBN978-0-226-55933-9.
- ^Behrendt, Stephen(1999). "Transatlantic Slave Trade".Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience.New York: Basic Civitas Books.ISBN978-0-465-00071-5.Based on "records for 27,233 voyages that set out to obtain slaves for the Americas".
- ^"Social Aspects of the Civil War".National Park Service.Archived fromthe originalon July 14, 2007.
- ^"Why Did So Many Christians Support Slavery?".christianitytoday.com.January 1992.RetrievedAugust 28,2017.
- ^"1860 Census Results".Archived fromthe originalon June 4, 2004.
- ^Coates, Ta-Nehisi(August 9, 2010)."Small Truth Papering Over a Big Lie".The Atlantic.RetrievedSeptember 29,2015.
- ^Lowe, Jaime (July 27, 2021)."What Does California Owe Its Incarcerated Firefighters?".The Atlantic.RetrievedAugust 29,2023.
- ^Pargas, Damian Alan; Roşu, Felicia (December 7, 2017).Critical Readings on Global Slavery (4 vols.).BRILL.ISBN978-90-04-34661-1.
- ^"Slavery and forced labour in Ancient China and the Ancient Mediterranean".University of Edinburgh.Archived fromthe originalon March 6, 2019.RetrievedMarch 6,2019.
- ^Ober, Josiah; Scheidel, Walter; Shaw, Brent D.; Sanclemente, Donna (April 18, 2007). "Toward Open Access in Ancient Studies: The Princeton-Stanford Working Papers in Classics".Hesperia.76(1): 229–242.doi:10.2972/hesp.76.1.229.ISSN0018-098X.S2CID145709968.
- ^"Outline of the Senmin system during the Ritsuryo period"(PDF).June 14, 2024.
- ^abcRodriguez 1997,pp. 146–147.
- ^Sam sơn chính minh 《 hốt tất liệt đích thiêu chiến 》, xã hội khoa học văn hiến xuất bản xã, 2013 niên, đệ 44–46 hiệt
- ^Thuyền điền thiện chi 《 sắc mục nhân dữ nguyên đại chế độ, xã hội – trọng tân tham thảo mông cổ, sắc mục, hán nhân, nam nhân hoa phân đích vị trí 》,〈 mông cổ học tín tức 〉2003 niên đệ 2 kỳ
- ^Williams, R. Owen (November 2006).Encyclopedia of Antislavery and Abolition [Two Volumes].Greenwood Press.ISBN978-0-313-01524-3.
- ^Zhao, Gang (1986).Man and Land in Chinese History: An Economic Analysis.Stanford University Press.ISBN978-0-8047-1271-2.
- ^Huang, Philip C. (2001).Code, Custom, and Legal Practice in China: The Qing and the Republic Compared.Stanford University Press.ISBN978-0-8047-4111-8.
- ^"Kao-li maid-servant".Memoirs of the Research Department of the Tōyō Bunko(2). Tokyo:Tōyō Bunko:63. 1928.ISSN0082-562X.
- ^Lee (1997),p. 49;Davis (1988),p. 51;Salisbury (2004),p. 316
- ^Schafer, Edward H. (1963).The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A Study of Tʻang Exotics.University of California Press.pp. 45–46.ISBN978-0-520-05462-2.
- ^Granet, Marcel(2013) [1930],"The History of Civilization",Chinese Civilization,London:Routledge,pp. 500–503,doi:10.4324/9781315005508-24,ISBN978-1-315-00550-8
- ^Lipman, Jonathan Neaman (2004).Familiar strangers: a history of Muslims in Northwest China.Seattle:University of Washington Press.p. 69.ISBN978-0-295-97644-0.RetrievedNovember 28,2010.
- ^Brook, Timothy; Wakabayashi, Bob Tadashi (2000).Opium regimes: China, Britain, and Japan, 1839–1952.University of California Press.p. 148.ISBN978-0-520-22236-6.RetrievedNovember 28,2010.
- ^Millward 1998,p. 145.
- ^Millward 1998,p. 206.
- ^abcdefghiRodriguez 1997,pp. 392–393.
- ^abcKlein, Martin A. (2014).Historical Dictionary of Slavery and Abolition.Rowman & LittlefieldPublishers. p. 13.ISBN978-0-8108-7528-9.
- ^Rhee, Young-hoon; Yang, Donghyu."Korean Nobi in American Mirror: Yi Dynasty Coerced Labor in Comparison to the Slavery in the Antebellum Southern United States".Working Paper Series.Institute of Economic Research,Seoul National University.Archived fromthe originalon November 6, 2018.RetrievedFebruary 14,2017.
- ^Campbell 2004,pp. 153–157.
- ^Palais, James B. (1998).Views on Korean social history.Institute for Modern Korean Studies,Yonsei University.p. 50.ISBN978-89-7141-441-5.RetrievedFebruary 15,2017.
Another target of his critique is the insistence that slaves (nobi) in Korea, especially in Choson dynasty, were closer to serfs (nongno) than true slaves (noye) in Europe and America, enjoying more freedom and independence than what a slave would normally be allowed.
- ^Kim, Youngmin; Pettid, Michael J. (2011).Women and Confucianism in Choson Korea: New Perspectives.SUNY Press.p. 141.ISBN978-1-4384-3777-4.RetrievedFebruary 14,2017.
- ^abcCampbell 2004,pp. 162–163.
- ^Campbell 2004,p. 157.
- ^abKim, Youngmin; Pettid, Michael J. (2011).Women and Confucianism in Choson Korea: New Perspectives.SUNY Press.pp. 140–41.ISBN978-1-4384-3777-4.RetrievedFebruary 14,2017.
- ^Korean National Commission for UNESCO (2004).Korean History: Discovery of Its Characteristics and Developments.Hollym. p. 14.ISBN978-1-56591-177-2.
- ^abTierney, Helen (1999).Women's Studies Encyclopedia.Greenwood Publishing Group.p. 277.ISBN978-0-313-31071-3.
- ^Hoffman, Michael (May 26, 2013)."The rarely, if ever, told story of Japanese sold as slaves by Portuguese traders".The Japan Times.Archived fromthe originalon May 5, 2019.RetrievedMarch 2,2014.
- ^"Europeans had Japanese slaves, in case you didn't know…".Japan Probe.May 10, 2007. Archived fromthe originalon March 4, 2016.RetrievedJanuary 7,2018.
- ^Hertel, Ralf; Keevak, Michael (2017).Early Encounters between East Asia and Europe: Telling Failures.Routledge.ISBN978-1-317-14718-3.
- ^Michael Weiner, ed. (2004).Race, Ethnicity and Migration in Modern Japan: Imagined and imaginary minorities(illustrated ed.).Taylor & Francis.p. 408.ISBN978-0-415-20857-4.RetrievedFebruary 2,2014.
- ^Appiah, Kwame Anthony;Gates, Henry Louis Jr.,eds. (2005).Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience.Vol. 3. Oxford:Oxford University Press.p. 479.ISBN978-0-19-517055-9.RetrievedFebruary 13,2021.
- ^Appiah, Kwame Anthony;Gates, Henry Louis Jr.,eds. (2010).Encyclopedia of Africa.Vol. 1. Oxford:Oxford University Press.p. 187.ISBN978-0-19-533770-9.RetrievedFebruary 13,2021.
- ^Robert Gellately; Ben Kiernan, eds. (2003).The Specter of Genocide: Mass Murder in Historical Perspective(reprint ed.).Cambridge University Press.p.277.ISBN978-0-521-52750-7.RetrievedFebruary 2,2014.
Hideyoshi korean slaves guns silk.
- ^McCormack, Gavan (2001).Reflections on Modern Japanese History in the Context of the Concept of "genocide".Edwin O. Reischauer Institute of Japanese Studies. Harvard University, Edwin O. Reischauer Institute of Japanese Studies. p. 18.
- ^Lidin, Olof G. (2002).Tanegashima – The Arrival of Europe in Japan.Routledge.p. 170.ISBN978-1-135-78871-1.RetrievedFebruary 2,2014.
- ^Stanley, Amy (2012).Selling Women: Prostitution, Markets, and the Household in Early Modern Japan.Vol. 21 of Asia: Local Studies / Global Themes. Matthew H. Sommer.University of California Press.ISBN978-0-520-95238-6.RetrievedFebruary 2,2014.
