TheSpanish Empire,[b]sometimes referred to as theHispanic Monarchy[c]or theCatholic Monarchy,[d][4][5][6]was acolonial empirethat existed between 1492 and 1976.[7][8]In conjunction with thePortuguese Empire,it ushered in the EuropeanAge of Discovery.It achieved a global scale,[9]controlling vast portions of theAmericas,Africa,various islands inAsiaandOceania,as well as territory in other parts of Europe.[10]It was one of the most powerful empires of theearly modern period,becoming known as "the empire on which the sun never sets".[11]At its greatest extent in the late 1700s and early 1800s, the Spanish Empire covered over 13 million square kilometres (5 million square miles), making it one of thelargest empiresin history.[3]
Beginning with the 1492 arrival ofChristopher Columbusand continuing for over three centuries, the Spanish Empire would expand across theCaribbean Islands,half ofSouth America,most ofCentral Americaand much ofNorth America.TheMagellan-Elcano circumnavigation—the first circumnavigation of the Earth—laid the foundation for Spain'sPacificempire and for Spanish control over theEast Indies.In the beginning, Portugal was the only serious threat to Spanish hegemony in theNew World.To end the threat of Portuguese expansion, Spain conquered Portugal and theAzores Islandsfrom 1580 to 1582 during theWar of the Portuguese Succession,resulting in the establishment of theIberian Union,a forced union between the two crowns that lasted until 1640 when Portugalregained its independencefrom Spain.
The structure of governance of its overseas empire was significantlyreformedin the late 18th century by theBourbonmonarchs. Although the Crown of Castile attempted to keep its empire a closed economic system underHabsburgrule, Castile was unable to supply the Indies with sufficient consumer goods to meet demand. This allowed foreign merchants fromGenoa,France,England,Germany,and theNetherlandsto take advantage of the trade, with silver from the mines of Peru and New Spain flowing to other parts of Europe. Themerchant guildofSeville(laterCádiz) served as middlemen in the trade. The crown's trade monopoly was broken early in the 17th century, with the crown colluding with the merchant guild for fiscal reasons in circumventing the supposedly closed system.[12]Spain was largely able to defend its territories in the Americas, with theDutch,English,andFrenchtaking only small Caribbean islands and outposts, using them to engage incontrabandtrade with the Spanish populace in the Indies.
Spain experienced its greatest territorial losses during the early 19th century, when its colonies in the Americas began fighting theirwars of independence.[13]By 1900, Spain had also lost its colonies in the Caribbean and Pacific, and it was left with only its African possessions. InLatin America,among the legacies of its relationship with Iberia, Spanish is thedominant language,Catholicism the main religion, and political traditions of representative government can be traced to theSpanish Constitution of 1812.
Catholic Monarchs and origins of the empire
With the marriage of the heirs apparent to their respective thronesFerdinand of AragonandIsabella of Castilecreated apersonal unionthat most scholars[citation needed]view as the foundation of the Spanish monarchy. The union of the Crowns ofCastileandAragonjoined the economic and military power of Iberia under one dynasty, theHouse of Trastámara.Their dynastic alliance was important for a number of reasons, ruling jointly over a number of kingdoms and other territories, mostly in the western Mediterranean region, under their respective legal and administrative status. They successfully pursued expansion in Iberia in the Christian conquest of the MuslimEmirate of Granada,completed in 1492, for which Valencia-born PopeAlexander VIgave them the title of theCatholic Monarchs.Ferdinand of Aragon was particularly concerned with expansion in France and Italy, as well as conquests in North Africa.[14]
The concept of 'Early Modern Spain' as a subject of study is muddled.[15]The composite monarchy of the Habsburgs had no official name.[16]In the Early Modern period, as a geographical (non-political) concept and following the medieval tradition, the term 'Spain' could refer to the entire Iberian Peninsula.[17]The term 'Catholic Monarchy' (Spanish:Monarquía Católica,already mentioned in a 1494 papal bull) was common during the reign of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, insofar as the regime strived towards the realization of the idea ofuniversal (that is,Catholic) monarchy.[16]Later in time, other denominations such as 'Spanish Monarchy' (Spanish:Monarquía Española) or 'Monarchy of Spain' (Spanish:Monarquía de España,already mentioned in 1597) would also become common to refer to the composite monarchy.[18]The official titles of the monarchs made no mention to monarchies nor crowns, but focused on the inherited kingdoms and other possessions.[19]
With theOttoman Turkscontrolling the choke points of the overland trade from Asia and the Middle East, both Spain and Portugal sought alternative routes. TheKingdom of Portugalhad an advantage over theCrown of Castile,having earlier retaken territory from the Muslims. Following Portugal's earlier completion of the reconquest and its establishment of settled boundaries, it began to seek overseas expansion, first to the port ofCeuta(1415) and then by colonizing the Atlantic islands ofMadeira(1418) and theAzores(1427–1452); it also began voyages down the west coast of Africa in the fifteenth century.[20]Its rival Castile laid claim to theCanary Islands(1402) and retook territory from the Moors in 1462. The Christian rivals Castile and Portugal came to formal agreements over the division of new territories in theTreaty of Alcaçovas(1479), as well as securing the crown of Castile for Isabella whose accession was challenged militarily by Portugal.
Following the voyage ofChristopher Columbusin 1492 and first major settlement in theNew Worldin 1493, Portugal and Castile divided the world by theTreaty of Tordesillas(1494), which gave Portugal Africa and Asia, and the Western Hemisphere to Spain.[21]The voyage of Columbus, aGenoesemariner, obtained the support of Isabella of Castile, sailing west in 1492, seeking a route to the Indies. Columbus unexpectedly encountered theNew World,populated by peoples he named "Indians". Subsequent voyages and full-scale settlements of Spaniards followed, with gold beginning to flow into Castile's coffers. Managing the expanding empire became an administrative issue. The reign of Ferdinand and Isabella began the professionalization of the apparatus of government in Spain, which led to a demand for men of letters (letrados) who were university graduates (licenciados), ofSalamanca,Valladolid,ComplutenseandAlcalá.These lawyer-bureaucrats staffed the various councils of state, eventually including theCouncil of the IndiesandCasa de Contratación,the two highest bodies in metropolitan Spain for the government of the empire in the New World, as well as royal government in the Indies.
Early expansion
Fall of Granada
During the last 250 years of theReconquistaera, the Castilian monarchy tolerated the small Moorishtaifaclient-kingdom of Granada in the south-east by exacting tributes of gold—theparias.In so doing, they ensured that gold from theNigerregion of Africa entered Europe.[22]
When King Ferdinand andQueen Isabella Icaptured Granadain 1492, they implemented policies to maintain control of the territory.[23]To do so, the monarchy implemented a system of encomienda.[24]Encomiendawas a method of land control and distribution based upon vassalic ties. Land would be granted to a noble family, who were then responsible for farming and defending it. This eventually led to a large land based aristocracy, a separate ruling class that the crown later tried to eliminate in its overseas colonies. By implementing this method of political organization, the crown was able to implement new forms of private property without completely replacing already existing systems, such as the communal use of resources. After the military and political conquest, there was an emphasis on religious conquest as well, leading to the creation of theSpanish Inquisition.[25]Although the Inquisition was technically a part of the Catholic church, Ferdinand and Isabella formed a separate Spanish Inquisition, which led to mass expulsion of Muslims and Jews from the peninsula. This religious court system was later adopted and transported to the Americas, though they took a less effective role there due to limited jurisdiction and large territories.
Campaigns in North Africa
With the Christian reconquest completed in the Iberian peninsula, Spain began trying to take territory in Muslim North Africa. It had conqueredMelillain 1497, and further expansionism policy in North Africa was developed during the regency of Ferdinand the Catholic in Castile, stimulated byCardinal Cisneros.Several towns and outposts in the North African coast were conquered and occupied by Castile:Mazalquivir(1505),Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera(1508),Oran(1509),Tunis,BougieandTripoli(1510).Algierswas forced to pay tribute to Castile untilOttoman intervention.On the Atlantic coast, Spain took possession of the outpost ofSanta Cruz de la Mar Pequeña(1476) with support from theCanary Islands,and it was retained until 1525 with the consent of the Treaty of Cintra (1509). The Ottoman Turks expelled the Spaniards from their coastal possessions, including Algiers in 1529, replacing them withJanissarygarrisons to extend their rule into the central Maghrib.[26]
Navarre and struggles for Italy
The Catholic Monarchs had developed a strategy of marriages for their children to isolate their long-time enemy: France. The Spanish princesses married the heirs of Portugal, England and theHouse of Habsburg.Following the same strategy, the Catholic Monarchs decided to support the Aragonese house of the Kingdom of Naples againstCharles VIII of Francein theItalian Warsbeginning in 1494. Ferdinand's generalGonzalo Fernández de Córdobatook over Naples after defeating the French at theBattle of Cerignolaand theBattle of Gariglianoin 1503. In these battles, which established the supremacy of theSpanish Terciosin European battlefields, the forces of the kings of Spain acquired a reputation for invincibility that would last until the 1643Battle of Rocroi.
After the death of Queen Isabella in 1504, and her exclusion of Ferdinand from a further role in Castile, Ferdinand marriedGermaine de Foixin 1505, cementing an alliance with France. Had that couple had a surviving heir, probably theCrown of Aragonwould have been split from Castile, which was inherited by Charles, Ferdinand and Isabella's grandson.[27]Ferdinand joined theLeague of CambraiagainstVenicein 1508. In 1511, he became part of theHoly Leagueagainst France, seeing a chance at taking bothMilan—to which he held a dynastic claim—andNavarre.In 1516, France agreed to a truce that left Milan in its control and recognized Spanish control ofUpper Navarre,which had effectively been a Spanish protectorate following a series of treaties in 1488, 1491, 1493, and 1495.[28]
Following theItalian Warsagainst France, which concluded in 1559, Spain emerged with control over half of Italy (Kingdom of Naples,Sicily,Sardinia,and theDuchy of Milan) with theTreaty of Cateau-Cambrésis.
Canary Islands
Portugal obtained severalpapal bullsthat acknowledged Portuguese control over the discovered territories, but Castile also obtained from the Pope the safeguard of its rights to theCanary Islandswith the bullsRomani Pontifexdated 6 November 1436 andDominatur Dominusdated 30 April 1437.[29]Theconquest of the Canary Islands,inhabited byGuanchepeople, began in 1402 during the reign ofHenry III of Castile,byNormannoblemanJean de Béthencourtunder a feudal agreement with the crown. The conquest was completed with the campaigns of the armies of theCrown of Castilebetween 1478 and 1496, when the islands ofGran Canaria(1478–1483),La Palma(1492–1493), andTenerife(1494–1496) were subjugated.[21]By 1504, more than 90 percent of the indigenous Canarians had been killed or enslaved.[citation needed]
Rivalry with Portugal
The Portuguese tried in vain to keep secret their discovery of theGold Coast(1471) in theGulf of Guinea,but the news quickly caused a huge gold rush. ChroniclerPulgarwrote that the fame of the treasures of Guinea "spread around the ports ofAndalusiain such way that everybody tried to go there ".[30]Worthless trinkets, Moorish textiles, and above all, shells from the Canary andCape Verdeislands were exchanged for gold, slaves, ivory and Guinea pepper.
