Wikipedia

Star system

This article is about astronomical objects. For the Hollywood star system, seeStar system (filmmaking)."Multiple star" redirects here. For apparent doubles, seedouble star.Not to be confused withExosolar systemorPlanetary system.

Astar systemorstellar systemis a small number ofstarsthat orbit each other,[1]bound bygravitational attraction.A large group of stars bound by gravitation is generally called astar clusterorgalaxy,although, broadly speaking, they are also star systems. Star systems are not to be confused withplanetary systems,which include planets and similar bodies (such ascomets).

TheAlgol three-star systemimaged in thenear-infraredby theCHARA interferometerwith 0.5masresolution in 2009. The shape of Algol C is an artifact.
Algol A is being regularly eclipsed by the dimmer Algol B every 2.87 days. (Imaged in theH-bandby the CHARA interferometer. Sudden jumps in the animation are artifacts.)
Artist's impression of the orbits ofHD 188753,a triple star system.

A star system of two stars is known as abinary star,binary star systemorphysicaldouble star.If there are notidaleffects, no perturbation from other forces, and notransfer of massfrom one star to the other, such a system is stable, and both stars will trace out anelliptical orbitaround thebarycenterof the system indefinitely.[citation needed](SeeTwo-body problem).Examples of binary systems areSirius,ProcyonandCygnus X-1,the last of which probably consists of a star and ablack hole.

Multiple star systems

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Amultiple star systemconsists of two or morestarsthat appear fromEarthto be close to one another in the sky.[dubious–discuss]This may result from the stars actually being physically close andgravitationallybound to each other, in which case it is aphysicalmultiple star, or this closeness may be merely apparent, in which case it is anopticalmultiple star[a]Physical multiple stars are also commonly calledmultiple starsormultiple star systems.[2][3][4][5]

Most multiple star systems aretriple stars.Systems with four or more components are less likely to occur.[3]Multiple-star systems are calledtriple,ternary,ortrinaryif they contain 3 stars;quadrupleorquaternaryif they contain 4 stars;quintupleorquintenarywith 5 stars;sextupleorsextenarywith 6 stars;septupleorseptenarywith 7 stars;octupleoroctenarywith 8 stars. These systems are smaller thanopen star clusters,which have more complex dynamics and typically have from 100 to 1,000 stars.[6]Most multiple star systems known are triple; for higher multiplicities, the number of known systems with a given multiplicity decreases exponentially with multiplicity.[7]For example, in the 1999 revision of Tokovinin's catalog[3]of physical multiple stars, 551 out of the 728 systems described are triple. However, because of suspectedselection effects,the ability to interpret these statistics is very limited.[8]

Multiple-star systems can be divided into two main dynamical classes:

(1)hierarchicalsystems, which are stable, and consist of nested orbits that do not interact much, and so each level of the hierarchy can be treated as aTwo-body problem

or

(2) thetrapeziawhich have unstable strongly interacting orbits and are modelled as ann-body problem,exhibitingchaoticbehavior.[9]They can have 2, 3, or 4 stars.

Hierarchical systems

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Star system namedDI Cha.While only two stars are apparent, it is actually a quadruple system containing two sets of binary stars.[10]

Most multiple-star systems are organized in what is called ahierarchical system:the stars in the system can be divided into two smaller groups, each of which traverses a larger orbit around the system'scenter of mass.Each of these smaller groups must also be hierarchical, which means that they must be divided into smaller subgroups which themselves are hierarchical, and so on.[11]Each level of the hierarchy can be treated as atwo-body problemby considering close pairs as if they were a single star. In these systems there is little interaction between the orbits and the stars' motion will continue to approximate stable[3][12]Keplerianorbits around the system's center of mass,[13]unlike the unstabletrapeziasystems or the even more complexdynamicsof the large number ofstarsinstar clustersandgalaxies.

Triple star systems

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In aphysicaltriple star system, each starorbitsthecenter of massof the system. Usually, two of the stars form a closebinary system,and the third orbits this pair at a distance much larger than that of the binary orbit. This arrangement is calledhierarchical.[14][11]The reason for this arrangement is that if the inner and outer orbits are comparable in size, the system may become dynamically unstable, leading to a star being ejected from the system.[15]EZ Aquariiis an example of a physical hierarchical triple system, which has an outer star orbiting an inner physical binary composed of two morered dwarfstars. Triple stars that arenotall gravitationally bound might comprise a physical binary and anopticalcompanion (such asBeta Cephei) or, in rare cases, a purelyopticaltriple star (such asGamma Serpentis).

Higher multiplicities

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Mobile diagrams:
  1. multiplex
  2. simplex, binary system
  3. simplex, triple system, hierarchy 2
  4. simplex, quadruple system, hierarchy 2
  5. simplex, quadruple system, hierarchy 3
  6. simplex, quintuple system, hierarchy 4.