- ^Spence, Jonathan D. (1985).The memory palace of Matteo Ricci(illustrated, reprint ed.).Penguin Books.p. 208.ISBN978-0-14-008098-8.RetrievedMay 5,2012.
countryside.16 Slaves were everywhere in Lisbon, according to the Florentine merchant Filippo Sassetti, who was also living in the city during 1578. Black slaves were the most numerous, but there were also a scattering of Chinese
- ^Leite, José Roberto Teixeira (1999).A China no Brasil: influências, marcas, ecos e sobrevivências chinesas na sociedade e na arte brasileiras(in Portuguese). UNICAMP. Universidade Estadual de Campinas. p. 19.ISBN978-85-268-0436-4.
Idéias e costumes da China podem ter-nos chegado também através de escravos chineses, de uns poucos dos quais sabe-se da presença no Brasil de começos do Setecentos.17 Mas não deve ter sido através desses raros infelizes que a influência chinesa nos atingiu, mesmo porque escravos chineses (e também japoneses) já existiam aos montes em Lisboa por volta de 1578, quando Filippo Sassetti visitou a cidade,18 apenas suplantados em número pelos africanos. Parece aliás que aos últimos cabia o trabalho pesado, ficando reservadas aos chins tarefas e funções mais amenas, inclusive a de em certos casos secretariar autoridades civis, religiosas e militares.
- ^abPinto, Jeanette (1992).Slavery in Portuguese India, 1510–1842.Bombay: Himalaya Pub. House. p. 18.ISBN978-81-7040-587-0.
ing Chinese as slaves, since they are found to be very loyal, intelligent and hard working'... their culinary bent was also evidently appreciated. The Florentine traveller Fillippo Sassetti, recording his impressions of Lisbon's enormous slave population circa 1580, states that the majority of the Chinese there were employed as cooks.
- ^Boxer (1968),p. 225: "be very loyal, intelligent, and hard-working. Their culinary bent (not for nothing is Chinese cooking regarded as the Asiatic equivalent to French cooking in Europe) was evidently appreciated. The Florentine traveller Filipe Sassetti recording his impressions of Lisbon's enormous slave population circa 1580, states that the majority of the Chinese there were employed as cooks. Dr. John Fryer, who gives us an interesting...".
- ^Leite, José Roberto Teixeira (1999).A China No Brasil: Influencias, Marcas, Ecos E Sobrevivencias Chinesas Na Sociedade E Na Arte Brasileiras[China in Brazil: Influences, Marks, Echoes and Chinese Survivals in Brazilian Society and Art] (in Portuguese). UNICAMP. Universidade Estadual de Campinas. p. 19.ISBN978-85-268-0436-4.
- ^Finkelman, Paul; Miller, Joseph Calder (1998).Macmillan encyclopedia of world slavery.Vol. 2. Macmillan Reference US. p. 737.ISBN978-0-02-864781-4.OCLC39655102.
- ^de Sande (2012);Saunders (1982),p. 168;Boxer (1968),p. 225: "be very loyal, intelligent, and hard-working. Their culinary bent (not for nothing is Chinese cooking regarded as the Asiatic equivalent to French cooking in Europe) was evidently appreciated. The Florentine traveller Filipe Sassetti recording his impressions of Lisbon's enormous slave population circa 1580, states that the majority of the Chinese there were employed as cooks. Dr. John Fryer, who gives us an interesting...".
- ^Nelson, Thomas (Winter 2004). "Slavery in Medieval Japan".Monumenta Nipponica.59(4): 463–492.JSTOR25066328.
- ^Daigaku, Jōchi (2004).Monumenta Nipponica.Sophia University.p. 465.
- ^Kitagawa, Joseph Mitsuo (2013).Religion in Japanese History(illustrated, reprint ed.).Columbia University Press.p. 144.ISBN978-0-231-51509-2.RetrievedFebruary 2,2014.
- ^Calman, Donald (2013).Nature and Origins of Japanese Imperialism.Routledge.p. 37.ISBN978-1-134-91843-0.RetrievedFebruary 2,2014.
- ^Kshetry, Gopal (2008).Foreigners in Japan: A Historical Perspective.Xlibris Corporation.ISBN978-1-4691-0244-3.[self-published source]
- ^Moran, J.F. (2012).Japanese and the Jesuits.Routledge.ISBN978-1-134-88112-3.RetrievedFebruary 2,2014.
- ^Dias, Maria Suzette Fernandes (2007).Legacies of slavery: comparative perspectives.Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 71.ISBN978-1-84718-111-4.
- ^footnote 2: (...) While it is likely that the institution of slavery existed in India during the Vedic period, the association of the Vedic 'Dasa' with 'slaves' is problematic and likely to have been a later development.
- ^Levi, Scott C. (November 2002)."Hindus Beyond the Hindu Kush: Indians in the Central Asian Slave Trade".Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.12(3): 277–288.doi:10.1017/S1356186302000329.JSTOR25188289.S2CID155047611.
Sources such as the Arthasastra, the Manusmriti and the Mahabharata demonstrate that institutionalized slavery was well established in India by beginning of the common era
- ^"Windows – Slice of history".The Tribune.
- ^Subrahmanyam (1997),pp. 201–253;Prakash (1998),p. 5;Prakash (1985);Richards (2012);Raychaudhuri & Habib (1982);Arasaratnam (1995);Vink (1998);Arasaratnam (1996);Love (1913)
- ^V.B. Lieberman,Burmese Administrative Cycles: Anarchy and Conquest, c. 1580–1760(Princeton, N.J., 1984); G.D. Winius, "The 'Shadow Empire' of Goa in the Bay of Bengal,"Itinerario7, no. 2 (1983); D.G.E. Hall, "Studies in Dutch relations with Arakan,"Journal of the Burma Research Society26, no. 1 (1936):; D.G.E. Hall, "The Daghregister of Batavia and Dutch Trade with Burma in the Seventeenth Century,"Journal of the Burma Research Society29, no. 2 (1939)
- ^VOC 1479, OBP 1691, fls. 611r–627v, Specificatie van Allerhande Koopmansz. tot Tuticurin, Manaapar en Alvatt.rij Ingekocht, 1670/71–1689/90; W. Ph. Coolhaas and J.van Goor, eds, Generale Missiven van Gouverneurs-Generaal en Raden van Indiaan Heren Zeventien der Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie (The Hague, 1960–present), passim; T. Raychaudhuri,Jan Company in Coromandel, 1605–1690: A Study on the Interrelations of European Commerce and Traditional Economies(The Hague, 1962)
- ^For exports of Malabar slaves to Ceylon, Batavia, see Generale Missiven VI; H.K. s'Jacob ed.,De Nederlanders in Kerala, 1663–1701: De Memories en Instructies Betreffende het Commandement Malabar van de Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie,Rijks Geschiedkundige Publication, Kleine serie 43 (The Hague, 1976); R. Barendse, "Slaving on the Malagasy Coast, 1640–1700," in S. Evers and M. Spindler, eds,Cultures of Madagascar: Ebb and Flow of Influences(Leiden, 1995). See also M.O. Koshy,The Dutch Power in Kerala(New Delhi, 1989); K.K. Kusuman,Slavery in Travancore(Trivandrum, 1973); M.A.P. Meilink-Roelofsz,De Vestiging der Nederlanders ter Kuste Malabar(The Hague, 1943); H. Terpstra,De Opkomst der Westerkwartieren van de Oostindische Compagnie(The Hague, 1918).
- ^Of 2,467 slaves traded on 12 slave voyages from Batavia, India, and Madagascar between 1677 and 1701 to the Cape, 1,617 were landed with a loss of 850 slaves, or 34.45%. On 19 voyages between 1677 and 1732, the mortality rate was somewhat lower (22.7%). See Shell, "Slavery at the Cape of Good Hope, 1680–1731," p. 332. Filliot estimated the average mortality rate among slaves shipped from India and West Africa to the Mascarene Islands at 20–25% and 25–30%, respectively. Average mortality rates among slaves arriving from closer catchment areas were lower: 12% from Madagascar and 21% from Southeast Africa. See Filliot, La Traite des Esclaves, p. 228; A. Toussaint, La Route des Îles: Contribution à l'Histoire Maritime des Mascareignes (Paris, 1967); Allen, "The Madagascar Slave Trade and Labor Migration."