TheWar of the Castilian Succession(1475–79) provided the Catholic Monarchs with the opportunity not only to attack the main source of the Portuguese power, but also to take possession of this lucrative commerce. The Crown officially organized this trade with Guinea: every caravel had to secure a government license and to pay a tax on one-fifth of their profits (a receiver of the customs of Guinea was established inSevillein 1475—the ancestor of the future and famousCasa de Contratación).[31]
Castilian fleets fought in the Atlantic Ocean, temporarily occupying theCape Verdeislands (1476), conquering the city ofCeutain theTingitan Peninsulain 1476 (but retaken by the Portuguese),[e][f]and even attacked theAzoresislands, being defeated atPraia.[g][h]The turning point of the war came in 1478, however, when a Castilian fleet sent by King Ferdinand to conquerGran Canarialost men and ships to the Portuguese who expelled the attack,[32]and a large Castilian armada—full of gold—was entirely captured in the decisiveBattle of Guinea.[33][i]
TheTreaty of Alcáçovas(4 September 1479), while assuring the Castilian throne to the Catholic Monarchs, reflected the Castilian naval and colonial defeat:[34]"War with Castile broke out waged savagely in the Gulf [of Guinea] until the Castilian fleet of thirty-five sail was defeated there in 1478. As a result of this naval victory, at the Treaty of Alcáçovas in 1479 Castile, while retaining her rights in the Canaries, recognized the Portuguese monopoly of fishing and navigation along the whole west African coast and Portugal's rights over theMadeira,Azores and Cape Verde islands [plus the right to conquer theKingdom of Fez]. "[35]The treaty delimited thespheres of influenceof the two countries,[36]establishing the principle of theMare clausum.[37]It was confirmed in 1481 by thePope Sixtus IV,in the papal bullÆterni regis(dated on 21 June 1481).[38]
However, this experience would prove to be profitable for future Spanish overseas expansion, because as the Spaniards were excluded from the lands discovered or to be discovered from the Canaries southward[39]—and consequently from theroad to Indiaaround Africa[40]—they sponsored the voyage of Columbus towards the west (1492) in search of Asia to trade in itsspices,encounteringthe Americasinstead.[41]Thus, the limitations imposed by the Alcáçovas treaty were overcome and a new and more balanced division of the world would be reached in theTreaty of Tordesillasbetween both emerging maritime powers.[42]
New World voyages and Treaty of Tordesillas
Seven months before the treaty of Alcaçovas, KingJohn II of Aragondied, and his sonFerdinand II of Aragon,married toIsabella I of Castile,inherited the thrones of theCrown of Aragon.The two became known as theCatholic Monarchs,with their marriage apersonal unionthat created a relationship between the Crown of Aragon and Castile, each with their own administrations, but ruled jointly by the two monarchs.[43]
Ferdinand and Isabella defeated the last Muslim king out of Granada in 1492 after aten-year war.The Catholic Monarchs then negotiated withChristopher Columbus,aGenoesesailor attempting to reachCipangu(Japan) by sailing west. Castile was already engaged in arace of explorationwith Portugal to reach the Far East by sea when Columbus made his bold proposal to Isabella. In theCapitulations of Santa Fe,dated on 17 April 1492, Christopher Columbus obtained from the Catholic Monarchs his appointment as viceroy and governor in the landsalready discovered[44]and that he might discover thenceforth;[45][46]thereby, it was the first document to establish an administrative organization in the Indies.[47]Columbus' discoveries began theSpanish colonization of the Americas.Spain's claim[48]to these lands was solidified by theInter caeterapapal bulldated 4 May 1493, andDudum siquidemon 26 September 1493.
Since the Portuguese wanted to keep the line of demarcation of Alcaçovas running east and west along a latitude south ofCape Bojador,a compromise was worked out and incorporated in theTreaty of Tordesillas,dated on 7 June 1494, in which the world was split into two dividing Spanish and Portuguese claims. These actions gave Spain exclusive rights to establish colonies in all of the New World from north to south (later with the exception of Brazil, which Portuguese commanderPedro Álvares Cabralencountered in 1500), as well as the easternmost parts of Asia. The Treaty of Tordesillas was confirmed byPope Julius IIin the bullEa quae pro bono pacison 24 January 1506.[49]
The Treaty of Tordesillas[50]and the treaty of Cintra (18 September 1509)[51]established the limits of the Kingdom of Fez for Portugal, and the Castilian expansion was allowed outside these limits, beginning with theconquest of Melillain 1497.[j]
First settlements in the Americas
With theCapitulations of Santa Fe,theCrown of Castilegranted expansive power toChristopher Columbus,including exploration, settlement, political power, and revenues, with sovereignty reserved to the Crown. The first voyage established sovereignty for the crown, and the crown acted on the assumption that Columbus's grandiose assessment of what he found was true, so Spain negotiated theTreaty of Tordesillaswith Portugal to protect their territory on the Spanish side of the line. The crown fairly quickly reassessed its relationship with Columbus and moved to assert more direct crown control over the territory and extinguish his privileges. With that lesson learned, the crown was far more prudent in the specifying the terms of exploration, conquest, and settlement in new areas.
The pattern in the Caribbean that played out over the larger Spanish Indies was exploration of an unknown area and claim of sovereignty for the crown; conquest of indigenous peoples or assumption of control without direct violence; settlement by Spaniards who were awarded the labour of indigenous people via theencomienda;and the existing settlements becoming the launch point for further exploration, conquest, and settlement, followed by the establishment institutions with officials appointed by the crown. The patterns set in the Caribbean were replicated throughout the expanding Spanish sphere, so although the importance of the Caribbean quickly faded after theSpanish conquest of the Aztec Empireand theSpanish conquest of the Inca Empire,many of those participating in those conquests had started their exploits in the Caribbean.[53]
The first permanent European settlements in the New World were established in the Caribbean, initially on the island ofHispaniola,laterCuba,Jamaicaand Puerto Rico. Columbus established the fort ofLa Navidadin present-dayHaiti;it was later destroyed by the Taínos and the Spanish garrison was wiped out. The colonists, many of whom were criminals banished from Spain, quickly grew disillusioned due to the hardships, disease, and poverty they experienced. Frictions arose both among themselves and with the local tribesmen.
As a Genoese with connections to Portugal, Columbus considered settlement to be on the pattern of trading forts and factories, with salaried employees to trade with locals and to identify exploitable resources.[54]However, Spanish settlement in the New World was based on a pattern of a large, permanent settlements with the entire complex of institutions and material life to replicate Castilian life in a different venue. Columbus's second voyage in 1493 had a large contingent of settlers and goods to accomplish that.[55]On Hispaniola, the city ofSanto Domingowas founded in 1496 by Christopher Columbus's brotherBartholomew Columbusand became a stone-built, permanent city. Non-Castilians, such asCatalansandAragonese,were often prohibited from migrating to the New World.
Following the settlement of Hispaniola, Europeans began searching elsewhere to begin new settlements, since there was little apparent wealth and the numbers of indigenous were declining. Those from the less prosperous Hispaniola were eager to search for new success in a new settlement. From thereJuan Ponce de LeónconqueredPuerto Rico(1508) andDiego VelázqueztookCuba.
Columbus encountered the mainland in 1498,[56]and the Catholic Monarchs learned of his discovery in May 1499. The first settlement on the mainland wasSanta María la Antigua del DariéninCastilla de Oro(nowNicaragua,Costa Rica,PanamaandColombia), settled byVasco Núñez de Balboain 1510. In 1513, Balboa crossed theIsthmus of Panama,and led the first European expedition to see the Pacific Ocean from the West coast of the New World. In an action with enduring historical import, Balboa claimed the Pacific Ocean and all the lands adjoining it for the Spanish Crown.[57]
Conquest of the Aztec Empire
Defying the opposition of Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, the governor of Hispaniola,Hernán Cortésorganized an expedition of 550 conquistadors and sailed for the coast of Mexico in March 1519. The Castilians defeated a 10,000-strong Chontal Mayan army at Potonchán on 24 March and emerged triumphant against a larger force of 40,000 Mayans three days later. On 2 September, 360 Castilians and 2,300 Totonac Indian allies defeated a 20,000-strong Tlaxcalan army. Three days later, a 50,000-strong Otomi-Tlaxcalan force was defeated by Spanish arquebusier and cannon fire, and a Castilian cavalry charge. Thousands of Tlaxcalans joined the invaders against their Aztec rulers. Cortés's forces sacked the city of Cholula, massacring 6,000 inhabitants,[58]and later entered Emperor Moctezuma II's capital, Tenochtitlan, on 8 November. Velázquez sent a force led by Pánfilo de Narváez to punish the insubordinate Cortés for his unauthorized invasion of Mexico, but they were defeated at theBattle of Cempoalaon 29 May 1520. Narváez was wounded and captured and 17 of his troops were killed; the rest joined Cortés.[58]The conquistadors now totaled 1,500 Spaniards, 90 horses, and 30 cannons. Meanwhile, Pedro de Alvarado triggered a Mexica uprising following theMassacre in the Great Temple of Tenochtitlan,during which 400 Mexica nobles and 2,000 onlookers were hacked and bludgeoned to death. The Castilians were driven out of the Aztec capital, suffering 450 dead,[59]and losing all of their gold and guns duringLa Noche Triste.
On 8 July 1520, at Otumba, the Castilians and their allies, without artillery or arquebusiers, repelled 100,000 Aztecs armed with obsidian-bladed swords. In August, 500 Castilians and 40,000 Tlaxcalans conquered the hilltop town of Tepeaca,[59]an Aztec ally. The town and its surrounding area were ravaged, with most citizens either branded on the face with the letter "G" (for guerra) and enslaved by the Spanish, or sacrificed and eaten by the Tlaxcaltecans.[59]By the spring of 1521, Cortés had formed a new invasion force. The new emperor, Cuauhtémoc, defended Tenochtitlan with 100,000 warriors armed with slings, bows, and obsidian swords. From 21 May to 1 June, the Spanish-Tlaxcalan forces swept the lake and ravaged the countryside. The first military encounter occurred after an advance along the causeway at Tlacopan by the armies of Alvarado and Cristóbal de Olid. While fighting on the causeway, the Spanish and their allies came under attack from both sides by Aztecs firing arrows from canoes. Thirteen Spanish brigantines sank 300 out of 400 enemy war canoes sent against them. The Aztecs tried to damage the Spanish vessels by hiding spears beneath the shallow water. The attackers breached the city and engaged in fighting with the Aztec defenders in the streets.
The Aztecs defeated the Spanish-Tlaxcalan forces at theBattle of Colhuacatoncoon 30 June 1521. Following their victory, 53 Spanish prisoners were paraded to the tops of Tlatelolco's highestpyramidsand publiclysacrificed.[60]In late July, the attackers resumed their assaults, resulting in the massacre of 800 Aztec civilians. By 29 July, the Spanish had reached Tlatelolco's center, raising their new flag atop the city's twin towers. Having exhausted their gunpowder, they attempted a catapult breach but failed. On 3 August, 12,000 more civilians were killed in another city section.[61]Alvarado's destruction of the aqueducts forced the Aztecs to drink from the lake, causing disease and thousands of deaths. Another major assault occurred on 12 August, during which many thousands of non-combatants were massacred in their shelters.[62]The following day, the city fell, and Cuauhtémoc was captured (and hanged in 1525). At least 100,000 people died,[62]and the city was left in ruins, reduced to rubble, and completely destroyed. After theFall of Tenochtitlan,Cortés directed the burning of Aztec books and records, destroyed monuments, removed idols from temples, and purged the sites of sacrificial remnants to prepare the locations for Catholic worship.
North American exploration
During the 1500s, the Spanish began to explore and colonize North America. They were looking for gold in native kingdoms. By 1511 there were rumours of undiscovered lands to the northwest of Hispaniola.Juan Ponce de Leónequipped three ships with at least 200 men at his own expense and set out fromPuerto Ricoon 4 March 1513 toFloridaand surrounding coastal area. Another early motive was the search for theSeven Cities of Gold,or "Cibola", rumoured to have been built by Native Americans somewhere in the desert Southwest. In 1536Francisco de Ulloa,the first documented European to reach theColorado River,sailed up theGulf of Californiaand a short distance into the river's delta.
In the year 1524 the PortugueseEstevão Gomes,who'd sailed inFerdinand Magellan's fleet, exploredNova Scotia,sailing South throughMaine,where he enteredNew York Harbor,theHudson Riverand eventually reached Florida in August 1525.
