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Shunga Empire

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"Sunga" redirects here. For other uses, seeSunga (disambiguation).

TheShunga dynasty(IAST:Śuṅga) was the fifth ruling dynasty ofMagadhaand controlled most of the northernIndian subcontinentfrom around 187 to 75 BCE. The dynasty was established byPushyamitra,after taking the throne of Magadha from theMauryas.The Shunga empire's capital wasPataliputra,but later emperors such asBhagabhadraalso held court at Besnagar (modernVidisha) in easternMalwa.[2]This dynasty is also responsible for successfully fighting and resisting the Greeks inShunga–Greek War.[3][4][5]

Shunga Empire
187 BCE–75 BCE
Territory of the Shungasc. 150 BCE.[1]
Capital
Common languages
Religion
GovernmentMonarchy
King
•c. 185– c. 151 BCE
Pushyamitra(first)
•c. 151–141 BCE
Agnimitra
•c. 83–73 BCE
Devabhuti(last)
Historical eraAncient India
• Assassination of Brihadratha by Pushyamitra Shunga
187 BCE
• Assassination of Devabhuti by Vasudeva Kanva
75 BCE
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Maurya Empire
Vidarbha kingdom (Mauryan era)
Kanva dynasty
Kosala
Avanti (region)
Ancient Nepal
Today part of

Pushyamitra ruled for 36 years and was succeeded by his sonAgnimitra.There were ten Shunga rulers. However, after the death of Agnimitra, the second king of the dynasty, the empire rapidly disintegrated:[6]inscriptions and coins indicate that much of northern and central India consisted of small kingdoms and city-states that were independent of any Shungahegemony.[7]The dynasty is noted for its numerous wars with both foreign and indigenous powers. They fought theKalinga,theSatavahana dynasty,theIndo-Greek kingdomand possibly thePanchalasandMitras of Mathura.

Art, education, philosophy, and other forms of learning flowered during this period, including smallterracottaimages, larger stone sculptures, and architectural monuments such as thestupaatBharhut,and the renowned Great Stupa atSanchi.The Shunga rulers helped to establish the tradition of royal sponsorship of learning and art. The script used by the empire was a variant ofBrahmi scriptand was used to writeSanskrit.

The Shungas were important patrons of culture at a time when some of the most important developments inHinduthought were taking place.Patanjali'sMahābhāṣyawas composed in this period. Artistry also progressed with the rise of theMathuraart style.

The last of the Shunga emperors wasDevabhuti(83–73 BCE). He was assassinated by his ministerVasudeva Kanvaand was said to have been overfond of the company of women. The Shunga dynasty was replaced by the Kanvas. TheKanva dynastysucceeded the Shungas around 73 BCE.

Name

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The name "Shunga" has only been used for convenience to designate the historical polity now generally described as "Shunga empire", or the historical period known as the "Shunga period", which follows the fall of theMaurya empire.[8]The term appears in a single epigraphic inscription inBharhut,in which a dedication to theBuddhistBharhutstupais said to have been made "at the time of the Suga kings" (Suganam raje), with no indication as to whom these "Suga kings" might be.[8]Other broadly contemporary inscriptions, such as theHeliodorus pillar inscription,are only assumed to relate to Shunga rulers.[8]TheAyodhya Inscription of Dhanamentions a ruler namedPushyamitra,but does not mention the name "Shunga".

The Bharut epigraph appears on a pillar of the gateway of the stupa, and mentions its erection "during the rule of theSugas,byVatsiputra Dhanabhuti".[9][10]The expression used (Suganam raje,Brahmi script:𑀲𑀼𑀕𑀦𑀁 𑀭𑀚𑁂), may mean "during the rule of the Sugas [Shungas]", although not without ambiguity as it could also be "during the rule of theSughanas",a northern Buddhist kingdom.[11][10]There is no other instance of the name "Shunga" in theepigraphicalrecord of India.[12]The unique inscription reads:

TheDhanabhutiinscription, and thetoranaon which it is inscribed.Bharhut

1. Suganam raje raño Gāgīputasa Visadevasa
2. pautena, Gotiputasa Āgarajusa putena
3. Vāchhīputena Dhanabhūtina kāritam toranām
4. silākammamto cha upamno.

During the reign of the Sugas (Sughanas,orShungas) the gateway was caused to be made and the stone-work presented by Dhanabhūti, the son of Vāchhī, son ofAgaraju,the son of a Goti and grandson of king Visadeva, the son of Gāgī.

