Wikipedia

Sugarcane

For the EP by Tiwa Savage, seeSugarcane(EP).For the songs, seeSugarcane (Camidoh song)andSugarcane (New Order song).For the film, seeSugarcane (film).

Sugarcaneorsugar caneis a species of tall,perennialgrass (in the genusSaccharum,tribeAndropogoneae) that is used forsugarproduction.The plants are 2–6 m (6–20 ft) tall with stout, jointed, fibrous stalks that are rich insucrose,[1]which accumulates in thestalk internodes.Sugarcanes belong to the grass family,Poaceae,an economically importantflowering plantfamily that includes maize, wheat, rice, andsorghum,and manyforagecrops. It is native to the warm temperate and tropical regions of India, Southeast Asia, andNew Guinea.

Saccharum officinarum

Sugarcane was an ancient crop of theAustronesianandPapuan people.The best evidence available today points to the New Guinea area as the site of the original domestication ofSaccharum officinarum.[2]It was introduced toPolynesia,Island Melanesia,andMadagascarin prehistoric times via Austronesian sailors. It was also introduced to southern China and India by Austronesian traders around 1200 to 1000 BC. The Persians and Greeks encountered the famous "reeds that produce honey without bees" in India between the sixth and fourth centuries BC. They adopted and then spread sugarcane agriculture.[3]Merchants began to trade in sugar, which was considered a luxurious and expensive spice, from India. In the 18th century, sugarcane plantations began in the Caribbean, South American, Indian Ocean, and Pacific island nations. The need for sugar crop laborers became a major driver of large migrations, some people voluntarily acceptingindentured servitude[4]and others forcibly imported asslaves.[5]

Grown in tropical and subtropical regions, sugarcane is the world's largest crop by production quantity, totalling 1.9 billiontonnesin 2020, with Brazil accounting for 40% of the world total. Sugarcane accounts for 79% of sugar produced globally (most of the rest is made fromsugar beets). About 70% of the sugar produced comes fromSaccharum officinarumand its hybrids.[6]All sugarcane species caninterbreed,and the major commercialcultivarsare complexhybrids.[7]

White sugaris produced from sugarcane in specialized mill factories. Sugarcanereedsare used to make pens, mats, screens, and thatch. The young, unexpandedflower headofSaccharum edule(duruka) is eaten raw, steamed, or toasted, and prepared in various ways in Southeast Asia, such as certain island communities of Indonesia as well as inOceaniccountries likeFiji.[8]The direct use of sugar cane to produceethanolforbiofuelis projected to potentially surpass the production of white sugar as an end product.

Etymology

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The term 'sugarcane' is a combination of two words; sugar and cane. The former ultimately derives fromSanskritशर्करा (śárkarā) as the crop originated in Southeast Asia. As sugar was traded and spread West, this became سُكَّر (sukkar) inArabic,zúccheroinItalian,zuccaruminLatin,and eventuallysucrein bothMiddle FrenchandMiddle English.The second term "cane" began to be used alongside it as the crop was grown on plantations in theCaribbean.Gannais the Hindi word for sugarcane.[citation needed]

Characteristics

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Sugarcane is the most widely produced primary crop in the world

Sugarcane, a perennial tropicalgrass,exhibits a unique growth pattern characterized by lateral shoots emerging at its base, leading to the development of multiple stems. These stems typically attain a height of 3 to 4 meters (approximately 10 to 13 feet) and possess a diameter of about 5 centimeters (approximately 2 inches). As these stems mature, they evolve into cane stalks, constituting a substantial portion of the entire plant, accounting for roughly 75% of its composition.[citation needed]

A fully mature cane stalk generally comprises a composition of around 11–16% fiber, 12–16% soluble sugars, 2–3% nonsugar carbohydrates, and 63–73% water content. The successful cultivation of sugarcane hinges on a delicate interplay of several factors, including climatic conditions, soil properties, irrigation methods, fertilization practices, pest and disease management, the selection of specific varieties, and the timing of the harvest.[citation needed]

In terms of yield, the average production of cane stalk stands at 60–70 tonnes per hectare (equivalent to 24–28 long tons per acre or 27–31 short tons per acre) annually. However, this yield figure is not fixed and can vary significantly, ranging from 30 to 180 tonnes per hectare. This variance is contingent upon the level of knowledge applied and the approach to crop management embraced in the cultivation of sugarcane. Ultimately, the successful cultivation of this valuable crop demands a thoughtful integration of various factors to optimize its growth and productivity.[citation needed]