- ^abBowie, Katherine A. (1996)."Slavery in Nineteenth-Century Northern Thailand: Archival Anecdotes and Village Voices".Kyoto Review of Southeast Asia.44.Yale University Southeast Asia Studies Monograph Series: 16–33.
- ^abcdClarence-Smith, W. G. (2006).Islam and the Abolition of Slavery.Oxford University Press.p. 13.ISBN978-0-19-522151-0.
- ^Klein, Martin A. (2014). "Maori".Historical Dictionary of Slavery and Abolition.Historical Dictionaries of Religions, Philosophies, and Movements Series (2 ed.). Lanham, Maryland:Rowman & Littlefield.p. 253.ISBN978-0-8108-7528-9.RetrievedFebruary 23,2019.
Slaves calledmokaiwere an important part of pre-colonial Maori society.
- ^Lauffer, Siegfried (August 1, 1957). Berneker, Erich (ed.). "Die Bergwerkssklaven von Laureion, I. Teil" [The Mine Slaves of Laureion, Part I].Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung für Rechtsgeschichte: Romanistische Abteilung(in German).74(1): 916.doi:10.7767/zrgra.1957.74.1.403.ISSN2304-4934.S2CID179216974.
- ^"Slavery in Ancient Rome".Dl.ket.org. Archived fromthe originalon February 22, 2010.RetrievedAugust 29,2010.
- ^Harper, Kyle (2011).Slavery in the Late Roman World, AD 275–425.Cambridge University Press.pp. 59–60.ISBN978-1-139-50406-5.RetrievedAugust 11,2016.
- ^"Resisting Slavery in Ancient Rome".BBC News.November 5, 2009.RetrievedAugust 29,2010.
- ^abcScheidel, Walter."The Roman slave supply"(PDF).Stanford University.
- ^Joshel, Sandra R. (August 6, 2010).Slavery in the Roman World.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-53501-4.
- ^Santosuosso, Antonio (2001).Storming the Heavens.Westview Press.pp. 43–44.ISBN978-0-8133-3523-0.
- ^Noy, David (2000).Foreigners at Rome: Citizens and Strangers.Duckworth with the Classical Press of Wales.ISBN978-0-7156-2952-9.
- ^Harper, James (April 1972). "Slaves and Freedmen in Imperial Rome".The American Journal of Philology.93(2).Johns Hopkins University Press:341–342.doi:10.2307/293259.JSTOR293259.
- ^Thomas, Hugh(2006).The Slave Trade: History of the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1440–1870.Weidenfeld & Nicolson. p. 35.ISBN978-0-7538-2056-8.
- ^Hayes, Diana(2003). "Reflections on Slavery". In Curran, Charles E. (ed.).Change in Official Catholic Moral Teachings.Paulist Press.ISBN978-0-8091-4134-0.
- ^"Slave trade".Encyclopedia Britannica.May 14, 2020.RetrievedFebruary 13,2021.
- ^Singer, Isido Singer; Jacobs, Joseph."Slave-trade".Jewishencyclopedia.com.RetrievedAugust 29,2010.
- ^"Slavery Encyclopedia of Ukraine".Encyclopediaofukraine.com.RetrievedAugust 29,2010.
- ^Postan, Michael Moïssey; Miller, Edward (1987).The Cambridge Economic History of Europe: Trade and industry in the Middle Ages.Cambridge University Press.p. 417.ISBN978-0-521-08709-4.RetrievedMay 31,2012.
- ^Boyce Davies, Carole Elizabeth (2008).Encyclopedia of the African Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture.ABC-CLIO.p. 1002.ISBN978-1-85109-705-0.RetrievedMay 31,2012.
- ^Jurasinski, S. (2015).The Old English Penitentials and Anglo-Saxon Law.Studies in Legal History.Cambridge University Press.p. 96.ISBN978-1-107-08341-7.RetrievedMay 11,2023– viaGoogle Books.
- ^Foot, S. (2011).AEthelstan: The First King of England.The English Monarchs Series.Yale University Press.p. 139.ISBN978-0-300-12535-1.RetrievedMay 11,2023– viaGoogle Books.
- ^Goose, Nigel (October 18, 2007)."Victoria county history: a history of the county of Chester, vol. V, 2, The city of Chester: culture, buildings and institutions – Edited by Christopher P. Lewis and Alan T. Thacker Victoria county history: a history of the county of Durham, vol. IV, Darlington – Edited by Gillian Cookson Victoria county history: a history of the County of Oxford, vol. XV, Carterton, Minster Lovell, and environs (Bampton Hundred part three) – Edited by S. Townley".The Economic History Review.60(4): 830–832.doi:10.1111/j.1468-0289.2007.00401_3.x.ISSN0013-0117.
- ^Clapham, John H.A Concise Economic History of Britain from the Earliest Times.CUP Archive.p. 63. GGKEY:HYPAY3GPAA5.
- ^"Medieval English society".University of Wisconsin.Archived fromthe originalon February 14, 2005.RetrievedSeptember 5,2009.
- ^Hudson, John (2012).The Oxford History of the Laws of England.Vol. II (871–1216) (First ed.). Oxford:Oxford University Press.pp. 424–425.ISBN978-0-19-163003-3.
- ^Gillingham, John(Summer 2014), "French chivalry in twelfth-century Britain?",The Historian,pp. 8–9
- ^"The Saxon Slave-Market in Bristol".Building History.July 2006.RetrievedFebruary 6,2021.
- ^ab"Erskine May on Slavery in Britain (Vol. III, Chapter XI)".RetrievedNovember 2,2017.
- ^Barrowman, James (September 14, 1897)."Slavery In The Coal-Mines Of Scotland".Scottish Mining Website.RetrievedNovember 2,2017.
- ^Phillips, William D. Jr. (1985).Slavery from Roman times to the Early Transatlantic Trade.Manchester:Manchester University Press.p. 37.ISBN978-0-7190-1825-1.
- ^Nicolle, David (1995)."The Janissaries".Osprey Publishing.RetrievedFebruary 7,2021.
- ^"Famous Battles in History The Turks and Christians at Lepanto".Trivia-library.com. Archived fromthe originalon November 19, 2017.RetrievedAugust 29,2010.
- ^abKizilov, Mikhail(2007)."Slave Trade in the Early Modern Crimea From the Perspective of Christian, Muslim, and Jewish Sources".Journal of Early Modern History.11(1): 1–31.doi:10.1163/157006507780385125.
- ^Davies, Brian (2007).Warfare, State and Society on the Black Sea Steppe, 1500–1700.Routledge. p. 17.ISBN978-0-415-23986-8.
- ^Brodman, James William."Ransoming Captives in Crusader Spain: The Order of Merced on the Christian-Islamic Frontier".Libro.uca.edu.RetrievedAugust 29,2010.
- ^"British Slaves on the Barbary Coast".Archived fromthe originalon March 10, 2008.
- ^Goodman, Joan E.; McNeely, Tom (2001).A Long and Uncertain Journey: The 27,000 Mile Voyage of Vasco Da Gama.Mikaya Press.ISBN978-0-9650493-7-5.RetrievedMay 31,2012.
- ^abcMarques, António Henrique R. de Oliveira (1972).History of Portugal: From Lusitania to empire.Columbia University Press.pp. 158–160, 362–370.ISBN978-0-231-03159-2.
- ^Lowe, K. J. P. (2005).Black Africans In Renaissance Europe.Cambridge University Press.p. 156.ISBN978-0-521-81582-6.RetrievedMay 31,2012.
- ^Northrup, David (2002).Africa's Discovery of Europe: 1450 to 1850.Oxford University Press.p. 8.ISBN978-0-19-514084-2.RetrievedMay 31,2012.
- ^Klein, Herbert S. (2010).The Atlantic Slave Trade.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1-139-48911-9.
- ^Subtelny, Orest (2000).Ukraine: A History.University of Toronto Press.p. 106.ISBN978-0-8020-8390-6.RetrievedMay 31,2012.
- ^Inalcik, Halil (1979)."Servile Labor in the Ottoman Empire".In Ascher, Abraham; Halasi-Kun, Tibor; Kiràly, Béla K. (eds.).The Mutual Effects of the Islamic and Judeo-Christian Worlds: The East European Pattern.New York:Columbia University Press.pp. 25–43. Archived fromthe originalon September 11, 2009.