Hierarchical multiple star systems with more than three stars can produce a number of more complicated arrangements. These arrangements can be organized by what Evans (1968) calledmobile diagrams,which look similar to ornamental mobiles hung from the ceiling. Examples of hierarchical systems are given in the figure to the right (Mobile diagrams). Each level of the diagram illustrates the decomposition of the system into two or more systems with smaller size. Evans calls a diagrammultiplexif there is a node with more than twochildren,i.e. if the decomposition of some subsystem involves two or more orbits with comparable size. Because, as we have already seen for triple stars, this may be unstable, multiple stars are expected to besimplex,meaning that at each level there are exactly twochildren.Evans calls the number of levels in the diagram itshierarchy.[11]

  • A simplex diagram of hierarchy 1, as in (b), describes a binary system.
  • A simplex diagram of hierarchy 2 may describe a triple system, as in (c), or a quadruple system, as in (d).
  • A simplex diagram of hierarchy 3 may describe a system with anywhere from four to eight components. The mobile diagram in (e) shows an example of a quadruple system with hierarchy 3, consisting of a single distant component orbiting a close binary system, with one of the components of the close binary being an even closer binary.
  • A real example of a system with hierarchy 3 isCastor,also known as Alpha Geminorum or α Gem. It consists of what appears to be avisual binarystarwhich, upon closer inspection, can be seen to consist of twospectroscopic binarystars. By itself, this would be a quadruple hierarchy 2 system as in (d), but it is orbited by a fainter more distant component, which is also a close red dwarf binary. This forms a sextuple system of hierarchy 3.[16]
  • The maximum hierarchy occurring in A. A. Tokovinin's Multiple Star Catalogue, as of 1999, is 4.[3]For example, the starsGliese 644A and Gliese 644Bform what appears to be a close visualbinary star;because Gliese 644B is aspectroscopic binary,this is actually a triple system. The triple system has the more distant visual companion Gliese 643 and the still more distant visual companion Gliese 644C, which, because of their common motion with Gliese 644AB, are thought to be gravitationally bound to the triple system. This forms a quintuple system whose mobile diagram would be the diagram of level 4 appearing in (f).[17]

Higher hierarchies are also possible.[11][18]Most of these higher hierarchies either are stable or suffer from internalperturbations.[19][20][21]Others consider complex multiple stars will in time theoretically disintegrate into less complex multiple stars, like more common observed triples or quadruples are possible.[22][23]

Trapezia

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Trapezia are usually very young, unstable systems. These are thought to form in stellar nurseries, and quickly fragment into stable multiple stars, which in the process may eject components as galactichigh-velocity stars.[24][25]They are named after the multiple star system known as theTrapezium Clusterin the heart of theOrion Nebula.[24]Such systems are not rare, and commonly appear close to or within brightnebulae.These stars have no standard hierarchical arrangements, but compete for stable orbits. This relationship is calledinterplay.[26]Such stars eventually settle down to a close binary with a distant companion, with the other star(s) previously in the system ejected into interstellar space at high velocities.[26]This dynamic may explain therunaway starsthat might have been ejected during a collision of two binary star groups or a multiple system. This event is credited with ejectingAE Aurigae,Mu Columbaeand53 Arietisat above 200 km·s−1and has been traced to theTrapezium clusterin theOrion Nebulasome two million years ago.[27][28]

Designations and nomenclature

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Multiple star designations

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The components of multiple stars can be specified by appending the suffixesA,B,C,etc., to the system's designation. Suffixes such asABmay be used to denote the pair consisting ofAandB.The sequence of lettersB,C,etc. may be assigned in order of separation from the componentA.[29][30]Components discovered close to an already known component may be assigned suffixes such asAa,Ba,and so forth.[30]

Nomenclature in the Multiple Star Catalogue

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Subsystem notation in Tokovinin's Multiple Star Catalogue

A. A. Tokovinin's Multiple Star Catalogue uses a system in which each subsystem in a mobile diagram is encoded by a sequence of digits. In the mobile diagram (d) above, for example, the widest system would be given the number 1, while the subsystem containing its primary component would be numbered 11 and the subsystem containing its secondary component would be numbered 12. Subsystems which would appear below this in the mobile diagram will be given numbers with three, four, or more digits. When describing a non-hierarchical system by this method, the same subsystem number will be used more than once; for example, a system with three visual components, A, B, and C, no two of which can be grouped into a subsystem, would have two subsystems numbered 1 denoting the two binaries AB and AC. In this case, if B and C were subsequently resolved into binaries, they would be given the subsystem numbers 12 and 13.[3]

Future multiple star system nomenclature

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The current nomenclature for double and multiple stars can cause confusion as binary stars discovered in different ways are given different designations (for example,discoverer designationsfor visual binary stars andvariable star designationsfor eclipsing binary stars), and, worse, component letters may be assigned differently by different authors, so that, for example, one person'sAcan be another'sC.[31]Discussion starting in 1999 resulted in four proposed schemes to address this problem:[31]

  • KoMa, a hierarchical scheme using upper- and lower-case letters and Arabic and Roman numerals;
  • The Urban/Corbin Designation Method, a hierarchical numeric scheme similar to theDewey Decimal Classificationsystem;[32]
  • The Sequential Designation Method, a non-hierarchical scheme in which components and subsystems are assigned numbers in order of discovery;[33]and
  • WMC, the Washington Multiplicity Catalog, a hierarchical scheme in which the suffixes used in theWashington Double Star Catalogare extended with additional suffixed letters and numbers.