Sugarcane is acash crop,but it is also used as livestock fodder.[9]Sugarcane genome is one of the most complex plant genomes known, mostly due to interspecific hybridization and polyploidization.[10][11]

  • Cut sugarcane
  • Sugarcane canopy

History

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See also:Domesticated plants and animals of AustronesiaandHistory of sugar

The two centers of domestication for sugarcane are one forSaccharum officinarumbyPapuansin New Guinea and another forSaccharum sinenseby Austronesians inTaiwanand southern China. Papuans and Austronesians originally primarily used sugarcane as food for domesticated pigs. The spread of bothS. officinarumandS. sinenseis closely linked to the migrations of theAustronesian peoples.Saccharum barberiwas only cultivated in India after the introduction ofS. officinarum.[12][13]

Map showing centers of origin ofSaccharum officinarumin New Guinea,S. sinensisin southern China and Taiwan, andS. barberiin India; dotted arrows represent Austronesian introductions[14]

S. officinarumwas first domesticated in New Guinea and the islands east of theWallace Lineby Papuans, where it is the moderncenter of diversity.Beginning around 6,000BP,several strains wereselectively bredfrom the nativeSaccharum robustum.From New Guinea, it spread westwards toMaritime Southeast Asiaafter contact with Austronesians, where it hybridized withSaccharum spontaneum.[13]

The second domestication center is mainland southern China and Taiwan, whereS. sinensewas a primarycultigenof the Austronesian peoples. Words for sugarcane are reconstructed as*təbuSor*CebuSinProto-Austronesian,which became*tebuhinProto-Malayo-Polynesian.It was one of theoriginal major cropsof the Austronesian peoples from at least 5,500 BP. Introduction of the sweeterS. officinarummay have gradually replaced it throughout its cultivated range in maritime Southeast Asia.[15][16][14][17][18]

The westward diffusion of sugarcane in pre-Islamic times (shown in red), in the medievalMuslim world(green), and in the 15th century by the Portuguese on the Madeira archipelago, and by the Spanish on the Canary Islands archipelago (islands west of Africa, circled by violet lines)[19]

From Island Southeast Asia,S. officinarumwas spread eastward intoPolynesiaandMicronesiaby Austronesian voyagers as acanoe plantby around 3,500 BP. It was also spread westward and northward by around 3,000 BP to China and India by Austronesian traders, where it further hybridized withS. sinenseandS. barberi.From there, it spread further into western Eurasia and theMediterranean.[13][14]

The earliest known production of crystalline sugar began in northern India. The earliest evidence of sugar production comes from ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts.[20][21][22][23]Around the eighth century, Muslim andArabtraders introduced sugar frommedieval Indiato the other parts of theAbbasid Caliphatein the Mediterranean,Mesopotamia,Egypt,North Africa, andAndalusia.By the 10th century, sources state that every village in Mesopotamia grew sugarcane.[19]It was among the early crops brought to the Americas by the Spanish, mainly Andalusians, from their fields in theCanary Islands,and the Portuguese from their fields in theMadeira Islands.An article on sugarcane cultivation in Spain is included inIbn al-'Awwam's 12th-centuryBook on Agriculture.[24]

In colonial times, sugar formed one side of thetriangle tradeof New World raw materials, along with European manufactured goods, and Africanslaves.Christopher Columbusfirst brought sugarcane to theCaribbean(and theNew World) during his second voyage to the Americas, initially to the island ofHispaniola(modern dayHaitiand theDominican Republic). The first sugar harvest happened in Hispaniola in 1501; many sugar mills were constructed inCubaandJamaicaby the 1520s.[25]ThePortugueseintroduced sugarcane toBrazil.By 1540, there were 800cane sugar millsinSanta Catarina Islandand another 2,000 on the north coast of Brazil,Demarara,andSuriname.[citation needed]

Sugar, often in the form of molasses, was shipped from the Caribbean to Europe or New England, where it was used to makerum.The profits from the sale of sugar were then used to purchase manufactured goods, which were then shipped to West Africa, where they were bartered for slaves. The slaves were then brought back to the Caribbean to be sold to sugar planters. The profits from the sale of the slaves were then used to buy more sugar, which was shipped to Europe. Toil in the sugar plantations became a main basis for a vast network offorced population movement,supplying people to work under brutal coercion.

