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Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999

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TheEnvironment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999(Cth)is anActof theParliament of Australiathat provides a framework for protection of theAustralian environment,including itsbiodiversityand its natural and culturally significant places. Enacted on 17 July 2000, it established a range of processes to help protect and promote the recovery ofthreatened speciesandecological communities,and preserve significant places from decline. The Act is as of September 2024administered by theDepartment of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water.Lists of threatened species are drawn up under the Act, and these lists, the primary reference to threatened species in Australia, are available online through the Species Profile and Threats Database (SPRAT).

Parliament of Australia
  • An Act relating to the protection of the environment and the conservation of biodiversity, and for related purposes
CitationNo. 91 of 1999orNo. 91, 1999 as amended
Territorial extentStates and territories of Australia
Enacted byParliament of Australia
Enacted16 July 2000
Royal assent16 July 1999
Commenced16 July 2000
Administered byDepartment of Agriculture, Water and the Environment
Legislative history
Introduced byBill Heffernan,Ian Campbell
First reading31 March 1999[1]
Second reading31 March 1999[2]
Status:In force

As an Act of the Australian Parliament, it relies for its constitutional validity upon thelegislativepowers of the Parliament granted by theAustralian Constitution,and key provisions of the Act are largely based on a number of international, multilateral or bilateraltreaties.A number of reviews, audits and assessments of the Act have found the Act deeply flawed and thus not providing adequate environmental protection.

History

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TheEnvironment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999replaced theNational Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1975,after this legislation was repealed by theEnvironmental Reform (Consequential Provisions) Act 1999.[3][4]TheEnvironmental Reform Actalso repealed four other acts:Environment Protection (Impact of Proposals) Act 1974;Endangered Species Protection Act 1992;World Heritage Properties Conservation Act 1983;and theWhale Protection Act 1980.This Act also made consequential changes to other legislation, and various administrative arrangements, required by the new scheme introduced by the Act.[5]

The Act received Royal Assent on 16 July 1999 and commenced on 16 July 2000.[5]

TheEnvironment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Regulations 2000also commenced on 16 July 2000,[6](with 21 amendments up to the latest on 17 December 2018[7]). The purpose of the regulations is to give effect to the provisions of the Act.[5]

TheActhas had many amendments through its lifetime. Significant amendments include the following:

  • TheNational Heritage Listwas established by an amendment in September 2003.[8]
  • Amendments passed in February 2007 aimed to make the Act "more efficient and effective through the use of, in part, strategic approaches to environmental issues, reducing the time and cost of processing, and stronger enforcement provisions".[5]
  • Significant amendments to theActbecame law on 22 June 2013, known as the "Water trigger", makingwater resourcesa matter of national environmental significance, in relation tocoal seam gasand largecoal miningdevelopment.[9][5]

On 16 October 2013 the Environment Minister announced that the Government had approved a framework for a "one-stop shop" environmental approval process to accredit state planning systems under national environmental law, "to create a single environmental assessment and approval process for nationally protected matters".[10]On 16 June 2014 the proposed amendments[11]passed theHouse of Representatives,despite opposition from environmental campaigners and significant legal commentators who criticised the Bill and expressed concerns about the delegation of Commonwealth environmental approval powers.[12]Two different types of bilateral agreements ( "assessment" and "approval" ) with each state and territory provided for the approvals process, depending on differing requirements, to result in either two approval decisions and two sets of conditions, or only one decision, which includes conditions (if appropriate), being made.[10]

The Act

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The Act established the use of Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Regulations, which have provided for the issuing of approvals and permits for a range of activities onCommonwealthland and land affecting the Commonwealth. For example, commercial picking ofwildflowersis regulated under the Act, and cannot be undertaken without an appropriate permit. Failure to comply with the Act can result in penalties including remediation of damage, court injunctions, and criminal and civil penalties.