The SpaniardÁlvar Núñez Cabeza de Vacawas the leader of theNarváez expeditionof 600 men, that between 1527 and 1535 explored the mainland of North America. FromTampa Bay,Florida on 15 April 1528, they marched through Florida. Traveling mostly on foot, they crossedTexas,New MexicoandArizona,and Mexican states ofTamaulipas,Nuevo LeónandCoahuila.After several months of fighting native inhabitants through wilderness and swamp, the party reachedApalachee Baywith 242 men. They believed they were near other Spaniards in Mexico, but there was in fact 1500 miles of coast between them. They followed the coast westward, until they reached the mouth of theMississippi Rivernear toGalveston Island.Later they were enslaved for a few years by various Native American tribes of the upper Gulf Coast. They continued through Coahuila andNueva Vizcaya;then down theGulf of Californiacoast to what is nowSinaloa,Mexico, over a period of roughly eight years. They spent years enslaved by the Ananarivo of the Louisiana Gulf Islands. Later they were enslaved by the Hans, theCapoquesand others. In 1534 they escaped into the American interior, contacting other Native American tribes along the way. Only four men,Cabeza de Vaca,Andrés Dorantes de Carranza,Alonso del Castillo Maldonado,and an enslaved Moroccan Berber namedEstevanico,survived and escaped to reach Mexico City. In 1539, Estevanico was one of four men who accompaniedMarcos de Nizaas a guide in search of the fabled Seven Cities of Cibola, preceding Coronado. When the others were struck ill, Estevanico continued alone, opening up what is now New Mexico and Arizona. He was killed at theZunivillage ofHawikuhin present-day New Mexico.
The viceroy of New SpainAntonio de Mendoza,for who is named theCodex Mendoza,commissioned several expeditions to explore and establish settlements in the northern lands of New Spain in 1540–42.Francisco Vásquez de CoronadoreachedQuivirain centralKansas.Juan Rodríguez Cabrilloexplored the western coastline ofAlta Californiain 1542–43.
Francisco Vásquez de Coronado's 1540–42 expedition began as a search for the fabled Cities of Gold, but after learning from natives in New Mexico of a large river to the west, he sentGarcía López de Cárdenasto lead a small contingent to find it. With the guidance ofHopiIndians, Cárdenas and his men became the first outsiders to see theGrand Canyon.However, Cárdenas was reportedly unimpressed with the canyon, assuming the width of the Colorado River at six feet (1.8 m) and estimating 300-foot (91 m)-tall rock formations to be the size of a man. After unsuccessfully attempting to descend to the river, they left the area, defeated by the difficult terrain and torrid weather.
In 1540,Hernando de Alarcónand his fleet reached the mouth of the Colorado River, intending to provide additional supplies to Coronado's expedition. Alarcón may have sailed the Colorado as far upstream as the present-day California–Arizona border. However, Coronado never reached the Gulf of California, and Alarcón eventually gave up and left.Melchior Díazreached the delta in the same year, intending to establish contact with Alarcón, but the latter was already gone by the time of Díaz's arrival. Díaz named the Colorado River Rio del Tizon, while the name Colorado ( "Red River" ) was first applied to a tributary of theGila River.
In 1540, expeditions under Hernando de Alarcón and Melchior Díaz visited the area ofYumaand immediately saw the natural crossing of the Colorado River from Mexico to California by land, as an ideal spot for a city, as the Colorado River narrows to slightly under 1000 feet wide in one small point. Later military expedition that crossed the Colorado River at theYuma CrossingincludeJuan Bautista de Anza(1774).
In 1541,Hernando de Sotobecame the first explorer to cross the Mississippi River. During this expedition, the Spanish foughtUtinatribesmen in Florida,Chickasawsin Mississippi, theCoosa chiefdomin present-dayGeorgia,and ChiefTuskaloosaat theBattle of Mabilain present-dayAlabama.Spanish losses at Mabila were 22 killed and 148 wounded, while 2,500 Native Americans were killed, making it the bloodiest battle ever fought between Native American tribes and Europeans in the present-day United States.
In 1565, the Spanish, led byPedro Menéndez de Avilés,establishedSt. Augustinein Florida. Subsequently, they launched anattackonFort CarolineinFrench Florida,resulting in the massacre of 142 French Huguenots. The surviving French colonists fled on ships, which wrecked in a storm at the Matanzas River. The Spanish captured them, killing 210 Huguenots in theMassacre at Matanzas Inlet.St. Augustine quickly became a strategic defensive base for the Spanish ships full of gold and silver being sent to Spain from its New World dominions.
TheChamuscado and Rodríguez Expeditionexplored New Mexico in 1581–82. They explored a part of the route visited by Coronado in New Mexico and other parts in thesouthwestern United Statesbetween 1540 and 1542. The viceroy of New SpainDon Diego García Sarmientosent another expedition in 1648 to explore, conquer and colonizethe Californias.
The Spanish Habsburgs (1516–1700)
As a result of the marriage politics of theCatholic Monarchs(in Spanish,Reyes Católicos), theirHabsburggrandsonCharlesinherited the Castilian empire in the Americas and the possessions of the Crown of Aragon in the Mediterranean (including all ofsouth Italy), lands in Germany, theLow Countries,Franche-Comté,andAustria,starting the rule of the Spanish Habsburgs. The Austrian hereditary Habsburg domains were transferred toFerdinand,the Emperor's brother, whereas Spain and the remaining possessions were inherited by Charles's son,Philip II of Spain,at the abdication of the former in 1556.
The Habsburgs pursued several goals:
- Undermining the power of France and containing it in its eastern borders
- Defending Europe againstIslam,notably theOttoman Empirein theOttoman–Habsburg wars
- Maintaining Habsburghegemonyin theHoly Roman Empireand defending theRoman Catholic Churchagainst theProtestant Reformation
- Spreading (Catholic) Christianity to the unconverted indigenous of theNew Worldand thePhilippines
- Exploiting the resources of the Americas (gold, silver, sugar) and trading with Asia (porcelain,spices, silk)
- Excluding other European powers from the possessions it claimed in the New World
"I learnt a proverb here", said a French traveler in 1603: "Everything is dear in Spain except silver".[63]The problems caused by inflation were discussed by scholars at theSchool of Salamancaand thearbitristas.The natural resource abundance provoked a decline in entrepreneurship as profits from resource extraction are less risky.[64]The wealthy preferred to invest their fortunes inpublic debt(juros). The Habsburg dynasty spent the Castilian and American riches inwars across Europeon behalf of Habsburg interests, and declared moratoriums (bankruptcies) on their debt payments several times. These burdens led to a number of revolts across the Spanish Habsburg's domains, including their Spanish kingdoms.
Philip II of Spain (r. 1556–98) conquered the Philippines in 1565, making him ruler of the first true globe-spanning empire.[65]His victory in theWar of the Portuguese Successionled to the annexation of Portugal in 1580, effectively integrating its overseas empire—encompassing coastal Brazil andAfricanandIndiancoastal enclaves—into Spain's domain.[65]His reign was marked by additional conflicts, including theEighty Years' War,and theAnglo-Spanish War.The attempted invasion of England by theSpanish Armadain 1588 marked the first southern European threat to the British Isles sinceRoman times.Philip also became embroiled in conflicts with the Ottoman Empire, and in 1571, his galley fleet achieved a significant victory at theBattle of Lepanto,but the Ottomans quickly rebuilt their Mediterranean fleet and forced a truce on Philip in 1578.[65]
By the mid-17th century, Spain's global empire burdened its economic, administrative, and military resources. Over the preceding century, Spanish troops had fought in France, Germany, and the Netherlands, suffering heavy casualties.[66]Despite its vast holdings, Spain's military lacked essential modernization and heavily relied on foreign suppliers.[66]Nevertheless, Spain possessed abundant bullion from the Americas, which played a crucial role in both sustaining its military endeavors and meeting the needs of its civilian population. During this period, Spain displayed limited military interest in its overseas colonies. The Criollo elites and mestizo and mulatto militia provided only minimal protection, often assisted by more influential allies with vested interests in maintaining the balance of power and safeguarding the Spanish Empire from falling into enemy hands.[66]
Imperial economic policy
The Spanish Empire benefited from favorablefactor endowmentsfrom its overseas possessions with their large, exploitable indigenous populations and rich mining areas.[67]Thus the crown attempted to create and maintain a classic closedmercantile system,warding off competitors and keeping wealth within the empire, specifically within the Crown of Castile. While in theory the Habsburgs were committed to maintaining a state monopoly, the reality was that the empire was a porous economic realm with widespread smuggling. In the 16th and 17th centuries under the Habsburgs, Spain's economic conditions gradually declined, especially in regards to the industrial development of its French, Dutch, and English rivals. Many of the goods being exported to the Empire originated from manufacturers in northwest Europe rather than in Spain. Illicit commercial activities became a part of the Empire's administrative structure. Supported by large flows of silver from the Americas, trade prohibited by Spanish mercantilist restrictions flourished as it provided a source of income to both crown officials and private merchants.[68]The local administrative structure inBuenos Aires,for example, was established through its oversight of both legal and illegal commerce.[69]The crown's pursuit of wars to maintain and expand territory, defend the Catholic faith, stamp out Protestantism, and beat back the Ottoman Turkish strength outstripped its ability to pay for it all, despite the huge production of silver in Peru and New Spain. Most of that flow paid mercenary soldiers in the European religious wars of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and paid foreign merchants for the consumer goods manufactured in northern Europe. Paradoxically, the wealth of the Indies impoverished Spain and enriched northern Europe, a course theBourbonmonarchs would later attempt to reverse in the eighteenth century.[70]
This was well acknowledged in Spain, with writers on political economy, thearbitristas,sending the crown lengthy analyses in the form of "memorials, of the perceived problems and with proposed solutions."[71][72]According to these thinkers, "Royal expenditure must be regulated, the sale of office halted, the growth of the church checked. The tax system must be overhauled, special concessions be made to agricultural laborers, rivers be made navigable and dry lands irrigated. In this way alone could Castile's productivity increase, its commerce restored, and its humiliating dependence on foreigners, on the Dutch and the Genoese, be brought to an end."[73]
Since the early days of the Caribbean and conquest era, the crown attempted to control trade between Spain and the Indies with restrictive policies enforced by the House of Trade (est. 1503) inSeville.Shipping was through particular ports in Castile: Seville, and subsequently Cádiz, Spanish America:Veracruz,Acapulco,Havana,Cartagena de Indias,andCallao/Lima,and the Philippines:Manila.There were very few Spanish settlers in the Indies in the very early period and Spain could supply sufficient goods to them. But as the Aztec and Inca empires were conquered in the early sixteenth century, and large deposits of silver found in both Mexico and Peru, Spanish immigration increased and the demand for goods rose far beyond Spain's ability to supply it. Since Spain had little capital to invest in the expanding trade and no significant commercial group, bankers and commercial houses inGenoa,Germany, theNetherlands,France,andEnglandsupplied both investment capital and goods in a supposedly closed system. Even in the sixteenth century, Spain recognized that the idealized closed system did not function in reality. Since the crown did not alter its restrictive structure or advocate fiscal prudence, despite the pleas of thearbitristas,the Indies trade remained nominally in the hands of Spain, but in fact enriched the other European countries.
The crown established the system oftreasure fleets(Spanish:flota) to protect the conveyance of silver to Seville (later Cádiz). Produced in other European countries, Sevillian merchants conveyed consumer goods that were registered and taxed by the House of Trade, and then sent to the Indies. Other European commercial interests came to dominate supply, with Spanish merchant houses and their guilds (consulados) in both Spain and the Indies acting as mere middlemen, reaping a slice of the profits. However, those profits did not promote a manufacturing sector in Spain's economic development, and its economy continued to be based in agriculture. The wealth of the Indies led to prosperity in northern Europe, particularly in the Netherlands and England, which were both Protestant. As Spain's power weakened in the seventeenth century, England, the Netherlands, and the French took advantage overseas by seizing islands in the Caribbean, which became bases for a burgeoning contraband trade in Spanish America. Crown officials, who were supposed to suppress contraband trade, were quite often in cahoots with the foreigners, since it was a source of personal enrichment. In Spain, the crown itself participated in collusion with foreign merchant houses, since they paid fines "meant to establish a compensation to the state for losses through fraud." It became a calculated risk for merchant houses doing business, and for the crown it gained income that would have otherwise been lost. Foreign merchants were part of the supposed monopoly system of trade. The transfer of the House of Trade from Seville to Cádiz meant foreign merchant houses had even easier access to the Spanish trade.[75]
The Spanish imperial economy's majorglobal impactwassilver mining.The mines in Peru and Mexico were in the hands of a few elite mining entrepreneurs with access to capital and a stomach for the risk that mining entailed. They operated under a system of royal licensing, since the crown held the rights to subsoil wealth. Mining entrepreneurs assumed all the risk of the enterprise, while the crown gained a 20% slice of the profits, theroyal fifth( "quinto real" ). Further adding to the crown's revenues in mining was that it held a monopoly on the mercury supply, used for separating pure silver from silver ore in thepatio process.The crown kept the price high, thereby depressing the volume of silver production.[76]Protecting its flow from Mexico and Peru as it transited to ports for shipment to Spain resulted early on in a convoy system (the flota) sailing twice a year. Its success can be judged by the fact that the silver fleet was captured only once, in 1628 by Dutch privateerPiet Hein.That loss resulted in the bankruptcy of the Spanish crown and an extended period of economic depression in Spain.[77]
One practice the Spanish used to gather workers for the mines was calledrepartimiento.This was a rotational forced labor system where indigenous pueblos were obligated to send laborers to work in Spanish mines and plantations for a set number of days out of the year. Repartimiento was not implemented to replaceslave labor,but instead existed alongside free wage labor, slavery, andindentured labor.It was, however, a way for the Spanish to procure cheap labor, thus boosting the mining-driven economy.