- ^Darjusz Kołodziejczyk, as reported byKizilov, Mikhail(2007)."Slaves, Money Lenders, and Prisoner Guards:The Jews and the Trade in Slaves and Captivesin the Crimean Khanate".The Journal of Jewish Studies.58(2): 189–210.doi:10.18647/2730/JJS-2007.
- ^Matsuki, Eizo."The Crimean Tatars and their Russian-Captive Slaves"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on June 5, 2013.
- ^Glyn Williams, Brian(2013)."The Sultan's Raiders: The Military Role of the Crimean Tatars in the Ottoman Empire"(PDF).The Jamestown Foundation.p. 27. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on October 21, 2013.
- ^Forsythe, David P. (August 27, 2009).Encyclopedia of Human Rights.OUP USA.ISBN978-0-19-533402-9.
- ^"Historical survey: Ways of ending slavery".Encyclopædia Britannica.Archived fromthe originalon October 16, 2014.
- ^"Träldom".Nordisk familjebok(in Swedish). 1920. pp. 159–160.RetrievedFebruary 6,2021– via Project Runeberg.
- ^"Nazi slave fund passes final hurdle".May 30, 2001.RetrievedFebruary 6,2021.
- ^Beyer, John; Schneider, Stephan."Forced Labour under Third Reich"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on April 3, 2017.RetrievedFebruary 1,2023.
- ^Steinert, Johannes-Dieter.Kleine Ostarbeiter: Child Forced Labor in Nazi Germany and German Occupied Eastern Europe.127th Annual Meeting American Historical Association.
...apart from Jewish forced labourers – workers from Belarus, Ukraine and Russia had to endure the worst working and living conditions. Moreover, German occupation policies in the Soviet Union were far more brutal than in any other country, and German deportation practices the most inhuman.
- ^"The Holocaust in Belarus".Facing History and Ourselves.May 12, 2020.RetrievedDecember 29,2020.
The non-Jewish population was subjected to Nazi terror, too. Hundreds of thousands were deported to Germany as slave laborers, thousands of villages and towns were burned or destroyed, and millions were starved to death as the Germans plundered the entire region. Timothy Snyder estimates that 'half of the population of Soviet Belarus was either killed or forcibly displaced during World War II: nothing of the kind can be said of any other European country.'
- ^For sources about forced slave labor in GULAG camps, seeApplebaum (2003),p. xv, Introduction: "Gulag is the word an acronym forGlavnoe Upravlenie Lagereior Central Administration of Camps. Over time, it has also indicated not only the administration of concentration camps, but also the very system of Soviet slave labor, in all its forms and varieties ";Gregory & Lazarev (2003),p. 112: "From the perspective of the Kremlin, Magadan existed as the center of a domestic colony based on slave labor.";Barnes (2011),pp. 7, 36, 262;Dobson (2012),pp. 735–743
- ^Gregory & Lazarev (2003),p. vii: "Much has been written, and much is still to be written, about the Gulag. We all know of its status as an" archipelago "(in Solzhenitsyn's words) of penal slavery, inflicted on millions and held as a threat over the rest of the population."
- ^Applebaum 2003.
- ^For sources about life in the Gulag camps, please see:Conquest (1978);Lester & Krysinska (2008),pp. 170–179;Anderson & Tollison (1985),p. 295: "This is the fact that the forced labor system of the Gulag is an example of slavery in the absence of well-defined and enforced property rights in slaves.";Meltzer (1993)
- ^Alexopoulos, Golfo (2017).Illness and Inhumanity in Stalin's Gulag.New Haven, CT: Yale University/The Hoover Institution. p. 5.
{{cite book}}:|newspaper=ignored (help) - ^Applebaum, Anne(2007). "Introduction".Gulag: A History.Anchor. Archived fromthe originalon September 5, 2017.
- ^"Wilson Bell".Academia.edu.
- ^Barenberg, Alan; Bell, Wilson T.; Kinnear, Sean; Maddox, Steven; Viola, Lynne (November 14, 2017)."New directions in Gulag studies: a roundtable discussion".Canadian Slavonic Papers.59(3–4): 2.doi:10.1080/00085006.2017.1384665.S2CID165354205.
- ^"Mesopotamia: The Code of Hammurabi".#7. Archived fromthe originalon May 14, 2011.
... the shepherd of the oppressed and of the slaves... If any one buy from the son or the slave of another man
- ^Shaw, Garry J. (October 26, 2012). "Slavery, Pharaonic Egypt".The Encyclopedia of Ancient History.Hoboken, New Jersey, USA:John Wiley & Sons,Inc.doi:10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah15006.ISBN978-1-4443-3838-6.
- ^"Ancient Egypt: Slavery, its causes and practice".reshafim.org.il.RetrievedMarch 6,2019.
- ^David, Rosalie (April 1, 1998).The Ancient Egyptians (Beliefs & Practices).Sussex Academic Press. p. 91.
- ^Everett, Susanne (October 24, 2011).History of Slavery.Chartwell Books. pp. 10–11.
- ^Dunn, Jimmy (October 24, 2011)."Slaves and Slavery in Ancient Egypt".RetrievedApril 9,2016.
- ^Lewis 1992,p. 53.
- ^"Horrible Traffic in Circassian Women – Infanticide in Turkey".New York Daily Times.August 6, 1856.RetrievedAugust 29,2010– via The Lost Museum Archive.
- ^"Soldier Khan".Avalanche Press.RetrievedAugust 29,2010.
- ^Kizilov, Mikhail(2007)."Slave Trade in the Early Modern Crimea From the Perspective of Christian, Muslim, and Jewish Sources".Journal of Early Modern History.11(1): 1–31.doi:10.1163/157006507780385125.
- ^"Sexual slavery – the harem".BBC – Religion & Ethics. Archived fromthe originalon May 21, 2009.
- ^Dalman, Gustaf(2020). Abdulhadi-Sukhtian, Nadia (ed.).Work and Customs in Palestine, volume II.Vol. 2 (Agriculture). Translated by Schick, Robert. Ramallah: Dar Al Nasher. pp. 176–177.ISBN978-9950-385-84-9.
- ^"The Freeing of the Slaves".Khiva.info.RetrievedAugust 29,2010.
- ^abcMiers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p.16
- ^abcMiers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 17
- ^Veenhoven, Willem Adriaan; Ewing, Winifred Crum; Samenlevingen, Stichting Plurale (1975).Case Studies on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms: A World Survey.BRILL.p. 452.ISBN978-90-247-1779-8.RetrievedMay 31,2012.
- ^"Religion & Ethics – Islam and slavery: Abolition".BBC. Archived fromthe originalon May 21, 2009.RetrievedMay 1,2010.
- ^"A Mauritanian Abolitionist's Crusade Against Slavery".The New Yorker.September 8, 2014.RetrievedSeptember 29,2015.
- ^"Forced labour – Themes".International Labour Organization.Archived fromthe originalon February 9, 2010.RetrievedMarch 14,2010.
- ^"Inaugural Global Slavery Index Reveals More Than 29 Million People Living In Slavery".Global Slavery Index 2013.October 4, 2013. Archived fromthe originalon April 7, 2016.RetrievedOctober 17,2013.
- ^Bales 1999,p. 9, Chapter 1.
- ^A Global Alliance Against Forced Labour.International Labour Organisation. 2005.ISBN978-92-2-115360-3.
- ^Fortin, Jacey (January 16, 2013)."Mali's Other Crisis: Slavery Still Plagues Mali, And Insurgency Could Make It Worse".International Business Times.
- ^Coursen-Neff, Zama; Tribune, International Herald (January 30, 2003)."For 15 million in India, a childhood of slavery".The New York Times.ISSN0362-4331.RetrievedFebruary 11,2021.
- ^"Child Slaves Abandoned to India's Silk Industry".Human Rights Watch.January 23, 2003.RetrievedFebruary 11,2021.
- ^Žižek, Slavoj(2018).The Courage of Hopelessness: A Year of Acting Dangerously.Melville House. p. 29.ISBN978-1-61219-003-7.Archivedfrom the original on July 27, 2020.RetrievedJuly 11,2018– viaGoogle Books.