The Act is as of September 2024administered by theDepartment of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water.[13]

Matters of National Environmental Significance

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As of 2020,the Act identifies nine Matters of National Environmental Significance (MNES):[9]

The list must be reviewed every five years, and the government can add new matters to this list by regulation. "If a proposed action is likely to have a significant impact on any of the areas, it may require Commonwealth approval before it can begin. It is illegal to undertake such an action without that Commonwealth approval."[15]TheMatters of National Environmental Significance: Significant impact guidelines 1.1"provide overarching guidance on determining whether an action is likely to have a significant impact on a matter protected under national environment law".[16]

Threatened species

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Lists of threatened species, such asthreatened fauna,are drawn up under the Act and these lists are the primary reference to threatened species in Australia and are available online through theSpecies Profile and Threats Database(SPRAT).[17]

Treaties

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As an Act of the Australian Parliament, it relies for its Constitutional validity upon the legislative powers of the Parliament granted by theAustralian Constitution,which does not expressly refer to the environment. As such, key provisions of the Act are largely based on a number of treaties including:[18][19]

Bilateral agreements concerning migratory bird conservation include:[18]

Amendments

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TheEnvironment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Amendment (Independent Expert Scientific Committee on Coal Seam Gas and Large Coal Mining Development) Act 2012,assented to in October 2012, amended the Act to require that the "Minister must obtain advice from Independent Expert Scientific Committee on Coal Seam Gas and Large Coal Mining Development".[20]

2013 Amendment Act

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Significant impacts onMNEStrigger assessment under the Act. A new assessment trigger was added to the Act in mid-2013, via theEnvironment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Amendment Act 2013.[21]The amendment relates to significant impacts onwater resources,for example where actions by a large coal mining development, in particularcoal seam gasmay adversely affectgroundwaterin the area.[22]The amendment was introduced byTony Windsor,an independentMember of Parliament(MP). This became known as "water trigger".[23]

As of March 2020,theAustralian Conservation Foundationis taking theMorrison governmentto court for failing to apply the water trigger when it assessedAdani's North Galilee Water Scheme, part of its essential infrastructure for the proposedCarmichael coal mine.[24][23]

2020 Amendment Act

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On 27 August 2020, the Minister for the Environment,Sussan Ley,introduced theEnvironment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Amendment (Streamlining Environmental Approvals) Bill 2020 (Cth)(EPBC Amendment Bill), which for the most part reflects reforms to the bilateral approval agreement provisions first proposed in 2014. The proposed changes would make it easier to establish bilateral approval agreements between federal and state governments, and also to make it harder to challenge the devolution process under the law (by clarifying that an action cannot be referred under Part 7 of the Act if it is covered by a bilateral approval agreement. Other changes include allowing minor changes to state and territory assessment processes without impacting the bilateral agreement, and the prohibition on matters involving the "water trigger" will be removed,[25]so that states can make their own decisions when assessing applications by large coal mines andcoal seam gasprojects that can impact water resources.[22]The proposed changes do not include the promised prototype national standards.[26]

Assessments

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A large number of studies, audits, reviews andparliamentary inquirieshave examined various aspects of the legislation over the years.[27]Section 522A[28]of the Act requires that an independent review is conducted every 10 years, to examine its operation and the extent to which its objects have been met.[29]

A 2005 study looked specifically at threatened species recovery.[30][31]

In 2006 Chris McGrath examined the constitutional validity of the Act and its effectiveness at regulating non-compliance[30]after two recent publications had called for major changes, concluding that it is indeed constitutionally valid and that it is making an important contribution to Australian environmental law, and its gains should be retained if and when any reforms are made.[32]

2007 audit

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A review of the Act and actions taken under the Act was published by theAustralian National Audit Office(ANAO) in March 2007, entitled "The Conservation and Protection of National Threatened Species and Ecological Communities". The audit widely criticised theDepartment of the Environment and Water Resourcesfor inaction with respect to the EPBC; key findings of the audit include:[33][34]

  • that the Department had failed to keep the list of threatened species sufficiently up to date and has failed to prepare recovery plans;
  • that there were still inconsistencies between the federal andstate and territorylists of threatened species;
  • that due to partial or incorrect information there was a risk that incorrect decisions regarding conservation might be made; and
  • that the department has been denied funds necessary to meet their obligations under the Act by the Government on four occasions.