The men who worked as repartimiento laborers were not always resistant to the practice. Some were drawn to the labor as a way to supplement the wages they earned cultivating fields so as to support their families and, of course, paytributes.At first, a Spaniard could get repartimiento laborers to work for them with permission from a crown official, such as aviceroy,only on the basis that this labor was absolutely necessary to provide the country with important resources. This condition became laxer as the years went on, and various enterprises had repartimiento laborers who would work in dangerous conditions for long hours and low wages.[78]
During the Bourbon era, economic reforms sought to reverse the pattern that left Spain impoverished with no manufacturing sector and its colonies' need for manufactured goods supplied by other nations. It attempted to establish a closed trading system, but it was hampered by the terms of the 1713Treaty of Utrecht.The treaty ending theWar of the Spanish Succession,with a victory for the Bourbon French candidate for the throne, had a provision for British merchants to legally sell slaves with a license (Asiento de Negros)slavesto Spanish America. The provision undermined the possibility of a revamped Spanish monopoly system. The merchants also used the opportunity to engage in contraband trade of their manufactured goods. Crown policy sought to make legal trade more appealing than contraband by instituting free commerce (comercio libre) in 1778, whereby Spanish American ports could trade with each other, and they could trade with any port in Spain. It was aimed at revamping a closed Spanish system and outflanking the increasingly powerful British. Silver production revived in the eighteenth century, with production far surpassing the earlier output. The crown reduced the taxes on mercury, meaning that a greater volume of pure silver could be refined. Silver mining absorbed most of the available capital in Mexico and Peru, and the crown emphasized the production of precious metals, which were sent to Spain. There was some economic development in the Indies to supply food, but a diversified economy did not emerge.[76]The economic reforms of the Bourbon era both shaped and were themselves impacted by geopolitical developments in Europe. TheBourbon Reformsarose out of the War of the Spanish Succession. In turn, the crown's attempt to tighten its control over its colonial markets in the Americas led to further conflict with other European powers who were vying for access to them. After a sparking a series of skirmishes throughout the 1700s over its stricter policies, Spain's reformed trade system led to war with Britain in 1796.[79]In the Americas, meanwhile, economic policies enacted under the Bourbons had different impacts in different regions. On one hand, silver production in New Spain greatly increased and led to economic growth. But much of the profits of the revitalized mining sector went to mining elites and state officials, while in rural areas of New Spain conditions for rural workers deteriorated, contributing to social unrest that would impact subsequent revolts.[80]
Pacific exploration and trade
In 1525, King Charles I of Spain ordered an expedition led by friarGarcía Jofre de Loaísato go to Asia by the western route to colonize theMaluku Islands(known as Spice Islands, now part ofIndonesia), thus crossing first the Atlantic and then the Pacific oceans.Ruy López de Villalobossailed to the Philippines in 1542–43. From 1546 to 1547Francis Xavierworked in Maluku among the peoples ofAmbon Island,Ternate,andMorotai,and laid the foundations for the Christian religion there.
In 1564,Miguel López de Legazpiwas commissioned by the viceroy ofNew Spain,Luis de Velasco, to explore the Maluku Islands where Magellan and Ruy López de Villalobos had landed in 1521 and 1543, respectively. The expedition was ordered by KingPhilip II of Spain,after whom the Philippines had earlier been named by Villalobos. Legazpi established settlements in the East Indies and the Pacific Islands in 1565. He was the first governor-general of theSpanish East Indies.After obtaining peace with various indigenous tribes, López de Legazpi made Manila the capital in 1571.
The Spanish settled and took control ofTidorein 1603 to trade spices and counterDutchencroachment in the archipelago of Maluku. The Spanish presence lasted until 1663, when the settlers and military were moved back to the Philippines. Part of the Ternatean population chose to leave with the Spanish, settling near Manila in what later became the municipality of Ternate.
Spanishgalleonstravelled across the Pacific Ocean annually betweenAcapulcoin Mexico andManila,and from there the primary Asian destination for silver from the Americas wasChina.[81]
In 1542,Juan Rodríguez Cabrillotraversed the coast of California and named many of its features. In 1601,Sebastián Vizcaínomapped the coastline in detail and gave new names to many features.Martín de Aguilar,lost from the expedition led by Sebastián Vizcaíno, explored the Pacific coast as far north asCoos Bayin present-dayOregon.
Since the 1549 arrival toKagoshima(Kyushu) of a group of Jesuits with St.Francis Xaviermissionary and Portuguese traders, Spain was interested in Japan. In this first group of Jesuit missionaries were included SpaniardsCosme de TorresandJuan Fernández.
In 1611, Sebastián Vizcaíno surveyed the east coast of Japan and from the year of 1611 to 1614 he was ambassador of KingPhilip IIIin Japan returning to Acapulco in the year of 1614. In 1608, he was sent to search for two mythical islands called Rico de Oro (island of gold) and Rico de Plata (island of silver).
Spain expanded its Pacific empire in 1668 when Jesuit missionaryDiego Luis de San Vitoresestablished a mission onGuam.San Vitores was killed by the nativeChamorrosin 1672, sparking theSpanish-Chamorro Wars.
The Spanish Bourbons (1700–1808)
With the 1700 death of the childlessCharles II of Spain,the crown of Spain was contested in theWar of the Spanish Succession. Under theTreaties of Utrecht(11 April 1713) ending the war, the French prince of theHouse of Bourbon,Philippe of Anjou, grandchild ofLouis XIVof France, became KingPhilip V of Spain.He retained the Spanish overseas empire in the Americas and the Philippines. The settlement gave spoils to those who had backed a Habsburg for the Spanish monarchy, ceding European territory of theSpanish Netherlands,Naples,Milan,andSardiniatoAustria;Sicilyand parts of Milan to theDuchy of Savoy,andGibraltarandMenorcato theKingdom of Great Britain.The treaty also granted British merchants the exclusive right to sellslavesinSpanish Americafor thirty years, theasiento de negros,as well as licensed voyages to ports in Spanish colonial dominions and openings.[82]
Spain's economic and demographic recovery had begun slowly in the last decades of the Habsburg reign, as was evident from the growth of its trading convoys and the much more rapid growth of illicit trade during the period. (This growth was slower than the growth of illicit trade by northern rivals in the empire's markets.) However, this recovery was not then translated into institutional improvement, rather the "proximate solutions to permanent problems."[83]This legacy of neglect was reflected in the early years of Bourbon rule in which the military was ill-advisedly pitched into battle in theWar of the Quadruple Alliance(1718–20). Spain was defeated in Italy by an alliance of Britain, France, Savoy, and Austria. Following the war, the new Bourbon monarchy took a much more cautious approach to international relations, relying on a family alliance with Bourbon France, and continuing to follow a program of institutional renewal.
The crown program to enact reforms that promoted administrative control and efficiency in the metropole to the detriment of interests in the colonies, undermined creole elites' loyalty to the crown. When French forces ofNapoleon Bonaparteinvaded the Iberian peninsulain 1808, Napoleon ousted the Spanish Bourbon monarchy, placing his brotherJoseph Bonaparteon the Spanish throne. There was a crisis of legitimacy of crown rule in Spanish America, leading to theSpanish American wars of independence(1808–1826).
Bourbon reforms
The Spanish Bourbons' broadest intentions were to reorganize the institutions of empire to better administer it for the benefit of Spain and the crown. It sought to increase revenues and to assert greater crown control, including over the Catholic Church. Centralization of power (beginning with theNueva Planta decreesagainst the realms of theCrown of Aragon) was to be for the benefit of the crown and the metropole and for the defense of its empire against foreign incursions.[84]From the viewpoint of Spain, the structures of colonial rule under the Habsburgs were no longer functioning to the benefit of Spain, with much wealth being retained in Spanish America and going to other European powers. The presence of other European powers in the Caribbean, with the English inBarbados(1627),St Kitts(1623–25), andJamaica(1655); the Dutch inCuraçao,and the French in Saint Domingue (Haiti) (1697),Martinique,andGuadeloupehad broken the integrity of the closed Spanish mercantile system and established thriving sugar colonies.[85][52]
At the beginning of his reign, the first Spanish Bourbon, King Philip V, reorganized the government to strengthen the executive power of the monarch as was done in France, in place of the deliberative,Polysynodial Systemof Councils.[86]
Philip's government set up a ministry of the Navy and the Indies (1714) and established commercial companies, theHonduras Company(1714), a Caracas company; theGuipuzcoana Company(1728), and the most successful ones, theHavana Company(1740) and theBarcelona Trading Company(1755).
In 1717–18, the structures for governing the Indies, theConsejo de Indiasand theCasa de Contratación,which governed investments in the cumbersomeSpanish treasure fleets,were transferred fromSevilletoCádiz,where foreign merchant houses had easier access to the Indies trade.[87]Cádiz became the one port for all Indies trading (seeflota system). Individual sailings at regular intervals were slow to displace the traditional armed convoys, but by the 1760s there were regular ships plying the Atlantic from Cádiz toHavanaandPuerto Rico,and at longer intervals to theRío de la Plata,where an additionalviceroyaltywas created in 1776. The contraband trade that was the lifeblood of the Habsburg empire declined in proportion to registered shipping (a shipping registry having been established in 1735).
Two upheavals registered unease within Spanish America and at the same time demonstrated the renewed resiliency of the reformed system: theTupac Amaru uprisingin Peru in 1780 and therebellion of thecomunerosofNew Granada,both in part reactions to tighter, more efficient control.
18th-century economic conditions
The 18th century was a century of prosperity for the overseas Spanish Empire as trade within grew steadily, particularly in the second half of the century, under the Bourbon reforms. Spain's victory in theBattle of Cartagena de Indiasagainst a British expedition in the Caribbean port ofCartagena de Indiashelped Spain secure its dominance of its possessions in the Americas until the 19th century. But different regions fared differently under Bourbon rule, and even while New Spain was particularly prosperous, it was also marked by steep wealth inequality. Silver production boomed in New Spain during the 18th century, with output more than tripling between the start of the century and the 1750s. The economy and the population both grew, both centered around Mexico City. But while mine owners and the crown benefited from the flourishing silver economy, most of the population in the rural Bajío faced rising land prices, falling wages. Eviction of many from their lands resulted.[80]
With a Bourbon monarchy came a repertory of Bourbonmercantilistideas based on a centralized state, put into effect in the Americas slowly at first but with increasing momentum during the century. Shipping grew rapidly from the mid-1740s until theSeven Years' War(1756–63), reflecting in part the success of the Bourbons in bringing illicit trade under control. With the loosening of trade controls after the Seven Years' War, shipping trade within the empire once again began to expand, reaching an extraordinary rate of growth in the 1780s.[citation needed]
The end of Cádiz's monopoly of trade with the American colonies brought about very important changes, particularly a rebirth of Spanish manufactures. Most notable of those changes were both the beginning ofCatalanparticipation in the Spanishslave trade,and the rapidly growing textile industry of Catalonia which by the mid-1780s saw the first signs of industrialization. This saw the emergence of a small, politically active commercial class inBarcelona.This isolated pocket of advanced economic development stood in stark contrast to the relative backwardness of most of the country. Most of the improvements were in and around some major coastal cities and the major islands such as Cuba, with its tobaccoplantations,and a renewed growth ofprecious metalsmining in South America.