- ^"27 Million People Said to Live in 'Modern Slavery'".The New York Times.June 20, 2013.
- ^DeLuca, Matthew (June 19, 2013)."'Modern-day slavery': State Dept. says millions of human trafficking victims go unidentified ".NBC News.Archived fromthe originalon June 23, 2013.RetrievedFebruary 12,2021.
- ^Sebastian, Clare (July 30, 2018)."She escaped domestic slavery, now she helps other survivors".CNN.RetrievedFebruary 7,2021.
- ^Pinnell, Owen; Kelly, Jess (November 1, 2019)."Kuwait moves on Instagram slave traders after BBC investigation".BBC News.RetrievedFebruary 7,2021.
- ^Pattisson, Pete (September 25, 2013)."Qatar's World Cup 'slaves'".Archivedfrom the original on September 26, 2013.RetrievedJanuary 16,2024.
- ^Booth, Robert (March 24, 2016)."UN gives Qatar a year to end forced labour of migrant workers".The Guardian.RetrievedFebruary 7,2021.
- ^Helmore, Edward (July 19, 2018)."Over 400,000 people living in 'modern slavery' in U.S., report finds".The Guardian.RetrievedJuly 21,2018.
- ^"Global Slavery Index".globalslaveryindex.org.RetrievedJune 20,2022.
- ^Tutton, Mark (July 19, 2018)."Modern slavery in developed countries more common than thought".CNN.RetrievedJuly 21,2018.
- ^Xu, Vicky Xiuzhong; Cave, Danielle; Leiboid, James; Munro, Kelsey; Ruser, Nathan (February 2020)."Uyghurs for Sale".Australian Strategic Policy Institute.Archived fromthe originalon August 24, 2020.RetrievedJanuary 20,2021.
- ^"China: 83 major brands implicated in report on forced labour of ethnic minorities from Xinjiang assigned to factories across provinces; Includes company responses – Business & Human Rights Resource Centre".business-humanrights.org.
- ^Quackenbush, Casey (December 1, 2017). "The Libyan Slave Trade Has Shocked the World. Here's What You Should Know".Time.
- ^"African migrants 'sold in slave markets'".BBC News. April 11, 2017.
- ^"African migrants sold as 'slaves' for $200 in Libya".Nation Media Group.Agence France-Presse.April 12, 2017. Archived fromthe originalon April 12, 2017.
- ^Doctorow, Cory(April 11, 2017)."West African migrants are kidnapped and sold in Libyan slave markets".Boing Boing.
- ^Adams, Paul (February 28, 2017)."Libya exposed as child migrant abuse hub".BBC News.
- ^"Immigrant Women, Children Raped, Starved in Libya's Hellholes: Unicef".February 28, 2017. Archived fromthe originalon March 30, 2019.RetrievedNovember 19,2017.
- ^"Mauritanian MPs pass slavery law".BBC News.August 9, 2007.RetrievedJanuary 8,2011.
- ^"The Abolition season on BBC World Service".BBC News.RetrievedAugust 29,2010.
- ^Sutter, John D. (March 2012)."Slavery's last stronghold".CNN.RetrievedMay 28,2012.
- ^"Mauritanian MPs pass slavery law".BBC News.August 9, 2007.RetrievedAugust 29,2010.
- ^"UN: There is hope for Mauritania's slaves".CNN.March 17, 2012. Archived fromthe originalon March 23, 2022.RetrievedJanuary 3,2014.
- ^"Anti-slavery law still tough to enforce".The New Humanitarian.December 11, 2012.RetrievedFebruary 6,2021.
- ^"Issues North Korea".Amnesty InternationalUK.Archivedfrom the original on July 2, 2014.RetrievedJuly 1,2014.
- ^"VII. Conclusions and Recommendations".Report of the Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea.United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. February 17, 2014. p. 365.Archivedfrom the original on February 27, 2014.RetrievedJuly 1,2014.
- ^World Report 2014: North Korea.January 21, 2014.Archivedfrom the original on July 7, 2014.RetrievedJuly 1,2014.
{{cite book}}:|work=ignored (help) - ^"North Korea".Christian Solidarity Worldwide.Archivedfrom the original on July 14, 2014.RetrievedJuly 1,2014.
- ^"ICNK welcomes UN inquiry on North Korea report, calls for action".International Coalition to Stop Crimes Against Humanity in North Korea.February 20, 2014.Archivedfrom the original on October 6, 2014.RetrievedJuly 1,2014.
- ^"Modern day slavery".Missionary Society of St. Columban.January 25, 2018.RetrievedMay 19,2024.
Many of them are locked in the house of their Taiwanese employers, never allowed to have a day off, and virtually under the control of their employer, "Fr O'Neill said." Some are also victims of sexual abuse – raped by the husband who is their employer. They run away and become undocumented workers, then they are lured by the illegal brokers to find work. Some of them end up in brothels and become victims of sex trafficking.
- ^Death By Fishing: How Taiwan's Seafood Got Tainted With Blood | CNA Correspondent(Television production).CNA.March 3, 2022.RetrievedMay 19,2024– via YouTube.
- ^"Greenpeace Condemns Biden Administration's Top Tier Ranking of Taiwan in latest Trafficking in Persons Report".Greenpeace.June 15, 2023.RetrievedMay 19,2024.
- ^Peter Bengtsen (October 31, 2023)."Debt Bondage in Space, and Taiwan".The Diplomat.
- ^"Swaziland: Students in Taiwan Forced to Work 'Like Slaves' in Frozen Chicken Factory".AllAfrica.November 20, 2018. Archived fromthe originalon November 20, 2018.
- ^Huang Rongwen (February 10, 2022)."Exploitation cases of Sri Lankan students in Taiwan expose education sector flaws".The Morning (Sri Lanka).National Changhua University of Education.Archived fromthe originalon May 22, 2024.RetrievedMay 20,2024.
- ^Max Hirsch (May 23, 2007)."Officials divided on sex slave issue".Taipei Times.RetrievedMay 22,2024.
- ^"Economics and Slavery"(PDF).Du.edu.RetrievedAugust 18,2013.
- ^Bradford, Laurence (July 23, 2013)."Modern day slavery in Southeast Asia: Thailand and Cambodia".Inside Investor.Archived fromthe originalon March 23, 2015.RetrievedJuly 24,2013.
- ^"Trafficking FAQs – Amnesty International USA".Amnesty International.March 30, 2007. Archived fromthe originalon July 8, 2009.RetrievedAugust 29,2010.
- ^"Lost Daughters – An ongoing tragedy in Nepal".Women News Network.December 5, 2008. Archived fromthe originalon June 12, 2018.RetrievedFebruary 6,2021.
- ^ab"US State Department Trafficking report".State.gov.RetrievedAugust 29,2010.
- ^Haydon, Benjamin Robert(1841)."The Anti-Slavery Society Convention, 1840 – National Portrait Gallery".London:NPR.RetrievedFebruary 11,2021.Donated byBritish and Foreign Anti-Slavery Societyin 1880
- ^Clarence-Smith, William."Religions and the abolition of slavery – a comparative approach"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on March 29, 2017.RetrievedAugust 28,2013.
- ^The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History.Cengage Learning.2009. p. 165.ISBN978-0-618-99238-6.
- ^Encyclopedia of Antislavery and Abolition.Greenwood Publishing Group.2011. p. 155.ISBN978-0-313-33143-5.
- ^Dussel, Enrique(January 4, 2021)."Bartolomé de Las Casas".Encyclopedia Britannica.RetrievedFebruary 13,2021.
- ^Green, Howard L. (1995).Words that Make New Jersey History: A Primary Source Reader.Rutgers University Press. p. 84.ISBN978-0-8135-2113-8.
1804: With passage of the law excerpted here, New Jersey became the last state in the North to abolish slavery.
- ^Foner, Eric (December 30, 2007)."Opinion | Forgotten Step Toward Freedom (Published 2007)".The New York Times.ISSN0362-4331.RetrievedFebruary 6,2021.
- ^"Soldiers and Sailors Database – The Civil War (U.S. National Park Service)".Itd.nps.gov. September 19, 2015. Archived fromthe originalon July 14, 2007.RetrievedSeptember 29,2015.
