Wikipedia

Social exclusion

(Redirected fromSocial inclusion)
"Marginalisation" redirects here. For the concept in probability, seeMarginal distribution.

Social exclusionorsocial marginalisationis the social disadvantage and relegation to the fringe ofsociety.It is a term that has been used widely inEuropeand was first used inFrancein the late 20th century.[1]In the EU context, theEuropean Commissiondefines it as"a situation whereby a person is prevented (or excluded) from contributing to and benefiting from economic and social progress".[2]It is used across disciplines includingeducation,sociology,psychology,healthcare,politicsandeconomics.[3][4]

Social exclusion is the process in which individuals are blocked from (or denied full access to) variousrights,opportunities and resources that are normally available to members of a different group, and which are fundamental to social integration and observance of human rights within that particular group[5](e.g.due process).

Alienationordisenfranchisementresulting from social exclusion can be connected to a person'ssocial class,race, skin color, religious affiliation, ethnic origin,caste,educational status,childhood relationships,[6]living standards,and or political opinions, and appearance. Such exclusionary forms ofdiscriminationmay also apply todisabled people,minorities,LGBTQ+people,drug users,[7]institutional care leavers,[8]the elderlyand theyoung.Anyone who appears to deviate in any way fromperceived normsof a population may thereby become subject to coarse or subtle forms of social exclusion.

The outcome of social exclusion is that affected individuals or communities are prevented from participating fully in the economic, social, and political life of the society in which they live.[9]This may result in resistance in the form of demonstrations, protests or lobbying from the excluded people.[10]

The concept of social exclusion has led to the researcher's conclusion that in many European countries the impact of social disadvantages, that influence the well-being of all people, including with special needs, has an increasingly negative impact.[11]

Most of the characteristics listed in this article are present together in studies of social exclusion, due to exclusion's multidimensionality.

Another way of articulating the definition of social exclusion is as follows:

Social exclusion is a multidimensional process of progressive social rupture, detaching groups and individuals from social relations and institutions and preventing them from full participation in the normal, normatively prescribed activities of the society in which they live.[12]

In an alternative conceptualization, social exclusion theoretically emerges at the individual or group level on four correlated dimensions: insufficient access tosocial rights,material deprivation, limitedsocial participationand a lack of normative integration. It is then regarded as the combined result of personal risk factors (age, gender, race); macro-societal changes (demographic, economic and labor market developments, technological innovation, the evolution of social norms); government legislation and social policy; and the actual behavior of businesses, administrative organisations and fellow citizens.[13]

Individual exclusion

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"The marginal man...is one whom fate has condemned to live in two societies and in two, not merely different but antagonistic cultures....his mind is the crucible in which two different and refractory cultures may be said to melt and, either wholly or in part, fuse."[14]

Social exclusion at the individual level results in an individual's exclusion from meaningful participation in society.[15]An example is the exclusion ofsingle mothersfrom thewelfaresystem prior to welfare reforms of the 1900s. The modern welfare system is based on the concept of entitlement to the basic means of being a productive member ofsocietyboth as an organic function of society and as compensation for the socially useful labor provided. A single mother's contribution to society is not based onformal employment,but on the notion that provision of welfare for children is a necessary social expense. In some career contexts, caring work is devalued andmotherhoodis seen as a barrier to employment.[16]Single mothers were previously marginalized in spite of their significant role in the socializing ofchildrendue to views that an individual can only contribute meaningfully to society through "gainful" employment as well as a cultural bias against unwed mothers. When the father's sole task was seen as the breadwinner, his marginalization was primarily a function of class condition. Solo fatherhood brings additional trials due to society being less accepting of males 'getting away with' not working and the general invisibility/lack of acknowledgment of single fathers in society. Acknowledgment of the needs participatory fathers may have can be found by examining the changes from the original clinical report on the father's role published by theAmerican Academy of Pediatricsin May 2004.[17]Eight week paternity leave is a good example of one social change. Child health care providers have an opportunity to have a greater influence on the child and family structure by supporting fathers and enhancing a father's involvement.[18]

More broadly, many women face social exclusion. Moosa-Mitha discusses the Westernfeminist movementas a direct reaction to the marginalization of white women in society.[19]Women were excluded from the labor force and their work in the home was not valued. Feminists argued that men and women should equally participate in the labor force, in the public and private sector, and in the home. They also focused on labor laws to increase access to employment as well as to recognizechild-rearingas a valuable form of labor. In some places today, women are stillmarginalizedfromexecutivepositions and continue to earn less than men inupper managementpositions.[20]

Another example of individual marginalization is the exclusion of individuals withdisabilitiesfrom thelaborforce. Grandz discusses an employer's viewpoint about hiring individuals living with disabilities as jeopardizingproductivity,increasing the rate ofabsenteeism,and creating more accidents in the workplace.[21]Cantor also discusses employer concern about the excessively high cost of accommodating people with disabilities.[21]The marginalization of individuals with disabilities is prevalent today, despite the legislation intended to prevent it in most western countries, and theacademicachievements, skills and training of many disabled people.[21]

There are also exclusions ofsexual minoritiesbecause of theirsexual orientation,gender identity,and/orsexual characteristics.TheYogyakarta Principlesrequire that the states and communities abolish anystereotypesabout LGBT people as well as stereotypedgender roles.