Lithograph of asugar plantationin the British colony ofAntigua,1823
A sugar plantation on the island ofJamaicain the late 19th century

The passage of the1833 Slavery Abolition Actled to the abolition of slavery through most of theBritish Empire,and many of the emancipated slaves no longer worked on sugarcane plantations when they had a choice. West Indian planters, therefore, needed new workers, and they found cheap labour inChinaand India.[26][27]The people were subject toindenture,a long-established form of contract, which bound them to unfree labour for a fixed term. The conditions where the indentured servants worked were frequently abysmal, owing to a lack of care among the planters.[28]The first ships carrying indentured labourers from India left in 1836.[29]The migrations to serve sugarcane plantations led to a significant number of ethnic Indians, Southeast Asians, and Chinese people settling in various parts of the world.[30]In some islands and countries, the South Asian migrants now constitute between 10 and 50% of the population. Sugarcane plantations and Asian ethnic groups continue to thrive in countries such asFiji,South Africa,Myanmar,Sri Lanka,Malaysia,Indonesia,thePhilippines,Guyana,Jamaica,Trinidad,Martinique,French Guiana,Guadeloupe,Grenada,St. Lucia,St. Vincent,St. Kitts,St. Croix,Suriname,Nevis,andMauritius.[29][31]

Old-fashioned Indian sugarcane press,circa1905

Between 1863 and 1900, merchants and plantation owners inQueenslandandNew South Wales(now part of the Commonwealth of Australia) brought between 55,000 and 62,500 people from the SouthPacific Islandsto work on sugarcane plantations. An estimated one-third of these workers were coerced or kidnapped into slavery (known asblackbirding). Many others were paid very low wages. Between 1904 and 1908, most of the 10,000 remaining workers were deported inan effort to keep Australia racially homogeneousand protectwhiteworkers from cheap foreign labour.[32]

Cuban sugar derived from sugarcane was exported to theUSSR,where it received price supports and was ensured a guaranteed market. The1991 dissolution of the Soviet stateforced the closure of most of Cuba's sugar industry.

Sugarcane remains an important part of the economy of Cuba, Guyana,Belize,Barbados,and Haiti, along with the Dominican Republic, Guadeloupe, Jamaica, and other islands.

About 70% of the sugar produced globally comes fromS. officinarumand hybrids using this species.[6]

A 19th-century lithograph by Theodore Bray showing a sugarcane plantation: On the right is the "white officer", the European overseer. Slave workers toil during the harvest. To the left is a flat-bottomed vessel for cane transportation.

Cultivation

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Sugarcane plantation,Mauritius
Sugarcane plantation inBangladesh
Planting sugarcane in Puerto Rico
Sugarcane fields

Sugarcane cultivation requires a tropical orsubtropicalclimate, with a minimum of 60 cm (24 in) of annual moisture. It is one of the mostefficientphotosynthesizersin theplant kingdom.It is aC4plant,able to convert up to 1% of incident solar energy intobiomass.[33]In primary growing regions across the tropics andsubtropics,sugarcane crops can produce over 15 kg/m2of cane.

Sugar cane accounted for around 21% of the global crop production over the 2000–2021 period. The Americas was the leading region in the production of sugar cane (52% of the world total).[34]

Once a major crop of the southeastern region of the United States, sugarcane cultivation declined there during the late 20th century, and is primarily confined to small plantations inFlorida,Louisiana,andsoutheast Texasin the 21st century. Sugarcane cultivation ceased in Hawaii when the last operating sugar plantation in the state shut down in 2016.[35]

Sugarcane is cultivated in the tropics and subtropics in areas with a plentiful supply of water for a continuous period of more than 6–7 months each year, either from natural rainfall or through irrigation. The crop does not tolerate severe frosts. Therefore, most of the world's sugarcane is grown between22°Nand22°S,and some up to33°Nand33°S.[36]When sugarcane crops are found outside this range, such as theNatalregion of South Africa, it is normally due to anomalous climatic conditions in the region, such as warm ocean currents that sweep down the coast. In terms of altitude, sugarcane crops are found up to 1,600 m or 5,200 ft close to the equator in countries such asColombia,Ecuador,andPeru.[37]