Agricultural productivity remained low despite efforts to introduce new techniques to what was for the most part an uninterested, exploited peasant and laboring groups. Governments were inconsistent in their policies. Though there were substantial improvements by the late 18th century, Spain was still an economic backwater.[citation needed]Under themercantiletrading arrangements it had difficulty in providing the goods being demanded by the strongly growing markets of its empire, and providing adequate outlets for the return trade.
From an opposing point of view according to the "backwardness" mentioned above the naturalist and explorerAlexander von Humboldttraveled extensively throughout the Spanish Americas, exploring and describing it for the first time from a modern scientific point of view between 1799 and 1804. In his workPolitical essay on the kingdom of New Spain containing researches relative to the geography of Mexicohe says that the Amerindians ofNew Spainwere wealthier than any Russian or German peasant in Europe.[88]According to Humboldt, despite the fact that Indian farmers were poor, under Spanish rule they were free and slavery was non-existent, their conditions were much better than any other peasant or farmer innorthern Europe.[89]
Humboldt also published a comparative analysis of bread and meat consumption in New Spain compared to other cities in Europe such as Paris.Mexico Cityconsumed 189 pounds of meat per person per year, in comparison to 163 pounds consumed by the inhabitants of Paris, the Mexicans also consumed almost the same amount of bread as any European city, with 363 kilograms of bread per person per year in comparison to the 377 kilograms consumed in Paris.Caracasconsumed seven times more meat per person than in Paris. Von Humboldt also said that the average income in that period was four times the European income and also that the cities of New Spain were richer than many European cities.[88]
Scientific investigations and expeditions
TheSpanish American Enlightenmentproduced a huge body of information on Spain's overseas empire via scientific expeditions. The most famous traveler in Spanish America was Prussian scientist Alexander von Humboldt, whose travel writings, especiallyPolitical Essay on the Kingdom of New Spainand scientific observations remain important sources for the history of Spanish America. Humboldt's expedition was authorized by the crown, but was self-funded from his personal fortune. The Bourbon crown promoted state-funded scientific work prior to the famous Humboldt expedition. Eighteenth-century clerics contributed to the expansion of scientific knowledge.[90]These includeJosé Antonio de Alzate y Ramírez,[91]andJosé Celestino Mutis.
The Spanish crown funded a number of important scientific expeditions:Botanical Expedition to the Viceroyalty of Peru(1777–78);Royal Botanical Expedition to New Granada(1783–1816);[92]theRoyal Botanical Expedition to New Spain(1787–1803);[93]which scholars are now examining afresh.[94]Although the crown funded a number ofSpanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwestto bolster claims to territory, lengthy transatlantic and transpacificMalaspina-Bustamante Expeditionwas for scientific purposes. The crown also funded theBalmis Expeditionin 1804 to vaccinate colonial populations against smallpox.
Much of the research done in the eighteenth century was never published or otherwise disseminated, in part due to budgetary constraints on the crown. Starting in the late twentieth century, research on thehistory of sciencein Spain and the Spanish empire has blossomed, with primary sources being published in scholarly editions or reissued, as well the publication of a considerable number of important scholarly studies.[95]
Contesting with other empires
Bourbon institutional reforms under Philip V bore fruit militarily when Spanish forces easily retookNaplesandSicilyfrom the Austrians at theBattle of Bitontoin 1734 during theWar of the Polish Succession,and during theWar of Jenkins' Ear(1739–42) thwartedBritishefforts to capture the strategic cities ofCartagena de Indias,Santiago de CubaandSt. Augustineby defeating a British combined army and navy force, although Spain'sinvasion of Georgiaalso failed. The British suffered 25,000 dead or wounded and lost nearly 5,000 ships during the war.[96]
In 1742, the War of Jenkins' Ear merged with the largerWar of the Austrian Succession,andKing George's Warin North America. The British, also occupied with France, were unable to capture Spanish convoys, and Spanishprivateerscaptured British merchant shipping along theTriangle Traderoutes andattackedthe coast ofNorth Carolina,levyingtributeon the inhabitants. In Europe, Spain had been trying to divestMaria Theresaof the Duchy of Milan in northern Italy since 1741, but faced the opposition ofCharles Emmanuel III of Sardinia,and warfare in northern Italy remained indecisive throughout the period up to 1746. By the 1748Treaty of Aix-la-Chappelle,Spain gained (indirectly)Parma, Piacenza, and Guastallain northern Italy.
Spain was defeated during theinvasion of Portugaland lost bothHavanaandManilato British forces towards the end of theSeven Years' War(1756–63),[97]but it promptly recovered these losses and Spanish forces seized British forts inWest Florida(present-dayLouisiana,Mississippi,AlabamaandFlorida) and the British naval base inthe Bahamasduring theAmerican Revolutionary War(1775–83).
During most of the 18th century, Spanish privateers, particularly fromSanto Domingo,were the scourge of theAntilles,with Dutch, British, French and Danish vessels as theirprizes.[98]
Contestation in Brazil
The majority of the territory of today's Brazil had been claimed as Spanish when exploration began with the navigation of the length of theAmazon Riverin 1541–42 byFrancisco de Orellana.Many Spanish expeditions explored large parts of this vast region, especially those close to Spanish settlements. During the 16th and 17th centuries, Spanish soldiers, missionaries and adventurers also established pioneering communities, primarily inParaná,Santa Catarina, andSão Paulo,and forts on the northeastern coast threatened by the French and Dutch.
As Portuguese-Brazilian settlement expanded, following in the trail of theBandeirantesexploits, these isolated Spanish groups were eventually integrated into Brazilian society. Only some Castilians who were displaced from the disputed areas of the Pampas ofRio Grande do Sulhave left a significant influence on the formation of thegaucho,when they mixed with Indian groups, Portuguese and blacks who arrived in the region during the 18th century. The Spanish were barred by their laws from slaving of indigenous people, leaving them without a commercial interest deep in the interior of the Amazon basin. The Laws of Burgos (1512) and the New Laws (1542) had been intended to protect the interests of indigenous people. The Portuguese-Brazilian slavers, the Bandeirantes, had the advantage of access from the mouth of the Amazon River, which was on the Portuguese side of the line of Tordesillas. One famous attack upon a Spanish mission in 1628 resulted in the enslavement of about 60,000 indigenous people.[k]
In time, there was in effect a self-funding force of occupation. By the 18th century, much of the Spanish territory was under de facto control of Portuguese-Brazil. This reality was recognized with the legal transfer of sovereignty in 1750 of most of the Amazon basin and surrounding areas to Portugal in theTreaty of Madrid.This settlement sowed the seeds of theGuaraní Warin 1756.
Rival empires in the Pacific Northwest
Spain claimed all of North America in the Age of Discovery, but claims were not translated into occupation until a major resource was discovered and Spanish settlement and crown rule put in place. The French had established anempirein northern North America and took some islands in the Caribbean. The English established colonies on the eastern seaboard of North America and in northern North America and some Caribbean islands as well. In the eighteenth century, the Spanish crown realized that its territorial claims needed to be defended, particularly in the wake of its visible weakness during the Seven Years' War when Britain captured the important Spanish ports of Havana and Manila. Another important factor was that theRussian empirehad expanded into North America from the mid-eighteenth century, withfur trading settlementsin what is nowAlaskaand forts as far south asFort Ross, California.Great Britain was also expanding into areas that Spain claimed as its territory on the Pacific coast. Taking steps to shore up its fragile claims to California, Spain began planningCalifornia missionsin 1769. Spain also began a series of voyages to the Pacific Northwest, where Russia and Great Britain were encroaching on claimed territory. TheSpanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest,withAlessandro Malaspinaand others sailing for Spain, came too late for Spain to assert its sovereignty in the Pacific Northwest.[99]
TheNootka Crisis(1789–1791) nearly brought Spain and Britain to war. It was a dispute over claims in the Pacific Northwest, where neither nation had established permanent settlements. The crisis could have led to war, but without French support Spain capitulated to British terms and negotiations took place with theNootka Convention.Spain and Great Britain agreed to not establish settlements and allowed free access to Nootka Sound on the west coast of what is nowVancouver Island.Nevertheless, the outcome of the crisis was a humiliation for Spain and a triumph for Britain, as Spain had practically renounced all sovereignty on the North Pacific coast.[100]
In 1806, BaronNikolai Rezanovattempted to negotiate a treaty between theRussian-American Companyand theViceroyalty of New Spain,but his unexpected death in 1807 ended any treaty hopes. Spain gave up its claims in the West of North America in theAdams-Onis Treatyof 1819, ceding its rights there to the United States, allowing the U.S. to purchase Florida, and establishing a boundary between New Spain and the U.S. When the negotiations between the two nations were taking place, Spain's resources were stretched due to theSpanish American wars of independence.[101]Much of the present-dayAmerican Southwestlater became part of Mexico after its independence from Spain; after theMexican–American War,Mexico ceded to the U.S. present-dayCalifornia,Texas,New Mexico,Utah,Nevada,Arizona,and parts ofColorado,Oklahoma,Kansas,NebraskaandWyomingfor $15 million.
Loss of Spanish Louisiana
The growth of trade and wealth in the colonies caused increasing political tensions as frustration grew with the improving but still restrictive trade with Spain.Alessandro Malaspina's recommendation to turn the empire into a looserconfederationto help improve governance and trade so as to quell the growing political tensions between the élites of the empire's periphery and center was suppressed by a monarchy afraid of losing control. All was to be swept away by the tumult that was to overtake Europe at the turn of the 19th century with theFrench RevolutionaryandNapoleonic Wars.
The first major territory Spain was to lose in the 19th century was the vastLouisiana Territory,which had few European settlers. It stretched north to Canada and was ceded by France in 1763 under the terms of theTreaty of Fontainebleau.The French, under Napoleon, took back possession as part of theTreaty of San Ildefonsoin 1800 and sold it to the United States in theLouisiana Purchaseof 1803. Napoleon's sale of the Louisiana Territory to the United States in 1803 caused border disputes between the United States and Spain that, with rebellions inWest Florida(1810) and in the remainder of Louisiana at the mouth of theMississippi River,led to their eventual cession to the United States.
End of the global empire (1808–1899)
In 1808,Napoleonmaneuvered to place the Spanish king under his control, effectively seizing power without facing resistance. This action sparked resistance from the Spanish people, leading to thePeninsular War.This conflict created a power vacuum lasting nearly a decade, followed by civil wars, transitions to a republic, and eventually the establishment of a liberal democracy. Spain lost all the colonial possessions in the first third of the century, except for Cuba, Puerto Rico and, isolated on the far side of the globe, the Philippines, Guam and nearby Pacific islands, as well as Spanish Sahara, parts of Morocco, and Spanish Guinea.
The wars of independence in Spanish America were triggered by anotherfailed British attemptto seize Spanish American territory, this time in theRío de la Plataestuary in 1806. The viceroy retreated hastily to the hills when defeated by a small British force. However, when theCriollos'militias and colonial army decisively defeated the now reinforced British force in 1807, they promptly embarked on the path to securing their own independence, igniting independence movements across the continent. A long period of wars followed in the Americas, and the lack of Spanish troops in the colonies led to war betweenpatriotic rebelsand local Royalists. In South America this period of wars led to the independence ofArgentina(1810),Gran Colombia(1810),Chile(1810),Paraguay(1811) andUruguay(1815, but subsequently ruled by Brazil until 1828).José de San Martíncampaigned for independence in Chile (1818) and inPeru(1821). Further north,Simón Bolívarled forces that won independence between 1811 and 1826 for the area that becameVenezuela,Colombia,Ecuador,PeruandBolivia(thenUpper Peru).Panamadeclared independence in 1821 and merged with the Republic of Gran Colombia (from 1821 to 1903). Over the course of nine years, 20,000 Spanish soldiers were sent to reinforce the Spanish American Royalists in northern South America. However, disease and combat claimed the lives of 16,000–17,000 of these soldiers.[102]Even within the Viceroyalty of Peru, the center of Spanish power in South America, the majority of the Royalist army consisted of Americans. After theBattle of Ayacucho,the captured Royalist army consisted of 1,512 Spanish Americans and only 751 Spaniards.[102]
Santo Domingolikewise declared independence in 1821 and began negotiating for inclusion in Bolivar's Republic of Gran Colombia, but was quickly occupied by the former French colony ofHaiti,which ruled it until an1844 revolution.After 17 years of independence, in 1861, Santo Domingo was again made a Spanish colony due to Haitian aggression, marking the only instance of a Spanish colonial possession returning to Spain after gaining independence. However Santo Domingo regained independence in 1865 through theDominican Restoration War.Spanish losses against the Dominican rebels amounted to 10,888 soldiers killed or wounded in action, with the majority of the remaining approximately 30,000 troops succumbing to disease.[103]
Uprisings in Cuba and the Philippine Islands culminated with theSpanish–American Warof 1898. On 1 May, theUS Navydestroyed the Spanish Pacific fleet at theBattle of Manila Bay.In Cuba, theBattle of Las Guasimas,Battle of El Caney,andBattle of San Juan Hillwere counted as American victories, although the Spanish Army inflicted higher casualties during these engagements. The U.S. Army failed to capture the heavily fortified city of Santiago on 1 July, but two days later an American fleet that included five battleships destroyed the Spanish Caribbean squadron at theBattle of Santiago de Cuba.