"Isolation is common to almost every vocational, religious or cultural group of a large city. Each develops its own sentiments, attitudes, codes, even its own words, which are at best only partially intelligible to others."[22]

Community exclusion

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Many communities experience social exclusion, such as racial (e.g.black), caste (e.g.untouchablesordalitsin some regions in India), and economic (e.g.Romani) communities.

One example is theAboriginalcommunity in Australia. The marginalization of Aboriginal communities is a product ofcolonization.As a result ofcolonialism,Aboriginal communities lost their land, were forced into destitute areas, lost their sources of livelihood, were excluded from the labor market and were subjected to widespread unpunishedmassacres.Additionally, Aboriginal communities lost their culture and values throughforced assimilationand lost their rights in society.[23]Today, various Aboriginal communities continue to be marginalized from society due to the development of practices, policies and programs that, according to J. Yee, "met the needs of white people and not the needs of the marginalized groups themselves".[24]Yee also connects marginalization tominoritycommunities, when describing the concept ofwhitenessas maintaining and enforcing dominant norms and discourse.[24]Poor peopleliving inrun-down council estatesand areas with high crime can be locked intosocial deprivation.[25]

Contributors

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Social exclusion has many contributors. Major contributors include race, income, employment status, social class, geographic location; personal habits, appearance, or interests (i.e., a favorite hobby, sports team, or music genre); education, religion, and political affiliation.

Global and structural

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Globalization(global capitalism), immigration, social welfare, and policy are broader social structures that have the potential to contribute negatively to one's access to resources and services, resulting in the social exclusion of individuals and groups. Similarly, increasing use of information technology and the companyoutsourcinghave contributed tojob insecurityand a widening gap between the rich and the poor. Flobalization sets forth a decrease in the role of the state with an increase in support from various "corporate sectors resulting in gross inequalities, injustices and marginalization of various vulnerable groups" (p. 1).[26]Companies are outsourcing, jobs are lost, thecost of livingcontinues to rise, and the land is beingexpropriatedby large companies. Material goods are made in large abundances and sold at cheaper costs, while in India for example, thepoverty lineis lowered in order to mask the number of individuals who are actually living in poverty as a result of globalization. Globalization and structural forces aggravate poverty and continue to push individuals to the margins of society, while governments and large corporations do not address the issues (George, P, SK8101, lecture, October 9, 2007).

Certain language and the meaning attached to language can cause universalizing discourses that are influenced by the Western world, which is what Sewpaul (2006) describes as the "potential to dilute or even annihilate local cultures and traditions and to deny context-specific realities" (p. 421). What Sewpaul (2006) is implying is that the effect of dominant global discourses can cause individual and cultural displacement, as well as sex safety are jeopardized (p. 422). Insecurity and fear of an unknown future and instability can result in displacement, exclusion, and forcedassimilationinto the dominant group. For many, it further pushes them to the margins of society or enlists new members to the outskirts because of global-capitalism and dominant discourses (Sewpaul, 2006).

With the prevailing notion of globalization, we now see the rise ofimmigrationas the world gets smaller and smaller with millions of individuals relocating each year. This is not without hardship and struggle of what a newcomer thought was going to be a new life with new opportunities. Immigration has had a strong link to the access of welfare support programs.[27]Newcomers are constantly bombarded with the inability to access a country's resources because they are seen as "undeserving foreigners" (p. 132). With this comes a denial of access topublic housing,health carebenefits,employmentsupport services, andsocial securitybenefits.[27]Newcomers are seen as undeserving, or that they must prove theirentitlementin order to gain access to basic support necessities. It is clear that individuals areexploitedand marginalized within the country they have emigrated.[27]

Welfare statesand social policies can also exclude individuals from basic necessities and support programs. Welfare payments were proposed to assist individuals in accessing a small amount ofmaterial wealth(Young, 2000). Young (2000) further discusses how "the provision of the welfare itself produces new injustice by depriving those dependent on it of rights and freedoms that others have...marginalization is unjust because it blocks the opportunity to exercise capacities in socially defined and recognized way" (p. 41). There is the notion that by providing a minimal amount of welfare support, an individual will be free from marginalization. In fact, welfare support programs further lead to injustices by restricting certain behaviour, as well the individual is mandated to other agencies. The individual is forced into a new system of rules while facingsocial stigmaandstereotypesfrom the dominant group in society, further marginalizing and excluding individuals (Young, 2000). Thus, social policy and welfare provisions reflect the dominant notions in society by constructing and reinforcing categories of people and their needs. It ignores the unique-subjective human essence, further continuing the cycle of dominance.[28]