Australian GreensleaderBob Brownsaid the audit showed that the government had not provided enough funding to properly protect Australia'sendangered speciesof flora, fauna and ecological communities. He said that there were no plans to save three out of four threatened species.[34]

2008–2009 independent review

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On 31 October 2008 theMinister for the Environment, Heritage and the Artscommissioned the first 10-year statutory independent review of theAct.[28][35]

The review was led by DrAllan Hawke,supported by an expert panel.[35]The aim of the report was to review the performance of the Act and, consistent with the objective of protecting the environment and biological diversity and maintain ecological processes, to recommend reforms that:[36]

  • promote the sustainability of Australia's economic development
  • reduce and simplify the regulatory burden
  • ensure activities under the Act represent the most efficient and effective ways of achieving desired environmental outcomes
  • are based on an effective federal arrangement.

The "Final Report" was delivered to the Minister on 30 October 2009 and publicly released on 21 December 2009.[28][35][36]In its summary, it said that public comments had been "broadly supportive" of the Act, and that the Act had brought about many important reforms, and in many respects was still regarded as world leading. However it included 71 recommendations, "summarised into a reform package revolving around a nine-point plan":[37]

  1. redraft the Act to reflect better the Australian Government's role, streamline its arrangements and rename it theAustralian Environment Act;
  2. establish an independent Environment Commission to advise the government on project approvals, strategic assessments, bioregional plans and other statutory decisions;
  3. invest in the building blocks of a better regulatory system such as national environmental accounts, skills development, policy guidance, and acquisition of critical spatial information;
  4. streamline approvals through earlier engagement in planning processes and provide for more effective use and greater reliance on strategic assessments, bioregional planning and approvals bilateral agreements;
  5. set up an Environment Reparation Fund and national 'biobanking' scheme;
  6. provide for environmental performance audits and inquiries;
  7. create a new matter of national environmental significance for 'ecosystems of national significance' and introduce an interim greenhouse trigger;
  8. improve transparency in decision-making and provide greater access to the courts for public interest litigation; and
  9. mandate the development of foresight reports to help government manage emerging environmental threats.[37]

2018 invertebrate studies

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In 2018, two studies looked at the representativeness of listed species,[30][38]and the other insects and allied invertebrates, proposing a new, strategic national approach for the conservation of these animals.[39]

2018Guardianreport

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AThe Guardianreported in March 2018 that Australia had not listed anycritical habitatin the preceding 10 years, and only five areas had been registered since the introduction of theAct,although more than 1,800 species and ecological communities had been classed as threatened.[40]A recent investigation had shown that Australia was planning to clear 3,000,000 hectares (7,400,000 acres) of native forest by 2030, much of it inQueensland.[41]One weakness of the critical habitat register is that its offence provisions do not apply to state or private land, only toCommonwealthland. This had a big impact on the ability to name a critical habitat for the endangeredLeadbeater's possum,whose habitat was mainly on state- and privately-owned land.[40]

2019 assessment

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A study by the Centre for Biodiversity and Conservation Science at the School at theUniversity of Queenslandwas published in September 2019 as a "quantitative assessment on the effectiveness of the Act in regulating the loss of habitat for terrestrial threatened species, threatened ecological communities, or terrestrial migratory species", as there had been little quantitative study in this area. It looked at whether the Act as implemented was achieving its objective of safeguarding Australia's biodiversity with regard to regulating loss of habitat for threatened species and ecological communities between 2000 and 2017.[30]

It showed that since the Act came into force in 2000, over 7,700,000 hectares (19,000,000 acres) of potential habitat and communities had been cleared. Of this clearing, over 93% was not referred to the Federal Government for assessment, meaning the loss was not scrutinised under the Act. While 1,390 (84%) species suffered loss,Mount Cooper striped skink,Keighery'smacarthuria,andSouthern black-throated finchlost 25, 23, and 10% of potential habitat, respectively. Iconic Australian species such as thekoala,also lost about 1,000,000 hectares (2,500,000 acres) (2.3%) of potential habitat. This analysis showed that the Act is ineffective at protecting potential habitat for terrestrial threatened species, terrestrial migratory species, or threatened ecological communities.[30]