Sugarcane can be grown on many soils ranging from highly fertile, well-drainedmollisols,through heavy crackingvertisols,infertile acidoxisolsandultisols,peatyhistosols,to rockyandisols.Both plentiful sunshine and water supplies increase cane production. This has made desert countries with good irrigation facilities such as Egypt some of the highest-yielding sugarcane-cultivating regions. Sugarcane consumes 9% of the world'spotashfertilizer production.[38]

Although some sugarcanes produce seeds, modern stem cutting has become the most common reproduction method.[39]Each cutting must contain at least one bud, and the cuttings are sometimes hand-planted. In more technologically advanced countries, such as the United States and Australia, billet planting is common. Billets (stalks or stalk sections) harvested by a mechanical harvester are planted by a machine that opens and recloses the ground. Once planted, a stand can be harvested several times; after each harvest, the cane sends up new stalks, calledratoons.[40]Successive harvests give decreasing yields, eventually justifying replanting. Two to 10 harvests are usually made depending on the type of culture. In a country with a mechanical agriculture looking for a high production of large fields, as in North America, sugarcanes are replanted after two or three harvests to avoid a lowering yields. In countries with a more traditional type of agriculture with smaller fields and hand harvesting, as in the French island ofRéunion,sugarcane is often harvested up to 10 years before replanting.[citation needed]

Sugarcane is harvested by hand and mechanically. Hand harvesting accounts for more than half of production, and is dominant in the developing world. In hand harvesting, the field is first set on fire. The fire burns up dry leaves, and chases away or kills venomous snakes, without harming the stalks and roots. Harvesters then cut the cane just above ground-level usingcane knivesormachetes.A skilled harvester can cut 500 kg (1,100 lb) of sugarcane per hour.[failed verification][41]

Mechanical harvesting uses acombine,orsugarcane harvester.[42]The Austoft 7000 series, the original modern harvester design, has now been copied by other companies, including Cameco /John Deere.[citation needed]The machine cuts the cane at the base of the stalk, strips the leaves, chops the cane into consistent lengths and deposits it into a transporter following alongside. The harvester then blows the trash back onto the field. Such machines can harvest 100 long tons (100 t) each hour, but harvested cane must be rapidly processed. Once cut, sugarcane begins to lose its sugar content, and damage to the cane during mechanical harvesting accelerates this decline. This decline is offset because a modern chopper harvester can complete the harvest faster and more efficiently than hand cutting and loading. Austoft also developed a series of hydraulic high-lift infield transporters to work alongside its harvesters to allow even more rapid transfer of cane to, for example, the nearest railway siding. This mechanical harvesting does not require the field to be set on fire; the residue left in the field by the machine consists of cane tops and dead leaves, which serve as mulch for the next planting.

PlantationsinBrazil,thelargest producer in the world

Pests

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Thecane beetle(also known as cane grub) can substantially reduce crop yield by eating roots; it can be controlled withimidacloprid(Confidor) orchlorpyrifos(Lorsban). Other important pests are thelarvaeof somebutterfly/mothspecies, including theturnip moth,thesugarcane borer(Diatraea saccharalis), theAfrican sugarcane borer(Eldana saccharina), the Mexican rice borer (Eoreuma loftini), theAfrican armyworm(Spodoptera exempta),leafcutter ants,termites,spittlebugs(especiallyMahanarva fimbriolataandDeois flavopicta), andMigdolus fryanus(abeetle). TheplanthopperinsectEumetopina flavipesacts as a virus vector, which causes the sugarcane diseaseramu stunt.[43][44]Sesamia grisescensis a major pest inPapua New Guineaand so is a serious concern forthe Australian industrywere it to cross over.[45]To head off such a problem,the Federal Governmenthas pre-announced that they would cover 80% of response costs if it were necessary.[45]

Pathogens

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Main article:List of sugarcane diseases

Numerous pathogens infect sugarcane, such assugarcane grassy shoot diseasecaused byCandidatusPhytoplasma sacchari,[46]whiptail disease orsugarcane smut,pokkah boengcaused byFusarium moniliforme,Xanthomonas axonopodisbacteria causes Gumming Disease, andred rotdisease caused byColletotrichum falcatum.Viraldiseases affecting sugarcane includesugarcane mosaic virus,maize streak virus,and sugarcane yellow leaf virus.[47]