- ^Dorigny, Marcel, ed. (2003).The Abolitions of Slavery: From L. F. Sonthonax to Victor Schoelcher, 1793, 1794, 1848.Paris: UNESCO Publishing. p. vi.ISBN978-1-57181-432-6.RetrievedAugust 16,2022– viaGoogle Books.
- ^Dwyer, Philip (2008). "Remembering and Forgetting in Contemporary France: Napoleon, Slavery, and the French History Wars".French Politics, Culture & Society.26(3).Berghahn Books:110–122.doi:10.3167/fpcs.2008.260306.JSTOR42843569.
- ^Peabody, Sue (1984). "Race, Slavery, and the Law in Early Modern France".The Historian.56(3).Taylor & Francis:501–510.doi:10.1111/j.1540-6563.1994.tb01322.x.JSTOR24448702.
- ^Chatman, Samuel L. (2000). "'There are no Slaves in France': A Re-Examination of Slave Laws in Eighteenth Century France ".The Journal of Negro History.85(3).University of Chicago Presson behalf of the Association for the Study of African American Life and History: 144–153.doi:10.2307/2649071.JSTOR2649071.S2CID141017958.
- ^Wise, Steven M. (2006).Though the Heavens May Fall: The Landmark Trial that Led to the End of Human Slavery.Pimlico.ISBN978-1-84413-430-4.
- ^"Royal Navy and the Slave Trade: Battles: History: Royal Navy".Archived fromthe originalon January 28, 2009.RetrievedSeptember 29,2015.
- ^"Devon – Abolition – Sailing against slavery".BBC.February 28, 2007.RetrievedSeptember 29,2015.
- ^"The West African Squadron and slave trade".Pdavis.nl.RetrievedAugust 29,2010.
- ^"Anti-Slavery International: UNESCO Education".UNESCO.November 13, 2002.RetrievedSeptember 29,2015.
- ^"Home Page | Agrarian Studies"(PDF).Yale University.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on May 2, 2013.RetrievedSeptember 30,2015.
- ^"The law against slavery".BBC.RetrievedOctober 5,2008.
- ^abBelardelli, Giulia (December 2, 2014)."Pope Francis And Other Religious Leaders Sign Declaration Against Modern Slavery".HuffPost.
- ^"Routes of Enslaved Peoples".UNESCO.RetrievedJuly 13,2023.
- ^Boahen, A. Adu.; Ajayi, J. F. Ade.; Tidy, Michael (1986).Topics in West African history(2 ed.). Burnt Mill, Harlow, Essex, England: Longman Group.ISBN0-582-58504-X.OCLC15580435.
- ^Person-Lynn, Kwaku."Afrikan Involvement In Atlantic Slave Trade".Africawithin.com. Archived fromthe originalon April 18, 2008.RetrievedAugust 29,2010.
- ^Ball, Jeremy R. (November 2003),"Alcohol and Slaves",H-Net Reviews(Review), archived fromthe originalon January 22, 2005,retrievedFebruary 6,2021
- ^abServices, Tribune News."Benin Officials Apologize for Role in U.S. Slave Trade".Chicago Tribune.RetrievedFebruary 6,2021.
- ^"Blair 'sorry' for UK slavery role".BBC News.March 14, 2007.RetrievedFebruary 6,2021.
- ^"Virginia 'sorry' for slavery role".BBC News.February 25, 2007.RetrievedAugust 29,2010.
- ^Muir, Hugh (August 24, 2007)."Livingstone weeps as he apologises for slavery".The Guardian.London.Archivedfrom the original on January 7, 2020.RetrievedJanuary 7,2020.
- ^Coslett, Paul (September 24, 2014)."Liverpool's slavery apology".BBC News.RetrievedJanuary 7,2020.
- ^"Congress Apologizes for Slavery, Jim Crow".NPR.RetrievedFebruary 6,2021.
- ^"Obama praises 'historic' Senate slavery apology".Agence France-Presse.June 19, 2009. Archived fromthe originalon February 25, 2014.RetrievedJuly 22,2009– viaGoogle News.
- ^Nitkin, David; Merritt, Harry (March 2, 2007)."A New Twist to an Intriguing Family History".The Baltimore Sun.Archived fromthe originalon September 30, 2007.
- ^Akhalbey, Francis (November 15, 2019)."Watch Gaddafi apologize on behalf of Arabs for their cruel treatment of Africans during the Arab slave trade".Face2Face Africa.RetrievedFebruary 27,2022.
- ^Brown, Kim (July 10, 2023)."Brattle Consultants Quantify Reparations for Transatlantic Chattel Slavery in Pro Bono Paper".Brattle.RetrievedJuly 29,2023.
- ^Mahon, Leah (August 2023). "£18 Trillion What Britain owes in reparation".The Voice.pp. 6–7.
- ^Martin, Michael T.; Wall, David C. (February 19, 2013).The Politics of Cine-Memory.Oxford, UK:Blackwell PublishingLtd. pp. 445–467.doi:10.1002/9781118322673.ch22.ISBN978-1-118-32267-3.
{{cite book}}:|work=ignored (help) - ^Stokes, Melvyn (January 15, 2008).D.W. Griffith's The Birth of a Nation: A History of the Most Controversial Motion Picture of All Time.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-804436-9.
- ^Morsberger, Robert E. (1977)."Slavery and 'The Santa Fe Trail,' or, John Brown on Hollywood's Sour Apple Tree".American Studies.18(2): 87–98. Archived fromthe originalon November 6, 2018.RetrievedMay 16,2013.
- ^Vera, Hernán; Gordon, Andrew M. (2003).Screen saviors: Hollywood fictions of whiteness.Rowman & Littlefield.pp. 54–56.ISBN978-0-8476-9947-6.
- ^Worthington-Smith, Hammet;Deburg, William L. Van(1984). "Slavery & Race in American Popular Culture".Black American Literature Forum.18(4): 181.doi:10.2307/2904301.ISSN0148-6179.JSTOR2904301.
- ^abDavis 2002,Chapter 2.
- ^Davis 2002,Chapter 3.
- ^Mintz, Steven (1998). "Spielberg's Amistad and the History Classroom".The History Teacher.31(3): 370–73.doi:10.2307/494885.JSTOR494885.
- ^Berlin, Ira (2004). "American Slavery in History and Memory and the Search for Social Justice".Journal of American History.90(4): 1251–1268.doi:10.2307/3660347.JSTOR3660347.
- ^"Films about Slavery and the transAtlantic Slave Trade".Ama. africatoday.com.RetrievedJune 3,2011.
Bibliography
- Anderson, Gary M.; Tollison, Robert D. (1985)."Life in the Gulag: A Property Rights Perspective".Cato Journal.5.RetrievedDecember 30,2020.
- Applebaum, Anne(2003).Gulag: A History.New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing.
- Arasaratnam, Sinnappah(1995). "Slave Trade in the Indian Ocean in the Seventeenth Century". In Mathew, Kuzhippalli S. (ed.).Mariners, Merchants and Oceans: Studies on Maritime History.New Delhi: Manohar.ISBN978-81-7304-075-7.
- Arasaratnam, Sinnappah(1996).Ceylon and the Dutch: 1600-1800: External Influences and Internal Change in Early Modern Sri Lanka.Brookfield, VT: Variorum.ISBN978-0-86078-579-8.
- Bales, Kevin(1999).Disposable People: New Slavery in the Global Economy.Berkeley:University of California Press.ISBN978-0-520-21797-3.
- Bales, Kevin (2004).New slavery: a reference handbook(2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, Calif.:ABC-CLIO.ISBN1-85109-816-X.OCLC61363605.
- Barnes, Steven A. (April 4, 2011).Death and Redemption: The Gulag and the Shaping of Soviet Society.Princeton, NJ:Princeton University Press.
- Bavis, Barbara."Research Guides: American Women: Resources from the Law Library: Introduction".guides.loc.gov.Law Library of Congress.RetrievedFebruary 11,2021.
- Boxer, C. R.(1968) [1948].Fidalgos in the Far East 1550–1770(2nd revised ed.). Hong Kong:Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-638074-2.
- Burnham, Philip (1993)."Selling Poor Steven".American Heritage Magazine.Archived fromthe originalon May 7, 2006.
- Campbell, Gwyn (2004).The Structure of Slavery in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia.London: Frank Cass.ISBN978-1-135-75917-9.