June 2020 audit

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The 2020 audit was the sixth audit of referrals, assessments and approvals under the Act.[42]Published and tabled in Parliament[43]on 25 June 2020, the report found that the administration of referrals, assessments and approvals of controlled actions under the Act by theDepartment of Agriculture, Water and the Environment(DAWE) was ineffective, disproportionate to environmental risk, errors have occurred, procedural protocols have not been followed, and the Department is "not well positioned to measure its contribution to the objectives of the Act". TheAuditor-Generalmade eight recommendations to the Department.[44]ANAO found that the Department did not have adequate performance measures in place; that administration had been poorly handled and that conflicts of interests were not well-managed.[27]

DAWE responded to the audit, agreeing to all eight recommendations. The Secretary of DAWE,Andrew Metcalfe,also reported that the Act was at the time undergoing an independent statutory review led by ProfessorGraeme SamuelAC,which was likely to result in legislative changes to the Act.[43]

James Tresize of theAustralian Conservation Foundationcommented that law was "fundamentally broken" and not equipped to deal with dual "extinction and climate crises", saying that Australia needs a stronger law and an independent regulator.[27]He also pointed out that "in the 20 years the laws have been in operation,threatened specieshabitat greater in size than Tasmania has been logged and cleared ".[42]

2019–2020 independent review

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A statutory independent review led by ProfessorGraeme SamuelACand supported by an expert panel commenced on 29 October 2019 and is due to run for a year. Submissions from the public closed in April 2020.[29]The expert panel consists of Bruce Martin, Erika Smyth andWendy Craik.[45]

The interim report, released in July 2020, concluded that the laws created to protect unique species and habitats are ineffective, and the "current environmental trajectory is unsustainable". Criticism of the Act included that it is too focused on process rather than on clear outcomes, and that its currentad hoc,"project-by-project" approach does not address cumulative harm. During its time in operation, "the list of threatened species and communities has increased over time and there have been very few species that have recovered to the point that they can be removed from the list". Among the changes the report proposes is a framework of legislated national environmental standards with legally enforceable rules, which would underpin all powers allocated to the states and territories. It recommends the establishment of an independent body "to monitor and enforce compliance with environmental laws". The report recommends that the federal government should start creating a set of interim standards initially, in consultation with state governments and all other stakeholders, and also a process whereby traditional knowledge of country byIndigenous Australianscan be better integrated into decision-making.[46]

TheMinister for the Environment,Sussan Ley,said the government would immediately commit to developing national standards. She also indicated that it would start a process whereby responsibility for environmental approvals could be devolved to state governments, intending to put agreements before parliament in late August 2020, before the release of the final report, due in October. Environmental groups said it would be better to await the final report before cementing the approvals processes. Ley said the government would improve protection of Indigenous heritage, starting with a consultative process which would include state Indigenous and environment ministers.[46]

On 14 August 2020,Andrew Barr,Chief Minister of theACT,said that the legislation needed to be modernised to addressclimate change,which is not even mentioned in the current Act.[47]