Unemployment

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See also:BlacklistingandInvoluntary unemployment

Whilst recognising the multi-dimensionality of exclusion, policy work undertaken in theEuropean Unionfocused[citation needed]onunemploymentas a key cause of, or at least correlating with, social exclusion. This is because, in modern societies, paid work is not only the principal source of income with which to buy services but is also the fount of individuals' identity and feeling of self-worth. Most people's social networks and a sense of embeddedness in society also revolve around their work. Many of the indicators of extreme social exclusion, such as poverty and homelessness, depend on monetary income which is normally derived from work. Social exclusion can be a possible result of long-term unemployment, especially in countries with weak welfare safety nets.[29]Much policy to reduce exclusion thus focuses on the labour market:

  • On the one hand, to make individuals at risk of exclusion more attractive to employers, i.e. more "employable".
  • On the other hand, to encourage (and/or oblige) employers to be more inclusive in their employment policies.

The EU'sEQUAL Community Initiativeinvestigated ways to increase the inclusiveness of the labor market. Work on social exclusion more broadly is carried out through theOpen Method of Coordination(OMC) among the Member State governments. The United NationsSustainable Development Goal 10is also an example of global initiatives aimed at promoting social inclusion for all by 2030.[30]

Religion

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See also:Shunning § in religion

Some religious traditions recommendexcommunicationof individuals said to deviate from religious teaching, and in some instancesshunningby family members. Some religious organizations permit the censure of critics.

Across societies, individuals and communities can be socially excluded on the basis of their religious beliefs. Social hostility against religious minorities andcommunal violenceoccur in areas where governments do not have policies restricting the religious practise of minorities. A study by thePew Research Centeron internationalreligious freedomfound that[31][32]61% of countries have social hostilities that tend to target religious minorities.[33]The five highest social hostility scores were forPakistan,India,Sri Lanka,Iraq,andBangladesh.[34]In 2015, Pew published that social hostilities declined in 2013, but harassment of Jews increased.[33]

Sport

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Parts of2024 Summer Olympics opening ceremonyhave been criticized by some as divisive due to singling out one particular religion (Christianity).[35]

Consequences

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Health

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See also:Social determinants of health,Social determinants of health in poverty,andSocial determinants of mental health

Ingay men,results of psycho-emotional damage from marginalization from a heteronormative society includesuicideand drug addiction.[36]

Scientists have been studying theimpact of racism on health.Amani Nuru-Jeter,a socialepidemiologistat theUniversity of California, Berkeleyand other doctors have been hypothesizing that exposure tochronic stressmay be one way racism contributes tohealth disparitiesbetween racial groups.[37]Arline Geronimus,a research professor at the University of Michigan Institute for Social Research and a professor at the School of Public Health, and her colleagues found thatpsychosocialstress associated with living in extreme poverty can cause early onset of age-related diseases.[38]The 2015 study titled, "Race-Ethnicity, Poverty, Urban Stressors, and Telomere Length in a Detroit Community-based Sample" was conducted in order to determine the impact of living conditions on health and was performed by a multi-university team of social scientists, cellular biologists and community partners, including the Healthy Environments Partnership (HEP) to measure thetelomerelength of poor and moderate-income people of White, African-American and Mexican race.[38][39]

In 2006, there was research focused on possible connections between exclusion and brain function.[40]Studies published by both the University of Georgia and San Diego State University found that exclusion can lead to diminished brain functioning and poor decision making.[40]Such studies corroborate with earlier beliefs of sociologists. The effect of social exclusion have been hypothesized in various past research studies to correlate with such things as substance abuse and addiction, and crime.[41][42]

Economics

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The problem of social exclusion is usually tied to that ofequal opportunity,as some people are more subject to such exclusion than others.Marginalisationof certain groups is a problem in many economically more developed countries where the majority of the population enjoys considerable economic and social opportunities.[43]

In philosophy

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The marginal, the processes of marginalisation, etc. bring specific interest inpostmodernandpost-colonialphilosophy and social studies.[44]Postmodernism question the "center" about its authenticity and postmodern sociology and cultural studies research marginal cultures, behaviours, societies, the situation of the marginalized individual, etc.[44]