Yanget al.,2017 provides agenetic mapdeveloped forUSDA ARS-runbreeding programsforbrown rust of sugarcane.[48]

Nitrogen fixation

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Some sugarcane varieties are capable offixing atmospheric nitrogenin association with the bacteriumGluconacetobacter diazotrophicus.[49]Unlikelegumesand other nitrogen-fixing plants that formroot nodulesin the soil in association with bacteria,G. diazotrophicuslives within the intercellular spaces of the sugarcane's stem.[50][51]Coating seeds with the bacteria was assayed in 2006 with the intention of enabling crop species to fix nitrogen for its own use.[52]

Conditions for sugarcane workers

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At least 20,000 people are estimated to have died of chronic kidney disease in Central America in the past two decades, most of them sugarcane workers along the Pacific coast. This may be due to working long hours in the heat without adequate fluid intake.[53] Additionally, some of the workers are being exposed to hazards such as: high temperatures, harmful pesticides, and poisonous or venomous animals. This occurs during the process of cutting the sugarcane manually, causing physical ailments due to constant repetitive movements for hours every work day.[54]

Processing

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Non-centrifugal cane sugar(jaggery) production nearInle Lake(Myanmar), crushing and boiling stage

Traditionally, sugarcane processing requires two stages. Mills extract raw sugar from freshly harvested cane and "mill-white" sugar is sometimes produced immediately after the first stage at sugar-extraction mills, intended for local consumption. Sugar crystals appear naturally white in color during the crystallization process.Sulfur dioxideis added to inhibit the formation of color-inducing molecules and to stabilize the sugar juices during evaporation.[55][56]Refineries, often located nearer to consumers in North America, Europe, and Japan, then produce refined white sugar, which is 99% sucrose. These two stages are slowly merging. Increasing affluence in the sugarcane-producing tropics increases demand for refined sugar products, driving a trend toward combined milling and refining.[57]

Milling

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Main article:Sugar cane mill
Manually extracting juice from sugarcane
A truck hauls cane to a sugar mill in Florida.

Sugarcane processing produces cane sugar (sucrose) from sugarcane. Other products of the processing include bagasse, molasses, and filtercake.

Bagasse,the residual dry fiber of the cane after cane juice has been extracted, is used for several purposes:[58]

  • fuel for the boilers and kilns
  • production of paper, paperboard products, and reconstituted panelboard
  • agricultural mulch
  • as a raw material for production of chemicals
Santa Elisa sugarcane processing plant inSertãozinho,one of the largest and oldest in Brazil

The primary use of bagasse and bagasse residue is as a fuel source for the boilers in the generation of process steam in sugar plants. Dried filtercake is used as an animal feed supplement, fertilizer, and source ofsugarcane wax.[citation needed]

Molasses is produced in two forms:blackstrap,which has a characteristic strong flavor, and a purermolassessyrup. Blackstrap molasses is sold as a food and dietary supplement. It is also a common ingredient in animal feed, and is used to produce ethanol, rum, andcitric acid.Purer molasses syrups are sold as molasses, and may also be blended withmaple syrup,invert sugars, orcorn syrup.Both forms of molasses are used in baking.[citation needed]

Refining

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Brown and white sugar crystals

Sugar refiningfurther purifies the raw sugar. It is first mixed with heavy syrup and then centrifuged in a process called "affination". Its purpose is to wash away the sugar crystals' outer coating, which is less pure than the crystal interior. The remaining sugar is then dissolved to make a syrup, about 60% solids by weight.

The sugar solution is clarified by the addition ofphosphoric acidandcalcium hydroxide,which combine to precipitatecalcium phosphate.The calcium phosphate particles entrap some impurities and absorb others, and then float to the top of the tank, where they can be skimmed off. An alternative to this "phosphatation" technique is "carbonatation",which is similar, but usescarbon dioxideand calcium hydroxide to produce acalcium carbonateprecipitate.

After filtering any remaining solids, the clarified syrup is decolorized by filtration throughactivated carbon.Bone charor coal-based activated carbon is traditionally used in this role.[59]Some remaining color-forming impurities areadsorbedby the carbon. The purified syrup is then concentrated to supersaturation and repeatedly crystallized in a vacuum, to producewhite refined sugar.As in a sugar mill, the sugar crystals are separated from the molasses by centrifuging. Additional sugar is recovered by blending the remaining syrup with the washings from affination and again crystallizing to producebrown sugar.When no more sugar can be economically recovered, the final molasses still contains 20–30% sucrose and 15–25% glucose and fructose.