See also

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References

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  1. ^"Environment and Heritage Legislation Amendment Bill 1999: First Reading".ParlInfo.31 March 1999.Retrieved27 June2020.
  2. ^"Environment and Heritage Legislation Amendment Bill 1999: Second Reading".ParlInfo.31 March 1999.Retrieved27 June2020.
  3. ^"National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1975".Federal Register of Legislation.Australian Government. 13 March 1975.Retrieved27 June2020.
  4. ^"Environmental Reform (Consequential Provisions) Act 1999".Federal Register of Legislation.Australian Government. 16 July 1999.Retrieved27 June2020.
  5. ^abcde"History of the EPBC Act".Australia. Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment.5 July 2000.Retrieved27 June2020.Text was copied from this source, which is available under anAttribution 3.0 Australia (CC BY 3.0 AU)licence.
  6. ^"Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Regulations 2000".Federal Register of Legislation.5 July 2001.Retrieved27 June2020.
  7. ^"Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Regulations 2000".Federal Register of Legislation.Australian Government.Retrieved27 June2020.
  8. ^"Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999".Federal Register of Legislation.Australian Government. 23 September 2003.Retrieved2 July2020.
  9. ^ab"Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment".Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment.16 July 2000.Retrieved27 June2020.Text was copied from this source, which is available under anAttribution 3.0 Australia (CC BY 3.0 AU)licence.
  10. ^ab"One-Stop Shop for environmental approvals".Australia. Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment.16 October 2013.Retrieved27 June2020.
  11. ^Australian Network of Environmental Defender's Offices (30 May 2014)."ANEDO submission on the Senate Inquiry into the EPBC Amendment (Bilateral Agreement Implementation) Bill 2014 and the EPBC Amendment (Cost Recovery) Bill 2014"(PDF).Archived(PDF)from the original on 20 September 2016.Retrieved27 June2020.Hasty bilateral agreements to delegate Commonwealth government powers to State and Territories, as proposed by the Federal government's 'one stop shop' approach and facilitated by the Bill, may in fact, create complexity and fragmentation with a confusing "eight stop shop" of different State and Territory systems as Commonwealth requirements are 'bolted on' to the different state legislative structures.
  12. ^"Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water".Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water.16 July 2000.Retrieved15 September2024.Text was copied from this source, which is available under anAttribution 3.0 Australia (CC BY 3.0 AU)licence.
  13. ^Murphy, Katharine (9 April 2007). "Limited scrutiny on nuclear projects".The Age (Melbourne).p. 3.
  14. ^"What is a 'Matter of National Environmental Significance' (MNES)?".Law Handbook.Legal Services Commission of South Australia.29 August 2020.Retrieved31 August2020.
  15. ^"Significant Impact Guidelines 1.1 - Matters of National Environmental Significance".Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment.Retrieved31 August2020.Text was copied from this source, which is available under aAttribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)licence.
  16. ^"Species Profile and Threats Database (SPRAT)".Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment, Australian Government.Retrieved27 June2020.
  17. ^ab"Scope of the EPBC Act".Independent review of the EPBC Act.26 June 2020.Retrieved27 June2020.
  18. ^"The Environment Protection & Biodiversity Conservation Act and the Australian Constitution".National Farmers' Federation. 9 February 2007. Archived fromthe original(Word Document (.doc))on 19 July 2008.Retrieved4 June2008.
  19. ^"Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Amendment (Independent Expert Scientific Committee on Coal Seam Gas and Large Coal Mining Development) Act 2012".Federal Register of Legislation.26 October 2012.Retrieved31 August2020.
  20. ^"Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Amendment Act 2013".Federal Register of Legislation.25 June 2013.Retrieved31 August2020.
  21. ^ab"Explainer: What is the 'water trigger'?".Environmental Defenders Office.13 November 2018.Retrieved31 August2020.
  22. ^abHannam, Peter (16 March 2020)."Morrison government faces legal challenge over Adani pipeline plan".The Sydney Morning Herald.Retrieved31 August2020.
  23. ^"ACF challenges Morrison Government decision to not apply water trigger to Adani pipeline".Australian Conservation Foundation.1 August 2018.Retrieved31 August2020.
  24. ^"EPBC Amendment Bill tabled to facilitate bilateral approval agreements".Herbert Smith Freehills.Environment, Planning & Communities notes. 27 August 2020.Retrieved31 August2020.
  25. ^Cox, Lisa (27 August 2020)."Australia's national environmental laws: what is the Morrison government proposing to change and why?".The Guardian.Retrieved31 August2020.