- Campbell, Gwyn; Miers, Suzanne;Miller, Joseph Calder,eds. (2007).Women and Slavery: Africa, the Indian Ocean world, and the medieval north Atlantic.Vol. 1. Athens:Ohio University Press.ISBN978-0-8214-1723-2.
- Campbell, Gwyn; Miers, Suzanne;Miller, Joseph Calder,eds. (2008).Women and Slavery: The Modern Atlantic.Vol. 2. Athens:Ohio University Press.ISBN978-0-8214-1725-6.
- Conquest, Robert(1978).Kolyma: The Arctic Death Camps.New York: Viking Press.
- Conway, John (2008).A Look at the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments: Slavery Abolished, Equal Protection Established.Enslow Publishers.ISBN978-1-59845-070-5.
- Danver, Steven (2010).Popular Controversies in World History.ABC-CLIO.ISBN978-1-59884-078-0.
- Davis, Natalie Zemon(2002).Slaves on Screen: Film and Historical Vision.Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press.ISBN978-0-674-00821-2.
- Dobson, Miriam (October 2012). "Stalin's Gulag: Death, Redemption and Memory".The Slavonic and East European Review.90(4): 735–743.doi:10.5699/slaveasteurorev2.90.4.0735.S2CID148284255.
- Donoghue, John (2010)."Out of the Land of Bondage": The English Revolution and the Atlantic Origins of Abolition ".The American Historical Review.115(4): 943–974.doi:10.1086/ahr.115.4.943.
- Ellerman, David Patterson(1992).Property and Contract in Economics: The Case for Economic Democracy.Cambridge, Mass:Blackwell Publishing.ISBN978-1-55786-309-6.
- Foner, Philip S. (1980).History of Black Americans: From Africa to the emergence of the cotton kingdom.Oxford University Press.Archived fromthe originalon October 14, 2013.
- Forbes, Robert P. (1998)."Slavery and the Evangelical Movement".In McKivigan, John R.; Snay, Mitchell (eds.).Religion and the Antebellum Debate Over Slavery.Athens, GA:University of Georgia Press.pp. 68–106.ISBN978-0-8203-2076-2.
- Gregory, Paul R.; Lazarev, Valery (October 1, 2003).The Economics of Forced Labor: The Soviet Gulag.Stanford, CA:Hoover Press.
- Higginbotham, A. Leon Jr.(1978).In the Matter of Color: Race and the American Legal Process: The Colonial Period.New York:Oxford University Press.p. 7.ISBN978-0-19-502745-7.
- Kozlowski, Darrell (2010).Colonialism: Key Concepts in American History.Infobase Publishing.ISBN978-1-60413-217-5.
- Lee, Kenneth B. (1997).Korea and East Asia: the story of a Phoenix.Greenwood Publishing Group.p. 49.ISBN978-0-275-95823-7.RetrievedJuly 4,2010.
- Lester, David; Krysinska, Karolina (2008)."Suicide in the Soviet Gulag Camps"(pdf).Archives of Suicide Research.12(2): 170–179.doi:10.1080/13811110701857541.PMID18340600.S2CID205804782.RetrievedDecember 30,2020.
- Lewis, Bernard(1992).Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry.New York:Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-505326-5.
- Love, Henry Davison (1913).Vestiges of Old Madras, 1640-1800.London:Government of India.OL1773373W.
- Meltzer, Milton (1993)."Slavery: A World History".Personal Research Collection.
- Millward, James A. (1998).Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnieitya and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759-1564.Stanford:Stanford University Press.ISBN978-0-8047-2933-8.
- Prakash, Om (January 1, 1985).The Dutch East India Company and the Economy of Bengal, 1630-1720.Princeton University Press.doi:10.1515/9781400857760.ISBN978-1-4008-5776-0.
- Prakash, Om (June 28, 1998).European Commercial Enterprise in Pre-Colonial India.Vol. II. New York:Cambridge University Press.p. 5.ISBN978-0-521-25758-9.
- Raychaudhuri, Tapan; Habib, Irfan, eds. (1982).The Cambridge Economic History of India I.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
- Richards, John F. (2012).The Mughal Empire.The New Cambridge History of India, Part I. Vol. 5. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-511-58406-0.
- Rodriguez, Junius P.(1997).The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery.Vol. 1. Santa Barbara, Calif:ABC-CLIO.ISBN978-0-87436-885-7.
- Rodriguez, Junius P.(2007a).Slavery in the United States: A Social, Political, and Historical Encyclopedia.Santa Barbara, Calif:ABC-CLIO.ISBN978-1-85109-544-5.
- Salisbury, Joyce E.(2004).The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Daily Life: The medieval world.Greenwood Press.p. 316.ISBN978-0-313-32543-4.RetrievedJanuary 9,2011.
- de Sande, Duarte (2012). Massarella, Derek (ed.).Japanese Travellers in Sixteenth-century Europe: A Dialogue Concerning the Mission of the Japanese Ambassadors to the Roman Curia (1590).Third Series. Vol. 25 of 3: Works, Hakluyt Society.Ashgate Publishing,Ltd.ISBN978-1-4094-7223-0.ISSN0072-9396.
{{cite book}}:|journal=ignored (help) - Saunders, A.C. de C.M. (1982).A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal, 1441–1555(illustrated ed.).Cambridge University Press.p. 168.ISBN978-0-521-23150-3.RetrievedFebruary 2,2014.
- Subrahmanyam, Sanjay (1997). "Slaves and Tyrants: Dutch Tribulations in Seventeenth-Century Mrauk-U".Journal of Early Modern History.1(3): 201–253.doi:10.1163/157006597x00028.ISSN1385-3783.
- Toppin, Edgar (2010).The Black American in United States History.Allyn & Bacon.ISBN978-1-4759-6172-0.
- Vink, Markus P. M. (June 1998).Encounters on the Opposite Coast: Cross-Cultural Contacts between the Dutch East India Company and the Nayaka State of Madurai in the Seventeenth Century(PhD). Vol. 1.University of Minnesota.ISBN978-0-591-92325-4.ProQuest304436379.RetrievedFebruary 14,2021.
Further reading
Surveys and reference
- Books
- Beckert, Sven(2014).Empire of Cotton: A Global History.Knopf Doubleday.ISBN978-0-385-35325-0.
- Davies, Stephen (2008)."Slavery, World".InHamowy, Ronald(ed.).The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism.Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage;Cato Institute.pp. 464–469.doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n285.ISBN978-1-4129-6580-4.LCCN2008009151.OCLC750831024.
- Davis, David Brion(1988) [1966].The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture.Oxford:Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-505639-6.
- Davis, David Brion(1999).The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Revolution, 1770–1823.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-988083-6.
- Drescher, Seymour (2009).Abolition: A History of Slavery and Antislavery.Cambridge University Press.p. 281.ISBN978-1-139-48296-7.
- Eden, Jeff (2018).Slavery and Empire in Central Asia.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1-108-63732-9.
- Gordon, Murray (1989).Slavery in the Arab World.Rowman & Littlefield.ISBN978-0-941533-30-0.
- Greene, Jacqueline Dembar (2001).Slavery in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia.Turtleback Books.ISBN978-0-613-34472-2.
- Heuman, Gad J. (2003).The Slavery Reader.Psychology Press.ISBN978-0-415-21304-2.
- Hogendorn, Jan; Johnson, Marion (2003).The Shell Money of the Slave Trade.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-54110-7.
- Lal, K.S.(1994).Muslim Slave System in Medieval India.Aditya Prakashan.ISBN978-81-85689-67-8.Archived fromthe originalon May 12, 2008.
- Miers, Suzanne; Kopytoff, Igor (1979).Slavery in Africa: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives.Madison:University of Wisconsin Press.ISBN978-0-299-07334-3.
- Montejo, Esteban (2016). Barnet, Miguel (ed.).Biography of a Runaway Slave: Fiftieth Anniversary Edition.Northwestern University Press.ISBN978-0-8101-3342-6.[permanent dead link]
- Morgan, Kenneth (2007).Slavery and the British Empire: From Africa to America.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-156627-1.
- Postma, Johannes (2005).The Atlantic Slave Trade.University Press of Florida.ISBN978-0-8130-2906-1.