To producegranulated sugar,in which individual grains do not clump, sugar must be dried, first by heating in a rotary dryer, and then by blowing cool air through it for several days.

Ribbon cane syrup

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Ribbon cane is a subtropical type that was once widely grown in the Southern United States, as far north as coastalNorth Carolina.The juice was extracted with horse- or mule-powered crushers; the juice was boiled, likemaple syrup,in a flat pan, and then used in the syrup form as a food sweetener.[60]It is not currently a commercial crop, but a few growers find ready sales for their product.[citation needed]

Production of sugarcane (2019)[61]

Production

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Top Sugarcane producers
in 2022
Numbers in milliontonnes
1.Brazil724.4(37.69%)
2.India439.4(22.86%)
3.China103.4(5.38%)
4.Thailand92.1(4.79%)
5.Pakistan88(4.58%)
6.Mexico55.3(2.88%)
7.Colombia35(1.82%)
8.Indonesia32.4(1.69%)
9.United States31.5(1.64%)
10.Australia28.7(1.49%)
World total1,922.1
Source:FAOSTAT[62]

In 2022, global production of sugarcane was 1.92 billion tonnes, with Brazil producing 38% of the world total, India with 23%, and China producing 5% (table).

Worldwide, 26 million hectares were devoted to sugarcane cultivation in 2020.[62]The average worldwide yield of sugarcane crops in 2022 was 74 tonnes per hectare, led byPeruwith 121 tonnes per hectare.[62]The theoretical possible yield for sugarcane is about 280 tonnes per hectare per year, and small experimental plots in Brazil have demonstrated yields of 236–280 tonnes of cane per hectare.[63][64]

From 2008 to 2016, production of standards-compliant sugarcane experienced a compound annual growth rate of about 52%, while conventional sugarcane increased at less than 1%.[65]

Environmental impacts

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Soil degradation and erosion

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The cultivation of sugarcane can lead to increased soil loss through the removal of soil at harvest, as well as improper irrigation practices, which can result in erosion.[66][67]Erosion is especially significant when the sugarcane is grown on slopes or hillsides, which increases the rate of water runoff.[66][67]Generally, it is recommended that sugarcane is not planted in areas with a slope greater than 8%.[66]However, in certain areas, such as parts of the Caribbean and South Africa, slopes greater than 20% have been planted.[66]Increased erosion can lead to the removal of organic and nutrient-rich material, which can decrease future crop yields. It can also result in sediments and other pollutants being washed into aquatic habitats, which can result in a wide range of environmental issues, including eutrophication and acidification.[66][67]

Sugarcane cultivation can also result in soil compaction, which is caused by the use of heavy, infield machinery.[66]Along with impacting invertebrate and fauna within the upper layers of the soil, compaction can also lead to decreased porosity.[66][67]This in turn can increasesurface runoff,resulting in greater leaching and erosion.[66]

Habitat destruction

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Gases produced from sugarcane processing.

Due to the large quantity of water required, sugarcane cultivation heavily relies on irrigation.[68]Additionally, since large amounts of soil are removed with the crop during harvest, significant washing occurs during the processing phase.[68]In many countries, such as India and Australia, this requirement has placed a strain on available resources, requiring the construction of barrages and other dams.[66][68]This has altered the amount of water reaching aquatic habitats, and has contributed to the degradation of ecosystems such as theGreat Barrier Reefand Indus Delta.[66][68]

Land cleared for sugarcane production.

Sugarcane has also contributed tohabitat destructionthrough the clearance of land.[66]Seven countries around the world devote more than 50% of their land to the cultivation of sugarcane.[66]Sugarcane fields have replaced tropical rain forests and wetlands.[66]While the majority of this clearance occurred in the past, expansions have occurred within the past couple decades, further contributing to habitat destruction.[67]

Mitigation efforts

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A wide variety of mitigation efforts can be implemented to reduce the impacts of sugarcane cultivation.[66]Among these efforts is switching to alternative irrigation techniques, such as drip irrigation, which are more water efficient.[66]Water efficiency can also be improved by employing methods such as trash mulching, which has been shown to increase water intake and storage.[66][69]Along with reducing the overall water use, this method can also decrease soil runoff, and therefore prevent pollutants from entering the environment.[66]In areas with a slope greater than 11%, it is also recommended that zero tillage or cane strip planting are implemented to help prevent soil loss.[66]