Military defeat was followed by theU.S. occupation of Cubaand thecessionofPuerto Rico,Guam,and the Philippines to the United States, receiving US$20 million in compensation for the Philippines.[104]The following year, Spain then sold its remaining Pacific Ocean possessions to Germany in theGerman–Spanish Treaty,retaining only its African territories. On 2 June 1899, the second expeditionary battalionCazadoresof Philippines, the last Spanish garrison in the Philippines, which had beenbesiegedinBaler, Auroraat war's end, was pulled out, effectively ending around 300 years of Spanish hegemony in the archipelago.[105]
Territories in Africa (1885–1976)
By the end of the 17th century, only Melilla,Alhucemas,Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera(which had been taken again in 1564), andCeuta(part of thePortuguese Empiresince 1415, chose to retain their links to Spain once theIberian Unionended. The formal allegiance of Ceuta to Spain was recognized by theTreaty of Lisbonin 1668), and Oran andMers El Kébirremained Spanish territories in Africa. The latter cities were lost in 1708,reconqueredin 1732 and sold byCharles IVin 1792.
In 1778,Fernando Pó(now Bioko), adjacent islets, and commercial rights to the mainland between theNigerandOgoouérivers were ceded to Spain by the Portuguese in exchange for territory in South America (Treaty of El Pardo). In the 19th century, some Spanish explorers and missionaries would cross this zone, among themManuel Iradier.In 1848, Spanish troops occupied the uninhabitedChafarinas Islands,anticipating a French move on the rocks located off the North-African coast.
In 1860, after theTetuan War,Moroccopaid Spain 100 million pesetas aswar reparationsand cededSidi Ifnito Spain as a part of theTreaty of Tangiers,on the basis of the old outpost of Santa Cruz de la Mar Pequeña, thought to be Sidi Ifni. The following decades of Franco-Spanish collaboration resulted in the establishment and extension of Spanish protectorates south of the city, and Spanish influence obtained international recognition in theBerlin Conferenceof 1884: Spain administered Sidi Ifni andSpanish Saharajointly. Spain claimed aprotectorateover the coast ofGuineafromCape BojadortoCap Blanc,too, and even try to press a claim over theAdrarandTirisregions inMauritania.Río Munibecame a protectorate in 1885 and a colony in 1900. Conflicting claims to the Guinea mainland were settled in 1900 by theTreaty of Paris,because of which Spain was left with a mere 26,000 km2out of the 300,000 stretching east to theUbangi Riverwhich they initially claimed.[106]
Following abrief warin 1893, Morocco paid war reparations of 20 million pesetas and Spain expanded its influence south from Melilla. In 1912, Morocco wasdivided between the French and Spanish.TheRiffiansrebelled, led byAbdelkrim,a former officer for the Spanish administration. TheBattle of Annual(1921) during theRif Warwas a major military defeat suffered by the Spanish army against Moroccan insurgents. A leading Spanish politician emphatically declared: "We are at the most acute period of Spanish decadence".[107]After the disaster of Annual, Spain beganusing German chemical weaponsagainst the Moroccans. In September 1925, theAlhucemas landingby the Spanish Army and Navy with a small collaboration of an allied French contingent put an end to the Rif War. It is considered the first successful amphibious landing in history supported by seaborne air power and tanks.[108]
In 1923,Tangierwas declared an international city under French, Spanish, British, and later Italianjoint administration.In 1926, Bioko and Rio Muni were united as the colony ofSpanish Guinea,a status that would last until 1959. In 1931, following the fall of the monarchy, the African colonies became part of theSecond Spanish Republic.In 1934, during the government of Prime MinisterAlejandro Lerroux,Spanish troops led by General Osvaldo Capaz landed in Sidi Ifni and carried out the occupation of the territory, cededde jureby Morocco in 1860. Two years later,Francisco Franco,a general of theArmy of Africa,rebelled against the republican government and started theSpanish Civil War(1936–39). During the Second World War theVichy Frenchpresence in Tangier was overcome by that ofFrancoist Spain.
Spain lacked the wealth and the interest to develop an extensive economic infrastructure in its African colonies during the first half of the 20th century. However, through apaternalisticsystem, particularly onBioko Island,Spain developed largecocoaplantations for which thousands of Nigerian workers were imported as laborers.
In 1956, whenFrench Moroccobecame independent, Spain surrenderedSpanish Moroccoto the new nation, but retained control of Sidi Ifni, theTarfayaregion andSpanish Sahara.MoroccanSultan(later King)Mohammed Vwas interested in these territories and unsuccessfully invaded Spanish Sahara in 1957, in theIfni War,or in Spain, the Forgotten War (la Guerra Olvidada). In 1958, Spain ceded Tarfaya to Mohammed V and joined the previously separate districts ofSaguia el-Hamra(in the north) andRío de Oro(in the south) to form the province ofSpanish Sahara.
In 1959, the Spanish territory on theGulf of Guineawas established with a status similar to the provinces of metropolitan Spain. As the Spanish Equatorial Region, it was ruled by agovernor generalexercising military and civilian powers. The first local elections were held in 1959, and the first Equatoguinean representatives were seated in theSpanish parliament.Under the Basic Law of December 1963, limited autonomy was authorized under a joint legislative body for the territory's two provinces. The name of the country was changed toEquatorial Guinea.In March 1968, under pressure from Equatoguinean nationalists and the United Nations, Spain announced that it would grant the country independence.
In 1969, under international pressure, Spain returned Sidi Ifni to Morocco. Spanish control of Spanish Sahara endured until the 1975Green Marchprompted a withdrawal, under Moroccan military pressure. The future of this former Spanish colony remains uncertain.
TheCanary Islandsand Spanish cities in the African mainland are considered an equal part of Spain and theEuropean Unionbut have a different tax system.
Morocco still claims Ceuta, Melilla, andplazas de soberaníaeven though they are internationally recognized as administrative divisions of Spain.Isla Perejilwas occupiedon 11 July 2002 by Moroccan Gendarmerie and troops, who were evicted bySpanish navalforces in a bloodless operation.
Legacy
Although the Spanish Empire declined from its apogee in the late seventeenth century, it remained a wonder for other Europeans for its sheer geographical span.Writing in 1738,English authorSamuel Johnsonquestioned, "Has heaven reserved, in pity to the poor,/No pathless waste or undiscovered shore,/No secret island in the boundless main,/No peaceful desert yet unclaimed by Spain?"[109]
The Spanish Empire left a huge linguistic, religious, political, cultural, and urban architectural legacy in theWestern Hemisphere.With over 470 million native speakers today, Spanish is the secondmost spoken native languagein the world, as result of the introduction of the language of Castile—Castilian, "Castellano"—from Iberia to Spanish America, later expanded by the governments of successor independent republics. In the Philippines, theSpanish–American War(1898) brought the islands under U.S. jurisdiction, with English being imposed in schools and Spanish becominga secondary official language.Many indigenous languages throughout the empire were often lost either as indigenous populations were decimated by war and disease, or as indigenous people mixed with colonists, and the Spanish language was taught and spread over time.[110]
An important cultural legacy of the Spanish empire overseas isRoman Catholicism,which remains the main religious faith in Spanish America and the Philippines. Christian evangelization of indigenous peoples was a key responsibility of the crown and a justification for its imperial expansion. Although indigenous were considered neophytes and insufficiently mature in their faith for indigenous men to be ordained to the priesthood, the indigenous were part of the Catholic community of faith. Catholic orthodoxy was enforced by theInquisition,particularly targetingcrypto-Jewsand Protestants. Not until after their independence in the nineteenth century did Spanish American republics allowreligious tolerationof other faiths. Observances of Catholic holidays often have strong regional expressions and remain important in many parts of Spanish America. Observances includeDay of the Dead,Carnival,Holy Week,Corpus Christi,Epiphany,and national saints' days, such as theVirgin of Guadalupein Mexico.
Politically, the colonial era has strongly influenced modern Spanish America. The territorial divisions of the empire in Spanish America became the basis for boundaries between new republics after independence and for state divisions within countries. It is often argued that the rise ofcaudillismoduring and after Latin American independence movements created a legacy of authoritarianism in the region.[111]There was no significant development of representative institutions during the colonial era, and the executive power was often made stronger than the legislative power during the national period as a result.
This has led to a popular misconception that the colonial legacy has caused the region to have an extremely oppressed proletariat. Revolts and riots are often seen as evidence of this supposed extreme oppression. However, the culture of revolting against an unpopular government is not simply a confirmation of widespread authoritarianism. The colonial legacy did leave a political culture of revolt, but not always as a desperate last act. The civil unrest of the region is seen by some as a form of political involvement. While the political context of the political revolutions in Spanish America is understood to be one in which liberal elites competed to form new national political structures, so too were those elites responding to mass lower-class political mobilization and participation.[112]
Hundreds of towns and cities in the Americas were founded during the Spanish rule, with the colonial centers and buildings of many of them now designated asUNESCO World Heritage Sitesattracting tourists. The tangible heritage includes universities, forts, cities, cathedrals, schools, hospitals, missions, government buildings and colonial residences, many of which still stand today. A number of present-day roads, canals, ports or bridges sit where Spanish engineers built them centuries ago. The oldest universities in the Americas were founded by Spanish scholars and Catholic missionaries. The Spanish Empire also left a vastcultural and linguistic legacy.The cultural legacy is also present in themusic,cuisine,and fashion, some of which have been granted the status ofUNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage.
The long colonial period inSpanish Americaresulted in a mixing of indigenous peoples, Europeans, and Africans that wereclassified by race and hierarchically ranked,which created a markedly different society than the European colonies of North America. In concert with thePortuguese,the Spanish Empire laid the foundations of a truly global trade by opening up the great trans-oceanictrade routesand the exploration of unknown territories and oceans for the western knowledge. TheSpanish dollarbecame the world's first global currency.[113]
One of the features of this trade was the exchange of a great array of domesticated plants and animals between theOld Worldand theNewin theColumbian Exchange.Some cultivars that were introduced to the Americas included grapes, wheat, barley, apples and citrous fruits; animals that were introduced to the New World were horses, donkeys, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, and chickens. The Old World received from the Americas such things as maize, potatoes, chili peppers, tomatoes, tobacco, beans, squash, cacao (chocolate), vanilla, avocados, pineapples, chewing gum, rubber, peanuts, cashews, Brazil nuts, pecans, blueberries, strawberries, quinoa, amaranth, chia, agave and others. The result of these exchanges was to significantly improve the agricultural potential of not only in the Americas, but also that of Europe and Asia. Diseases brought by Europeans and Africans, such as smallpox, measles, typhus, and others, devastated almost all indigenous populations that had no immunity.
There were also cultural influences, which can be seen in everything from architecture to food, music, art and law, from southern Argentina and Chile to the United States of America together with the Philippines. The complex origins and contacts of different peoples resulted in cultural influences coming together in the varied forms evident today in the former colonial areas.