- Reséndez, Andrés(2016).The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America.Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.ISBN978-0-547-64098-3.
- Rodriguez, Junius P.(2007).Encyclopedia of Slave Resistance and Rebellion.Vol. 2. Westport, Conn:Greenwood Press.ISBN978-0-313-33273-9.
- Shell, Robert Carl-Heinz(1994).Children of Bondage: A Social History of the Slave Society at the Cape of Good Hope, 1652–1838.Hanover, NH:University Press of New England[for]Wesleyan University Press.ISBN978-0-8195-5273-0.
- Westermann, William Linn (1955).The Slave Systems of Greek and Roman Antiquity.American Philosophical Society.ISBN978-0-87169-040-1.
- Journal articles and reviews
- Bartlett, Will (May 1994). "Review: Property and Contract in Economics".Economic and Industrial Democracy.15(2): 296–298.doi:10.1177/0143831x94152010.S2CID220850066.
- Burczak, Theodore (June 2001). "Ellerman's Labor Theory of Property and the Injustice of Capitalist Exploitation".Review of Social Economy.59(2): 161–183.doi:10.1080/00346760110035572.JSTOR29770104.S2CID144866813.
- Devine, Pat (November 1, 1993). "Review: Property and Contract in Economics".Economic Journal.103(421): 1560–1561.doi:10.2307/2234490.JSTOR2234490.
- Lawson, Colin (1993). "Review: Property and Contract in Economics".The Slavonic and East European Review.71(4): 792–793.JSTOR4211433.
- Lutz, Mark A. (1995). "Book Reviews: Property and Contract in Economics".Review of Social Economy.53(1): 141–147.doi:10.1080/00346769500000007.
- Pole, J. R. (June 1977). "Review: Slavery and Revolution: The Conscience of the Rich".The Historical Journal.20(2): 503–513.doi:10.1017/S0018246X00011171.JSTOR2638543.S2CID162624457.
- Smith, Stephen C. (December 1994). "Property and Contract in Economics".Journal of Comparative Economics.19(3): 463–466.doi:10.1006/jcec.1994.1115.
- Woltjer, Geert (March 1996). "Book review: Property and Contract in Economics".European Journal of Law and Economics.3(1): 109–112.doi:10.1007/bf00149085.S2CID195243866.
United States
- Baptist, Edward(2016).The Half Has Never Been Told: Slavery and the Making of American Capitalism.Basic Books.ISBN978-0-465-09768-5.
- Beckert, Sven;Rockman, Seth, eds. (2016).Slavery's Capitalism: A New History of American Economic Development.University of Pennsylvania Press.ISBN978-0-8122-2417-7.
- Berlin, Ira (2009).Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America.Harvard University Press.ISBN978-0-674-02082-5.
- Berlin, Ira; Favreau, Marc; Miller, Steven (2011).Remembering Slavery: African Americans Talk About Their Personal Experiences of Slavery and Freedom.New Press.ISBN978-1-59558-763-3.
- Blackmon, Douglas A. (2012).Slavery by Another Name: The re-enslavement of black americans from the civil war to World War Two.Icon Books Limited.ISBN978-1-84831-413-9.
- Boles, John B. (2015).Black Southerners, 1619–1869.University Press of Kentucky.p. 3.ISBN978-0-8131-5786-3.
- Engerman, Stanley Lewis(1999).Terms of Labor: Slavery, Serfdom, and Free Labor.Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.ISBN978-0-8047-3521-6.
- Genovese, Eugene D.(2011).Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made.Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group.ISBN978-0-307-77272-5.
- King, Richard H.; Genovese, Eugene (1977). "Marxism and the Slave South".American Quarterly.29(1): 117.doi:10.2307/2712264.ISSN0003-0678.JSTOR2712264.
- Mintz, S."Slavery Facts & Myths".Digital History.Archived fromthe originalon November 6, 2006.
- Morgan, Edmund Sears(1975).American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia.New York: Norton.ISBN978-0-393-05554-2.;online review
- Parish, Peter J. (1989).Slavery: History and Historians.New York:Westview Press.ISBN978-0-06-437001-1.
- Parish, Peter J. (2018).Slavery: History And Historians.Routledge.ISBN978-0-429-97694-0.
- Phillips, Ulrich Bonnell(1918).American Negro Slavery: A Survey of the Supply, Employment and Control of Negro Labor as Determined by the Plantation Régime.D. Appleton. p. 1.
- Phillips, Ulrich Bonnell(2007).Life and Labor in the Old South.University of South Carolina Press.ISBN978-1-57003-678-1.
- Resendez, Andres (2016).The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America.Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.p. 448.ISBN978-0-544-60267-0– viaGoogle Books.
- Sellers, James Benson (1994).Slavery in Alabama.University of Alabama Press.ISBN978-0-8173-0594-9.
- Stampp, Kenneth Milton (1969).The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in the Antebellum South.A.A. Knopf.
- Trenchard, David (2008)."Slavery in America".InHamowy, Ronald(ed.).The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism.Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage;Cato Institute.pp. 469–70.doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n286.ISBN978-1-4129-6580-4.LCCN2008009151.OCLC750831024.
- Vorenberg, Michael (May 21, 2001).Final Freedom: The Civil War, the Abolition of Slavery, and the Thirteenth Amendment.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-65267-4.
- Weinstein, Allen; Gatell, Frank Otto; Sarasohn, David, eds. (1979).American Negro Slavery: A Modern Reader.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-502470-8.
Slavery in the modern era
- Brass, Tom; van der Linden, Marcel (1997).Free and unfree labour: the debate continues.Peter Lang.ISBN978-3-906756-87-5.
- Brass, Tom (2015).Towards a Comparative Political Economy of Unfree Labour: Case Studies and Debates.Taylor & Francis.ISBN978-1-317-82735-1.
- Bales, Kevin, ed. (2005).Understanding Global Slavery: A Reader.University of California Press.ISBN978-0-520-93207-4.
- Bales, Kevin (2007).Ending Slavery: How We Free Today's Slaves.University of California Press.ISBN978-0-520-25470-1.
- Craig, Gary (2007).Contemporary Slavery in the UK: Overview and Key Issues(PDF).York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation.ISBN978-1-85935-573-2.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on June 14, 2007.RetrievedDecember 17,2007.
- Hawk, David R. (2012).The Hidden Gulag: The Lives and Voices of "those Who Are Sent to the Mountains"(PDF).Washington, DC: U.S. Committee for Human Rights in North Korea.ISBN978-0-615-62367-2.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on March 13, 2015.RetrievedSeptember 21,2012.
- Nazer, Mende; Lewis, Damien (2009).Slave: My True Story.PublicAffairs.ISBN978-0-7867-3897-7.
- Sage, Jesse (2015).Enslaved: True Stories of Modern Day Slavery.St. Martin's Press.ISBN978-1-250-08310-4.
- Sowell, Thomas(2010)."The Real History of Slavery".Black Rednecks and White Liberals.ReadHowYouWant.com.ISBN978-1-4596-0221-2.
External links
Historical
- Slavery in America: A Resource Guideat theLibrary of Congress
- The Bibliography of Slavery and World Slaving,University of Virginia:a searchable database of 25,000 scholarly works on slavery and the slave trade
- Digital Library on American SlaveryatUniversity of North Carolina at Greensboro
- "Slavery Fact Sheets".Digital History.University of Houston.Archived fromthe originalon February 9, 2014.
- The West African Squadron and slave trade,history of the Victorian Royal Navy
- Slavery and the Making of AmericaatWNET
- "Understanding Slavery".Discovery Education. Archived fromthe originalon March 26, 2010.
- Slavery archival sources,University of London,Senate House Library
- Mémoire St Barth (archives & history of slavery, slave trade and their abolition),Comité de Liaison et d'Application des Sources Historiques 2010
- Archives of the Middelburgsche Commercie Compagnie (MCC), 1720–1889 'Trade Company of Middelburg',Inventory of the archives of the Dutch slave trade across the Atlantic(in Dutch)
- Slave Ships and the Middle PassageatEncyclopedia Virginia
- The Trans-Atlantic and Intra-American slave trade databasesatEmory University
Modern
- 2018 Global Slavery Indexat the Walk Free Foundation
- What is Modern Slavery?;Office To Monitor And Combat Trafficking In Persons, U.S. Department of State.