For a designation system, identifying the hierarchy within the system has the advantage that it makes identifying subsystems and computing their properties easier. However, it causes problems when new components are discovered at a level above or intermediate to the existing hierarchy. In this case, part of the hierarchy will shift inwards. Components which are found to be nonexistent, or are later reassigned to a different subsystem, also cause problems.[34][35]

During the 24th General Assembly of theInternational Astronomical Unionin 2000, the WMC scheme was endorsed and it was resolved by Commissions 5, 8, 26, 42, and 45 that it should be expanded into a usable uniform designation scheme.[31]A sample of a catalog using the WMC scheme, covering half an hour ofright ascension,was later prepared.[36]The issue was discussed again at the 25th General Assembly in 2003, and it was again resolved by commissions 5, 8, 26, 42, and 45, as well as the Working Group on Interferometry, that the WMC scheme should be expanded and further developed.[37]

The sample WMC is hierarchically organized; the hierarchy used is based on observed orbital periods or separations. Since it contains many visualdouble stars,which may be optical rather than physical, this hierarchy may be only apparent. It uses upper-case letters (A, B,...) for the first level of the hierarchy, lower-case letters (a, b,...) for the second level, and numbers (1, 2,...) for the third. Subsequent levels would use alternating lower-case letters and numbers, but no examples of this were found in the sample.[31]

Examples

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Binary

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Sirius A (center), with its white dwarf companion, Sirius B (lower left) taken by theHubble Space Telescope.

Triple

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  • Alpha Centauriis a triple star composed of a main binaryYellow dwarfand anOrange dwarfpair (Rigil KentaurusandToliman), and an outlyingred dwarf,Proxima Centauri.Together, Rigil Kentaurus and Toliman form a physicalbinary star,designated as Alpha Centauri AB, α Cen AB, or RHD 1 AB, where the AB denotes this is abinary system.[38]The moderately eccentricorbitof the binary can make the components be as close as 11AUor as far away as 36 AU. Proxima Centauri, also (though less frequently) called Alpha Centauri C, is much farther away (between 4300 and 13,000 AU) from α Cen AB, and orbits the central pair with a period of 547,000 (+66,000/-40,000) years.[39]
  • Polarisor Alpha Ursae Minoris (α UMi), the north star, is a triple star system in which the closer companion star is extremely close to the main star—so close that it was only known from its gravitational tug on Polaris A (α UMi A) until it was imaged by theHubble Space Telescopein 2006.
  • Gliese 667is a triple star system with two K-type main sequence stars and ared dwarf.The red dwarf, C, hosts between two and seven planets, of which one, Cc, alongside the unconfirmed Cf and Ce, are potentially habitable.
  • HD 188753is a triple star system located approximately 149light-yearsaway fromEarthin theconstellationCygnus.The system is composed of HD 188753A, ayellow dwarf;HD 188753B, anorange dwarf;and HD 188753C, ared dwarf.B and C orbit each other every 156 days, and, as a group, orbit A every 25.7 years.[40]
  • Fomalhaut(α PsA, α Piscis Austrini) is a triple star system in theconstellationPiscis Austrinus.It was discovered to be a triple system in 2013, when the K type flare star TW Piscis Austrini and the red dwarf LP 876-10 were all confirmed to share proper motion through space. The primary has a massive dust disk similar to that of the earlySolar System,but much more massive. It also contains a gas giant,Fomalhaut b.That same year, the tertiary star, LP 876-10 was also confirmed to house a dust disk.
  • HD 181068is a unique triple system, consisting of ared giantand two main-sequence stars. The orbits of the stars are oriented in such a way that all three stars eclipse each other.

Quadruple

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HD 98800is a quadruple star system located in theTW Hydraeassociation.

Quintuple

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Sextuple

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Septuple

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Octuple

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Nonuple

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See also

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Footnotes

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  1. ^The termoptical multiplestar means that the stars may appear to be close to each other, when viewed from planet Earth, as they both seem to occupy nearly the same point in the sky, but in reality, one star may be much farther away from Earth than the other, which is not readily apparent unless one can view them over the course of a year, and observe distinctparallaxes.

References

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