Gallery
-
A photo ofCathedral of Mexico City,it is one of the largest cathedrals in Americas, built on the ruins of the Aztec main square. -
![The clock of Comayagua Cathedral's bell tower in Honduras is one of the oldest clocks in Americas and the oldest still working in the world.[114] It was brought from the Alhambra Arab palace to the Spanish colonies during the 17th century.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Clock_of_Comayagua.jpg/247px-Clock_of_Comayagua.jpg)
The clock ofComayagua Cathedral's bell tower inHondurasis one of the oldest clocks in Americas and the oldest still working in the world.[114]It was brought from theAlhambraArab palace to the Spanish colonies during the 17th century. -
-
Templo del Carmen inSan Luis Potosí City,Mexico in January 2014, it is one of the largest churches in Americas. -
Roof tilesare a common Hispanic American architectural element because Spanish colonization.Hospital Escuela Eva PeróninGranadero Baigorria,Santa Fe,Argentina. -
Detail of a Mural byDiego Riveraat theNational Palace of Mexicoshowing the ethnic differences betweenAgustín de Iturbide,acriollo,and themultiracialMexican court -
![Chest (petaca) from colonial Mexico, c. 1772. Now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art[115]](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Chest_%28petaca%29_MET_DP-15917-001.jpg/240px-Chest_%28petaca%29_MET_DP-15917-001.jpg)
![The clock of Comayagua Cathedral's bell tower in Honduras is one of the oldest clocks in Americas and the oldest still working in the world.[114] It was brought from the Alhambra Arab palace to the Spanish colonies during the 17th century.](/translate/en.m.wikipedia.org?u=https%3A%2F%2Fen.m.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3AClock_of_Comayagua.jpg&t=hv)
![Chest (petaca) from colonial Mexico, c. 1772. Now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art[115]](/translate/en.m.wikipedia.org?u=https%3A%2F%2Fen.m.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3AChest_%28petaca%29_MET_DP-15917-001.jpg&t=hv)
See also
- Spanish Colonial architecture
- Black legend (Spain)
- Society in the Spanish Colonial Americas
- Cartography of Latin America
- Colonialism
- Creole nationalism
- Governor-General of the Philippines
- Historiography of Colonial Spanish America
- History of Spain
- History of the Americas
- List of countries that gained independence from Spain
- List of oldest buildings in the Americas
- Spain
- Spanish Viceroys of Aragon
- Spanish Viceroys of Catalonia
- Spanish Viceroys of Naples
- Spanish Viceroys of Navarre
- Spanish Viceroys of Sardinia
- Spanish Viceroys of Sicily
- Spanish Viceroys of Valencia
- Viceroys of New Granada
- Viceroys of New Spain
- Viceroys of Peru
- Viceroys of Río de la Plata
References
Notes
- ^The Catholic Church was theState religionof the Spanish Empire, but the following religions were also present in the empire:Islam(Sunni Islam(HanafiandMaliki[the latter until 1609] schools),Shia Islam,Crypto-Islam),Aztec religions,Inca religions,Buddhism,Hinduism,Sikhism,Jainism,Animismand Judaism (Crypto-Judaism).
- ^Spanish:Imperio español
- ^Spanish:Monarquía Hispánica
- ^Spanish:Monarquía Católica
- ^... In August, the Duke besieged Ceuta[The city was simultaneously besieged by the moors and a Castilian army led by theDuke of Medina Sidónia]and took the whole city except the citadel, but with the arrival ofAfonso Vin the same fleet which led him to France, he preferred to leave the square. As a consequence, this was the end of the attempted settlement of Gibraltar by converts from Judaism... which D. Enrique de Guzmán had allowed in 1474, since he blamed them for the disaster.See Ladero Quesada, Miguel Ángel (2000), "Portugueses en la frontera de Granada"inEn la España Medieval,vol. 23 (in Spanish), p. 98,ISSN0214-3038.
- ^A dominated Ceuta by the Castilians would certainly have forced a share of the right to conquer theKingdom of Fez(Morocco) between Portugal and Castile instead of the Portuguese monopoly recognized by the treaty of Alcáçovas. See Coca Castañer (2004), "El papel de Granada en las relaciones castellano-portuguesas (1369–1492)",inEspacio, tiempo y forma(in Spanish), Serie III, Historia Medieval, tome 17, p. 350:... In that summer,D. Enrique de Guzmáncrossed the Strait with five thousand men to conquer Ceuta, managing to occupy part of the urban area on the first thrust, but knowing that the Portuguese King was coming with reinforcements to the besieged[Portuguese],he decided to withdraw...
- ^A Castilian fleet attacked thePraia's Bay inTerceira Islandbut the landing forces were decimated by a Portuguese counter-attack because the rowers panicked and fled with the boats. See chroniclerFrutuoso, Gaspar(1963)-Saudades da Terra(in Portuguese), Edição do Instituto Cultural de Ponta Delgada, volume 6, chapter I, p. 10. See alsoCordeiro, António(1717)-Historia Insulana(in Portuguese), Book VI, Chapter VI, p. 257
- ^This attack happened during the Castilian war of Succession. SeeLeite, José Guilherme Reis-Inventário do Património Imóvel dos Açores Breve esboço sobre a História da Praia(in Portuguese).
- ^This was a decisive battle because after it, in spite of the Catholic Monarchs' attempts, they were unable to send new fleets to Guinea, Canary or to any part of the Portuguese empire until the end of the war. ThePerfect Princesent an order to drown any Castilian crew captured in Guinea waters. Even the Castilian navies which left to Guinea before the signature of the peace treaty had to pay the tax ( "quinto" ) to the Portuguese crown when returned to Castile after the peace treaty. Isabella had to ask permission to Afonso V so that this tax could be paid in Castilian harbors. Naturally all this caused a grudge against the Catholic Monarchs in Andalusia.
- ^Other European powers did not see the treaty between Castile and Portugal as binding on themselves.Francis I of Franceobserved "The sun shines for me as for others and I should very much like to see the clause in Adam's will that excludesmefrom a share of the world. "[52]
- ^An early bandeira in 1628, (led byAntônio Raposo Tavares), composed of 2,000 allied Indians, 900 Mamluks (Mestizos) and 69 whitePaulistanos,to find precious metals and stones and/or to capture Indians for slavery. This expedition alone was responsible for the destruction of most of the Jesuit missions of SpanishGuairáand the enslavement of 60,000 indigenous people. In response the missions that followed were heavily fortified.
Citations
- ^Monarchy nominally restored in 1947
- ^Government proclaimed in 1936
- ^abTaagepera, Rein(September 1997)."Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia"(PDF).International Studies Quarterly.41(3): 492–502.doi:10.1111/0020-8833.00053.JSTOR2600793.Archived(PDF)from the original on 7 July 2020.Retrieved7 July2020.
- ^Fernández Álvarez, Manuel (1979).España y los españoles en los tiempos modernos(in Spanish).University of Salamanca.p. 128.
- ^Schneider, Reinhold, 'El Rey de Dios', Belacqva (2002)
- ^Hugh Thomas, 'World Without End: The Global Empire of Philip II', Penguin; first edition (2015)
- ^Wright, Edmund, ed. (2015).A Dictionary of World History(2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.doi:10.1093/acref/9780192807007.001.0001.ISBN978-0191726927.
- ^Echávez-Solano, Nelsy; Dworkin y Méndez, Kenya C., eds. (2007).Spanish and Empire.Nashville, Tenn.: Vanderbilt University Press. pp. xi–xvi.doi:10.2307/j.ctv16755vb.3.ISBN978-0826515667.S2CID242814420.
- ^Beaule, Christine; Douglass, John G., eds. (2020).The Global Spanish Empire: Five Hundred Years of Place Making and Pluralism.Amerind Studies in Anthropology. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. pp. 3–15.doi:10.2307/j.ctv105bb41.ISBN978-0816545711.JSTORj.ctv105bb41.S2CID241500499.Archivedfrom the original on 30 August 2021.Retrieved6 August2021– via Open Research Library.
- ^Gibson,p. 91;Lockhart & Schwartz 1983,p. 19.
- ^Márquez, Carlos E. (2016)."Plus Ultraand the Empire Upon Which the Sun Never Set ".In Tarver, H. Micheal; Slape, Emily (eds.).The Spanish Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes]: A Historical Encyclopedia.ABC-CLIO. p. 161.ISBN978-1610694223.Archivedfrom the original on 14 January 2023.Retrieved19 September2022.
- ^Lynch,Bourbon Spain,pp. 10–11.
- ^Lynch, John."Spanish American Independence" inThe Cambridge Encyclopedia of Latin America and the Caribbean2nd edition. New York: Cambridge University Press 1992, p. 218.
- ^Bethany, Aram (2006). "Monarchs of Spain".Iberia and the Americas: culture, politics, and history.Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. p. 725.
- ^Gloël, Matthias (2018)."Los conceptos de España durante los reinados de los Austrias"[The Concepts of Spain during the Habsburg's reigns](PDF).Revista de Humanidades(38).Universidad Nacional Andrés Bello:199.Archived(PDF)from the original on 7 November 2021.Retrieved13 October2021.
- ^abGloël 2018,p. 205.
- ^Gloël 2018,pp. 199–200.
- ^Gloël 2018,pp. 205–206.
- ^Gloël 2018,pp. 206–207.
- ^Dutra, Francis A. "Portuguese Empire" inEncyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture1996,vol. 4, p. 451
- ^abBurkholder, Mark A. "Spanish Empire" inEncyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture1996,vol. 5, p. 167
- ^Estow, Clara (1993)."Reflections on Gold: On the Late Medieval Background of the Spanish" Enterprise of the Indies "".Mediaevistik.6:85–120.ISSN0934-7453.JSTOR42583992.Archivedfrom the original on 29 August 2021.Retrieved8 February2021.
- ^"2 January 1492 – King Boabdil surrenders Granada to Ferdinand and Isabella".The Tudor Society.2 January 2016.Archivedfrom the original on 31 August 2021.Retrieved8 February2021.
- ^"Constitutional Rights Foundation".www.crf-usa.org.Archivedfrom the original on 16 April 2021.Retrieved8 February2021.
- ^"Inquisition".HISTORY.Archivedfrom the original on 2 December 2021.Retrieved8 February2021.
- ^Trudy Ring, Noelle Watson, Paul Schellinger (2014).Middle East and Africa: International Dictionary of Historic Places.Routledge. p. 558.
{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^Edwards 2000,pp. 282–288.
- ^Edwards 2000,p. 248.
- ^Castañeda Delgado, Paulino (1996)."La Santa Sede ante las empresas marítimas ibéricas"(PDF).La Teocracia Pontifical en las controversias sobre el Nuevo Mundo.Universidad Autónoma de México.ISBN978-9683651532.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 27 September 2011.
- ^Hernando del Pulgar(1943),Crónica de los Reyes Católicos,vol. I (in Spanish), Madrid, pp. 278–279.
- ^Jaime Cortesão(1990),Os Descobrimentos PortuguesesArchived22 November 2022 at theWayback Machine,vol. III (in Portuguese), Imprensa Nacional-Casa da Moeda, p. 551,ISBN9722704222
- ^The Canary's campaign:Alfonso de Palencia,Decada IVArchived22 November 2022 at theWayback Machine,Book XXXI, Chapters VIII and IX ("preparation of 2 fleets"[to Guinea and to Canary, respectively]"so that with them King Ferdinand crush its enemies"[the Portuguese]...). Palencia wrote that the conquest of Gran Canary was a secondary goal to facilitate the expeditions to Guinea (the real goal), a means to an end.
- Alfonso de Palencia,Decada IVArchived22 November 2022 at theWayback Machine,book XXXII, chapter III: in 1478 a Portuguese fleet intercepted the armada of 25 navies sent by Ferdinand to conquer Gran Canary—capturing 5 of its navies plus 200 Castilians—and forced it to fled hastily and definitively from the Canary waters. This victory allowedPrince Johnto use the Canary Islands as an "exchange coin" in the peace treaty of Alcáçovas.
- ^Pulgar, Hernando del(1780),Crónica de los señores reyes católicos Don Fernando y Doña Isabel de Castilla y de AragonArchived16 January 2022 at theWayback Machine(in Spanish), chapters LXXVI and LXXXVIII ("How the Portuguese fleet defeated the Castilian fleet which had come to the Mine of Gold"). From the Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes.
- ^Laughton, Leonard (1943)."Reviews".The Mariner's Mirror.29(3). London: Society for Nautical Research: 184.Archivedfrom the original on 14 January 2023.Retrieved25 October2015.