Social inclusion

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Social inclusion is the converse of social exclusion. As theWorld Bankstates, social inclusion is the process of improving the ability, opportunity, and worthiness of people, disadvantaged on the basis of their identity, to take part in society.[45]TheWorld Bank's 2019World Development ReportonThe Changing Nature of Work[46]suggests that enhanced social protection and better investments inhuman capitalimprove equality of opportunity and social inclusion. Social inclusion can be measured individually.[47]

Social Inclusion ministers have been appointed, and special units established, in a number of jurisdictions around the world. The firstMinister for Social Inclusionwas Premier of South AustraliaMike Rann,who took the portfolio in 2004. Based on the UK'sSocial Exclusion Unit,established by Prime MinisterTony Blairin 1997, Rann established the Social Inclusion Initiative in 2002. It was headed by MonsignorDavid Cappoand was serviced by a unit within the department of Premier and Cabinet. Cappo sat on the executive committee of theSouth Australian Cabinetand was later appointed Social Inclusion Commissioner with wide powers to address social disadvantage. Cappo was allowed to roam across agencies given that most social disadvantage has multiple causes necessitating a "joined up" rather than a single agency response.[48]The Initiative drove a big investment by the South Australian Government in strategies to combathomelessness,including establishing Common Ground, building high quality inner city apartments for "rough sleeping" homeless people, the Street to Home initiative[49]and the ICAN flexible learning program designed to improve school retention rates. It also included major funding to revamp mental health services following Cappo's "Stepping Up" report, which focused on the need for community and intermediate levels of care[50]and an overhaul of disability services.[51]In 2007, Australian Prime MinisterKevin RuddappointedJulia Gillardas the nation's firstSocial Inclusion Minister.[52]

InJapan,the concept and term "social inclusion" went through a number of changes over time and eventually became incorporated in community-based activities under the nameshōsetsu( bao nhiếp ) andhōkatsu( bao quát ), such as in the "Community General Support Centres" (chiiki hōkatsu shien sentāĐịa vực bao quát chi viện センター) and "Community-based Integrated Care System" (chiiki hōkatsu kea shisutemuĐịa vực bao quát ケアシステム).[53]

One may explore its implications for social work practice. Mullaly (2007) describes how "the personal is political" and the need for recognizing that social problems are indeed connected with larger structures in society, causing various forms of oppression amongst individuals resulting in marginalization.[54]It is also important for the social worker to recognize the intersecting nature of oppression. A non-judgmental and unbiased attitude is necessary on the part of the social worker. The worker may begin to understandoppressionand marginalization as a systemic problem, not the fault of the individual.[54]

Working under an anti-oppression perspective would then allow the social worker to understand the lived, subjective experiences of the individual, as well as their cultural, historical and social background. The worker should recognize the individual as political in the process of becoming a valuable member of society and the structural factors that contribute to oppression and marginalization (Mullaly, 2007).[54]Social workers must take a firm stance on naming and labeling global forces that impact individuals and communities who are then left with no support, leading to marginalization or further marginalization from the society they once knew (George, P, SK8101, lecture, October 9, 2007).

The social worker should be constantlyreflexive,work to raise the consciousness,empower,and understand the lived subjective realities of individuals living in a fast-paced world, where fear and insecurity constantly subjugate the individual from the collective whole, perpetuating the dominant forces, while silencing the oppressed.[55]

Some individuals and groups who are not professional social workers build relationships with marginalized persons by providingrelational careand support, for example, throughhomeless ministry.These relationships validate the individuals who are marginalized and provide them a meaningful contact with the mainstream.

In law

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There are countries,Italyfor example, that have a legal concept ofsocial exclusion.In Italy, "esclusione sociale"is defined aspovertycombined withsocial alienation,by thestatuten. 328 (11-8-2000), that instituted a state investigation commission named "Commissione di indagine sull'Esclusione Sociale"(CIES) to make an annual report to the government on legally expected issues of social exclusion.[56]

TheVienna Declaration and Programme of Action,a document oninternational human rights instrumentsaffirms that "extreme povertyand social exclusion constitute a violation ofhuman dignityand that urgent steps are necessary to achieve better knowledge of extreme poverty and its causes, including those related to the program of development, in order to promote the human rights of the poorest, and to put an end to extreme poverty and social exclusion and promote the enjoyment of the fruits of social progress. It is essential for States to foster participation by the poorest people in thedecision makingprocess by the community in which they live, the promotion of human rights and efforts to combat extreme poverty. "[57]

See also

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References

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  • Yee JY, Dumbrill GC (2003). "Whiteout: Looking for Race in Canadian Social Work Practice". In Al-Krenawi A, Graham JR (eds.).Multicultural Social Work in Canada: Working with Diverse Ethno-Racial Communities.Toronto: Oxford Press. pp. 98–121.
  • Li Y (2005).The structure and evolution of Chinese social stratification.Lanham, Md.: University Press of America.ISBN978-0-7618-3331-4.
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