  26. ^abcDalzell, Stephanie (25 June 2020)."Auditor-General's review of EPBC act finds severe deficiencies in Environment Department's processes".ABC News.Australian Broadcasting Corporation.Retrieved26 June2020.
  27. ^abcIndependent review of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999Archived15 December 2010 at theWayback Machine.Environment.gov.au. Retrieved on 2012-05-03.
  28. ^ab"About the review".Independent review of the EPBC Act.23 June 2020.Retrieved27 June2020.
  29. ^abcdeWard, Michelle S.; Simmonds, Jeremy S.; et al. (8 September 2019)."Lots of loss with little scrutiny: The attrition of habitat critical for threatened species in Australia".Conservation Science and Practice.1(11).doi:10.1111/csp2.117.Text was copied from this source, which is available under aAttribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)licence.
  30. ^Wilkinson, Debra; Macintosh, Andrew."The EPBC [Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation] Act [1999]: the case for reform".Australasian Journal of Natural Resources Law and Policy.10(1).Retrieved26 June2020.
  31. ^McGrath, Chris."Swirls in the stream of Australian environmental law: Debate on the EPBC Act".ResearchGate.
  32. ^McVay, Peter; Mathie, Cameron; Crossley, David (2007).The Conservation and Protection of National Threatened Species and Ecological Communities [for the] Department of the Environment and Water Resources.Auditor-General Audit Report No.31, 2006–07 Performance Audit. Commonwealth of Australia.ISBN978-0-642-80950-6.ISSN1036-7632.pdf
  33. ^ab"Audit slams slow Environment Department".The Age.29 March 2007.Retrieved27 June2020.
  34. ^abc"First Independent review of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999".Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment.31 October 2008.Retrieved27 June2020.Text was copied from this source, which is available under aAttribution 3.0 Australia (CC BY 3.0 AU)licence.
  35. ^abThe Australian Environment Act: Report of the Independent review of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999: Final report.Australia. Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts. October 2009.ISBN978-0-9806735-2-4.Archived fromthe originalon 29 March 2013.Retrieved27 June2020– via Trove.
  36. ^ab"Fact Sheet 2 The Independent Review – Conclusions and Recommendations"(PDF).Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment. October 2009.Retrieved27 June2020.Text was copied from this source, which is available under aAttribution 3.0 Australia (CC BY 3.0 AU)licence.
  37. ^Braby, Michael F (18 January 2018)."Threatened species conservation of invertebrates in Australia: an overview".Austral Entomology.57(2). Wiley: 173–181.doi:10.1111/aen.12324.ISSN2052-174X.
  38. ^Taylor, Gary S; Braby, Michael F; et al. (2018)."Strategic national approach for improving the conservation management of insects and allied invertebrates in Australia".Austral Entomology.57(2). Wiley: 124–149.doi:10.1111/aen.12343.ISSN2052-174X.
  39. ^abCox, Lisa (5 March 2018)."Australia has 1,800 threatened species but has not listed critical habitat in 10 years".The Guardian.Retrieved29 June2020.
  40. ^Slezak, Michael (4 March 2018)."'Global deforestation hotspot': 3m hectares of Australian forest to be lost in 15 years ".The Guardian.Retrieved29 June2020.
  41. ^ab"Scathing Auditor-General's report on environment law makes clear case for new, independent regulator".Australian Conservation Foundation.25 June 2020.Retrieved26 June2020.
  42. ^ab"Department response to ANAO Performance Audit: Referrals, Assessments and Approvals of Controlled Actions under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999".Australia. Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment.25 June 2020.Retrieved27 June2020.Letter from Secretary of DAWE Andrew Metcalfe to ANAO;DAWE response to Proposed Report under s.19 of the Auditor-General Act 1997
  43. ^Australian National Audit Office (25 June 2019).Referrals, Assessments and Approvals of Controlled Actions under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 [for] Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment.Auditor-General Report No.47 2019–20: Performance Audit.ISBN978-1-76033-564-9.ISSN2203-0352.Retrieved26 June2020.Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 3.0 AustraliaPDF
  44. ^"Reviewer and Expert Panel".Independent review of the EPBC Act.23 June 2020.Retrieved27 June2020.
  45. ^abCox, Lisa (20 July 2020)."Australia's environment in unsustainable state of decline, major review finds".The Guardian.Retrieved27 July2020.
  46. ^Cox, Lisa (15 August 2020)."Australia's environmental protection laws should mention climate change, government told".The Guardian.Retrieved16 August2020.
  47. ^"Territory Parks And Wildlife Conservation Act 1976".Northern Territory Legislation.Northern Territory Government.Retrieved28 June2020.
  48. ^"Environmental Assessment Act 1982".Northern Territory Legislation.Northern Territory Government. Archived fromthe originalon 8 April 2020.Retrieved28 June2020.

Further reading

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