... For four years the Castilians traded and fought; but the Portuguese were the stronger. They defeated a large Spanish fleet off Guinea in 1478, besides gaining other victories. The war ended in 1479 by Ferdinand resigning his claims to Guinea...
- ... More important, Castile recognized Portugal as the sole proprietor of the Atlantic islands (excepting the Canaries) and of the African coast in the Treaty of Alcáçovas in 1479. This Treaty clause, secured by Portuguese naval successes off Africa during an otherwise unsuccessful war, eliminated the only serious rival.In Richardson, Patrick,The expansion of Europe, 1400–1660Archived22 November 2022 at theWayback Machine(1966), Longmans,p. 48Archived23 May 2020 at theWayback Machine
- ^Waters, David (1988),Reflections Upon Some Navigational and Hydrographic Problems Of The XVth Century Related To The Voyage Of Bartolomeu Dias, 1487–88Archived10 April 2023 at theWayback Machine,p. 299, in the Separata from the Revista da Universidade de Coimbra, vol. XXXIV.
- ^... the Treaty of Alcáçovas was an important step in defining the expansion areas of each kingdom... The Portuguese triumph in this agreement is evident, and in addition deserved. Efforts and perseverance developed over the last four decades byHenry the Navigatorduring theDiscoveriesin Africa reached their fair reward.In Donat, Luis Rojas (2002),España y Portugal ante los otros: derecho, religión y política en el descubrimiento medieval de AméricaArchived22 November 2022 at theWayback Machine(in Spanish), Ediciones Universidad del Bio-Bio, p. 88,ISBN9567813191
- ^... Castile undertakes not to allow any his subject navigate waters reserved to the Portuguese. From theCanary'sParallelonwards, the Atlantic Ocean would be aMare clausumto the Castilians. Thetreaty of Alcáçovasrepresented a huge victory for Portugal and resulted tremendously damaging to Castile.In Espina Barrio, Angel (2001),Antropología en Castilla y León e iberoamérica: FronterasArchived10 April 2023 at theWayback Machine,vol. III (In Spanish), Universidad de Salamanca, Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas de Castilla y León, p. 118,ISBN8493123110
- ^Davenport, Frances Gardiner (2004),European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and Its Dependencies,The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd., p. 49,ISBN978-1584774228,archivedfrom the original on 14 January 2023,retrieved21 November2020
- ^... Castile accepted a Portuguese monopoly on new discoveries in the Atlantic from the Canaries southward and toward the African coast.InBedini 1992,p. 53
- ^... This boundary line cut off Castile from the route to India around Africa...,in Prien, Hans-Jürgen (2012),Christianity in Latin America: Revised and Expanded EditionArchived22 November 2022 at theWayback Machine,Brill, p. 8,ISBN978-9004242074
- ^... With an eye to the Treaty of Alcáçovas which only permitted westerly expansion by Castile, the Crown accepted the proposals of the Italian adventurer[Christopher Columbus]because if, contrary to all expectation, he were to prove successful, a great opportunity would arise to outmanoeuvre Portugal...,in Emmer, Piet (1999),General History of the CaribbeanArchived22 November 2022 at theWayback Machine,vol. II, UNESCO,p. 86Archived23 May 2020 at theWayback Machine,ISBN0333-724550
- ^Superpowers Spain and Portugal struggled for global control and in the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas the Pope divided the non-Christian world between them.In Flood, Josephine (2006),The original Australians: Story of the Aboriginal peopleArchived22 November 2022 at theWayback Machine,p. 1,ISBN1 74114 872 3
- ^Burbank & Cooper 2010,pp. 120–121.
- ^Fernández Herrero 1992,p. 143.
- ^McAlister, Lyle N. (1984).Spain and Portugal in the New World, 1492–1700.U of Minnesota Press. p.69.ISBN978-0816612185.
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- ^abMarley 2008,p. 27.
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- ^Stein & Stein 2000,pp. 40–57.
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- ^Stein & Stein 2000,pp. 94–102.
- ^Elliott 1989,p. 231.
- ^"Old Havana and its Fortification System".UNESCO World Heritage List website.Archivedfrom the original on 5 June 2020.Retrieved7 August2023.
- ^Lynch 1989,pp. 10–11.
- ^abBakewell, Peter and Kendall W. Brown, "Mining: Colonial Spanish America" inEncyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture1996,vol. 4, pp. 59–63
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{{cite book}}:|website=ignored (help) - ^abTutino, John (2016).New countries capitalism, revolutions, and nations in the Americas, 1750–1870.Duke University Press.ISBN978-0822361145.OCLC1107326871.
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In one short year the unfortunate Spaniards saw their armies beaten in Portugal, Cuba and Manila torn from their grasp, their commerce destroyed, and their fleets annihilated.
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- ^abcRobert L. Scheina (2003).Latin America's Wars Volume I: The Age of the Caudillo, 1791–1899.
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- ^Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: A Guide to 8,500 Battles 2007Archived5 April 2023 at theWayback MachineCerezo finally surrendered with the full honors of war (1 July 1898 – 2 June 1899)
- ^William Gervase Clarence-Smith, 1986 "Spanish Equatorial Guinea, 1898–1940", inThe Cambridge History of Africa: From 1905 to 1940Ed. J. D. Fage, A. D. Roberts, & Roland Anthony Oliver. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press>"The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 7~ from 1905 to 1940 (0521225051, 1986)".Archived fromthe originalon 20 February 2014.Retrieved23 September2013.
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{{cite journal}}:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of August 2024 (link) - ^"Dissemination of Hispanic-American coinage".Encyclopædia Britannica.Archivedfrom the original on 29 December 2011.Retrieved7 February2012.
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{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - McAmis, Robert Day (2002).Malay Muslims: The History and Challenge of Resurgent Islam in Southeast Asia.Eerdmans.ISBN978-0802849458.
- Mecham, J. Lloyd (1966).Church and State in Latin America: A History of Politico-Ecclesiastical Relations(revised ed.). Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
- Parker, Geoffrey (1978).Philip II.Boston: Little, Brown.ISBN978-0316690805.
- Ruiz Martín, Felipe (1996).La proyección europea de la monarquía hispánica(in Spanish). Editorial Complutense.ISBN978-8495983305.
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Further reading
- Padilla Angulo, Fernando J. (12 January 2023).Volunteers of the Empire: War, Identity, and Spanish Imperialism, 1855–1898.Bloomsbury.ISBN978-1-350-28120-2.
- Anderson, James Maxwell (2000).The History of Portugal.Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood.ISBN978-0313311062.
- Black, Jeremy (1996).The Cambridge illustrated atlas of warfare: Renaissance to revolution.Cambridge: Cambridge University.ISBN978-0521470339.
- Boyajian, James C. (2007).Portuguese Trade in Asia Under the Habsburgs, 1580–1640.Johns Hopkins University.ISBN978-0801887543.
- Braudel, Fernand (1972).The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II.Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press.
- Brown, Jonathan (1998).Painting in Spain: 1500–1700.New Haven: Yale University Press.ISBN978-0300064728.
- Dominguez Ortiz, Antonio (1971).The Golden Age of Spain, 1516–1659.Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0297004059.
- Elliott, J.H. (1970).The Old World and The New.Cambridge: Cambridge [Eng.] University Press.ISBN978-0521079372.
- Farriss, N.M.(1968).Crown and Clergy in Colonial Mexico, 1759–1821.London: Athlone Press.
- Fisher, John (1985).Commercial Relations Between Spain and Spanish America in the Era of Free Trade, 1778–1796.Liverpool.
{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Gibson, Charles(1966).Spain in America.New York: Harper and Row.
- Gibson, Charles (1964).The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule.Stanford: Stanford University Press.
- Herr, Richard (1958).The Eighteenth-Century Revolution in Spain.Princeton.
{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Israel, Jonathan(May 1981). "Debate – The Decline of Spain: A Historical Myth".Past and Present(91): 170–185.doi:10.1093/past/91.1.170.
- Kagan, Richard L.; Parker, Geoffrey (1995).Spain, Europe and the Atlantic: Essays in Honour of John H. Elliott.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0521525114.
- Kamen, Henry (1998).Philip of Spain.New Haven: Yale University.ISBN978-0300078008.
- Kamen, Henry.Empire: How Spain Became a World Power, 1493–1763.New York: HarperCollins 2003.ISBN978-0060194765
- Lach, Donald F.; Van Kley, Edwin J. (1994).Asia in the Making of Europe.Chicago: University of Chicago.ISBN978-0226467344.
- Lynch, John (1964).Spain Under the Hapsburgs.New York.
{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Lynch, John (1983).The Spanish American Revolutions, 1808–1826.New York.
{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - MacLachlan, Colin M. (1988).Spain's Empire in the New World: The Role of Ideas in Institutional and Social Change.Berkeley: University of California Press.ISBN978-0520074101.
- Marichal, Carlos; Mantecón, Matilde Souto (1994). "Silver and Situados: New Spain and the Financing of the Spanish Empire in the Caribbean in the Eighteenth Century".Hispanic American Historical Review.74(4): 587–613.doi:10.2307/2517493.JSTOR2517493.
- Merriman, Roger Bigelow(1918).The Rise of the Spanish Empire in the Old World and the New.New York.
{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Olson, James S. (1992).Historical Dictionary of the Spanish Empire, 1402–1975.
- Paquette, Gabriel B (17 January 2008).Enlightenment, governance, and reform in Spain and its empire, 1759–1808.New York: Palgrave Macmillan 2008.ISBN978-0230300521.
- Parker, Geoffrey (1997).The Thirty Years' War(2nd ed.). New York: Routledge.ISBN978-0415128834.
- Parker, Geoffrey (1972).The Army of Flanders and the Spanish Road, 1567–1659; the logistics of Spanish victory and defeat in the Low Countries' Wars.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0521084628.
- Parker, Geoffrey (1977).The Dutch revolt.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0801411366.
- Parker, Geoffrey (1997).The General Crisis of the Seventeenth Century.New York: Routledge.ISBN978-0415165181.
- Parry, J.H.(1966).The Spanish Seaborne Empire.Berkeley: University of California Press.ISBN978-0520071407.
- Ramsey, John Fraser (1973).Spain: The Rise of the First World Power.University of Alabama Press.ISBN978-0817357047.
- Restall, Matthew (2007). "The Decline and Fall of the Spanish Empire?".The William and Mary Quarterly.64(1): 183–194.JSTOR4491607.
- Schmidt-Nowara, Christopher; Nieto Phillips, John M., eds. (2005).Interpreting Spanish Colonialism: Empires, Nations, and Legends.Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.
- Stein, Stanley J.; Stein, Barbara H. (2003).Apogee of Empire: Spain and New Spain in the Age of Charles III, 1759–1789.Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University.
- Stradling, R. A. (1988).Philip IV and the Government of Spain.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0521323338.
- Studnicki-Gizbert, Daviken (2007).A Nation upon the Ocean Sea: Portugal's Atlantic Diaspora and the Crisis of the Spanish Empire, 1492–1640.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0198039112.
- Thomas, Hugh(2004).Rivers of Gold: The Rise of the Spanish Empire 1490–1522.Weidenfeld & Nicolson.ISBN978-0297645634.
- Thomas, Hugh (1997).The Slave Trade; The History of the Atlantic Slave Trade 1440–1870.London: Papermac.ISBN978-0333731475.
- Vicens Vives, Jaime (1969).An Economic History of Spain(3rd revised ed.). Princeton: Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press.
- Wright, Esmond, ed. (1984).History of the World, Part II: The last five hundred years(third ed.). New York: Hamlyn Publishing.ISBN978-0517436448.
External links
- Library of Iberian Resources Online, Stanley G PayneA History of Spain and Portugalvol 1 Ch 13 "The Spanish Empire"
- The Mestizo-Mexicano-Indian History in the USA
- Documentary Film,Villa de Albuquerque
- The last Spanish colonies(in Spanish)
- Francisco José Calderón Vázquez (2008),Fronteras, identidad, conflicto e interacción. Los Presidios Españoles en el Norte Africano(in Spanish),ISBN978-8469167861,archived fromthe originalon 14 February 2009
- The Kraus Collection of Sir Francis Drakeat theLibrary of Congresscontains primary materials on Spanish colonialism.