Sugarcane processing produces a wide variety of pollutants, including heavy metals and bagasse, which can be released into the environment through wastewater discharge.[66]To prevent this, alternative treatment methods such as high rate anaerobic digestions can be implemented to better treat this wastewater.[70]Stormwater drains can also be installed to prevent uncontrolled runoff from reaching aquatic ecosystems.[66]

Ethanol

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Further information:Ethanol fuel
See also:Biofuel
A fuel pump in Brazil, offering cane ethanol (A) and gasoline (G)

Ethanol is generally available as a byproduct of sugar production. It can be used as a biofuel alternative to gasoline, and is widely used in cars in Brazil. It is an alternative to gasoline, and may become the primary product of sugarcane processing, rather than sugar[citation needed]

In Brazil, gasoline is required to contain at least 22% bioethanol.[71]This bioethanol is sourced from Brazil's large sugarcane crop.

The production of ethanol from sugarcane is more energy efficient than from corn or sugar beets or palm/vegetable oils, particularly if cane bagasse is used to produce heat and power for the process. Furthermore, if biofuels are used for crop production and transport, thefossil energyinput needed for each ethanol energy unit can be very low. EIA estimates that with an integrated sugarcane to ethanol technology, the well-to-wheels CO2emissions can be 90% lower than conventional gasoline.[71]A textbook on renewable energy[72]describes the energy transformation:

Presently, 75 tons of raw sugarcane are produced annually per hectare in Brazil. The cane delivered to the processing plant is called burned and cropped (b&c), and represents 77% of the mass of the raw cane. The reason for this reduction is that the stalks are separated from the leaves (which are burned and whose ashes are left in the field as fertilizer), and from the roots that remain in the ground to sprout for the next crop. Average cane production is, therefore, 58 tons of b&c per hectare per year.

Each ton of b&c yields 740 kg of juice (135 kg of sucrose and 605 kg of water) and 260 kg of moist bagasse (130 kg of dry bagasse). Since the lower heating value of sucrose is 16.5 MJ/kg, and that of the bagasse is 19.2 MJ/kg, the total heating value of a ton of b&c is 4.7 GJ of which 2.2 GJ come from the sucrose and 2.5 from the bagasse.

Per hectare per year, the biomass produced corresponds to 0.27 TJ. This is equivalent to 0.86 W per square meter. Assuming an average insolation of 225 W per square meter, the photosynthetic efficiency of sugar cane is 0.38%.

The 135 kg of sucrose found in 1 ton of b&c are transformed into 70 litres of ethanol with a combustion energy of 1.7 GJ. The practical sucrose-ethanol conversion efficiency is, therefore, 76% (compare with the theoretical 97%).

One hectare of sugar cane yields 4,000 litres of ethanol per year (without any additional energy input, because the bagasse produced exceeds the amount needed to distill the final product). This, however, does not include the energy used in tilling, transportation, and so on. Thus, the solar energy-to-ethanol conversion efficiency is 0.13%.

Bagasse applications

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Sugarcane bagasse

Sugarcane is a major crop in many countries. It is one of the plants with the highest bioconversion efficiency. Sugarcane crop is able to efficiently fix solar energy, yielding some 55 tonnes of dry matter per hectare of land annually. After harvest, the crop produces sugar juice and bagasse, the fibrous dry matter. This dry matter is biomass with potential as fuel for energy production. Bagasse can also be used as an alternative source of pulp for paper production.[73]

Sugarcane bagasse is a potentially abundant source of energy for large producers of sugarcane, such as Brazil, India, and China. According to one report, with use of latest technologies, bagasse produced annually in Brazil has the potential of meeting 20% of Brazil's energy consumption by 2020.[74]

Electricity production

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A number of countries, in particular those lacking fossil fuels, have implemented energy conservation and efficiency measures to minimize the energy used in cane processing, and export any excess electricity to the grid. Bagasse is usually burned to produce steam, which in turn creates electricity. Current technologies, such as those in use inMauritius,produce over 100 kWh of electricity per tonne of bagasse. With a total world harvest of over one billion tonnes of sugarcane per year, the global energy potential from bagasse is over 100,000 GWh.[75]Using Mauritius as a reference, an annual potential of 10,000 GWh of additional electricity could be produced throughout Africa.[76]Electrical generation from bagasse could become quite important, particularly to the rural populations of sugarcane producing nations.

Recent cogeneration technology plants are being designed to produce from 200 to over 300 kWh of electricity per tonne of bagasse.[77][78]As sugarcane is a seasonal crop, shortly after harvest the supply of bagasse would peak, requiring power generation plants to strategically manage the storage of bagasse.

Biogas production

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A greener alternative to burning bagasse for the production of electricity is to convert bagasse intobiogas.Technologies are being developed to useenzymesto transform bagasse into advancedbiofueland biogas.[74]

Sugarcane as food

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Further information:Sugar
Cane juice[79]
Freshly squeezed sugarcane juice
Nutritional value per 100 grams
Energy242 kJ (58 kcal)
13.11 g
Sugars12.85 g
2.27 g
0.55 g
Dietary fiber0.56 g
0.40
0.16 g
Vitamins and minerals
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Vitamin B6
24%
0.40 mg
Folate (B9)
11%
44.53 μg
Vitamin C
7%
6.73 mg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Calcium
1%
18 mg
Iron
6%
1.12 mg
Magnesium
3%
13.03 mg
Phosphorus
2%
22.08 mg
Potassium
5%
150 mg
Sodium
0%
1.16 mg
Zinc
1%
0.14 mg
Nutrient Information from Indian Food Composition Database
†Percentages estimated usingUS recommendationsfor adults,[80]except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation fromthe National Academies.[81]

In most countries where sugarcane is cultivated, several foods and popular dishes are derived directly from it, such as:

  • Raw sugarcane: chewed to extract the juice
  • Sayur nganten:anIndonesiansoup made with the stem of trubuk (Saccharum edule), a type of sugarcane
  • Sugarcane juice:a combination of fresh juice, extracted by hand or small mills, with a touch of lemon and ice to make a popular drink, known variously asair tebu,usacha rass,guarab,guarapa,guarapo,papelón,aseer asab,ganna sharbat,mosto,caldo de cana,ornước mía
  • Syrup:a traditional sweetener in soft drinks worldwide but now largely supplanted in the US byhigh fructose corn syrup,which is less expensive because of corn subsidies and sugar tariffs[82]
  • Molasses:used as asweetenerand a syrup accompanying other foods, such as cheese or cookies
  • Jaggery:a solidified molasses, known asgur,gud,orgulinmodern Indo-Aryan,is traditionally produced by evaporating juice to make a thick sludge, and then cooling and molding it in buckets. Modern production partially freeze dries the juice to reduce caramelization and lighten its color. It is used as sweetener in cooking traditional entrees, sweets, and desserts.
  • Falernum:a sweet, and slightly alcoholic drink made from sugarcane juice
  • Cachaça:the most populardistilledalcoholic beverage in Brazil; it is a liquor made of the distillation of sugarcane juice.
  • Rumis a liquor made from sugarcane products, typically molasses, but sometimes also cane juice. It is most commonly produced in the Caribbean and environs.
  • Basiis a fermented alcoholic beverage made from sugarcane juice produced in thePhilippinesandGuyana.
  • Panela,solid pieces of sucrose andfructoseobtained from the boiling and evaporation of sugarcane juice, is a food staple in Colombia and other countries in South and Central America.
  • Rapadurais a sweet flour that is one of the simplest refinings of sugarcane juice, common in Latin American countries such as Brazil, Argentina, and Venezuela (where it is known aspapelón) and the Caribbean.
  • Rock candy:crystallized cane juice
  • Gâteau de Sirop
  • Viche,a homebrewed Colombian alcoholic beverage

Sugarcane as feed

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Many parts of the sugarcane are commonly used as animal feeds where the plants are cultivated. The leaves make a good forage for ruminants.[83]

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  • Sugarcane flowering
  • Flowers of sugarcane
  • Evaporator with baffled pan and foam dipper for making ribbon cane syrup
  • A video of sugarcane juice extraction
  • Caipirinha,a cocktail made from sugarcane-derivedcachaça

See also

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References

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This article incorporates text from afree contentwork. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken fromWorld Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023​,FAO, FAO.

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