— Gateway pillar inscription of Dhanabhūti.[13][14]

Dhanabhutiwas making a major dedication to a Buddhist monument,Bharhut,whereas the historical "Shungas" are known to have beenHindumonarchs, which would suggest that Dhanabhuti himself may not have been a member of the Shunga dynasty.[15]Neither is he known from "Shunga" regnal lists.[15][16]The mention "in the reign of the Shungas" also suggests that he was not himself a Shunga ruler, only that he may have been a tributary of the Shungas, or a ruler in a neighbouring territory, such asKosalaorPanchala.[16][15]

The name "Sunga" or "Shunga" is also used in theVishnu Purana,the date of which is contested, to designate the dynasty of kings starting withPushyamitrac. 185 BCE,and ending withDevabhuticirca 75 BCE. According to theVishnu Purana:[8][17][18]

Ten Maurya kings will reign for one hundred and thirty-seven years. After them the Śuṅgas will rule the earth. The general Puṣpamitra will kill his sovereign and usurp the kingdom. His son will be Agnimitra. His son will be Sujyeṣṭha. His son will be Vasumitra. His son will be Ārdraka. His son will be Pulindaka. His son will be Ghoṣavasu. His son will be Vajramitra. His son will be Bhāgavata. His son will be Devabhūti. These ten Śuṅgas will rule the earth for one hundred and twelve years.

— Vishnu Purana, Book Four: The Royal Dynasties.[19]

Origins

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Man on a relief,Bharhut,Shunga period.

Shungas were originally fromVidisha.[20] According to historical reconstructions, the Shunga dynasty was established in 184 BCE, about 50 years afterAshoka's death, when the emperorBrihadratha Maurya,the last ruler of theMaurya empire,was assassinated by hisSenānīorcommander-in-chief,Pushyamitra,[21]while he was reviewing the Guard of Honour of his forces. Pushyamitra then ascended the throne.[22][23]

Pushyamitra became the ruler ofMagadhaand neighbouring territories. His realm essentially covered the central parts of the oldMauryan empire.[24]The Shunga definitely had control of the central city ofAyodhyain northern central India, as is proved by theDhanadeva-Ayodhya inscription.[24]However, the city ofMathurafurther west never seems to have been under the direct control of the Shungas, as no archaeological evidence of a Shunga presence has ever been found in Mathura.[25]On the contrary, according to theYavanarajya inscription,Mathura was probably under the control ofIndo-Greeksfrom some time between 180 BCE and 100 BCE, and remained so as late as 70 BCE.[25]

Some ancient sources however claim a greater extent for the Shunga empire: theAsokavadanaaccount of theDivyavadanaclaims that the Shungas sent an army to persecute Buddhist monks as far asSakala(Sialkot) in thePunjab regionin the northwest:

... Pushyamitra equipped a fourfold army, and intending to destroy the Buddhist religion, he went to theKukkutarama(inPataliputra).... Pushyamitra therefore destroyed thesangharama,killed the monks there, and departed.... After some time, he arrived inSakala,and proclaimed that he would give a... reward to whoever brought him the head of a Buddhist monk.[26]: 293 

Also, theMalavikagnimitraclaims that the empire of Pushyamitra extended to theNarmada Riverin the south. They may also have controlled the city ofUjjain.[24]Meanwhile,Kabuland much of the Punjab passed into the hands of theIndo-Greeksand theDeccan Plateauto theSatavahana dynasty.

Pushyamitra died after ruling for 36 years (187–151 BCE). He was succeeded by sonAgnimitra.This prince is the hero of a famous drama by one of India's greatest playwrights,Kālidāsa.Agnimitra was viceroy of Vidisha when the story takes place.

The power of the Shungas gradually weakened. It is said that there were ten Shunga emperors. The Shungas were succeeded by theKanva dynastyaround 73 BCE.

Decline of Buddhism

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Main article:Pushyamitra Shunga
See also:Decline of Buddhism in India

Accounts of persecution

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Shunga horseman,Bharhut.

Following the Mauryans, the first Sunga emperor, a Brahmin named Pushyamitra,[27]is believed by some historians to have persecuted Buddhists and contributed to a resurgence ofBrahmanismthat forced Buddhism outwards toKashmir,GandharaandBactria.[28]Buddhist scripture such as theAsokavadanaaccount of theDivyavadanaand ancient Tibetan historianTaranathahave written about persecution of Buddhists. Pushyamitra is said to have burned down Buddhist monasteries, destroyed stupas, massacred Buddhist monks and put rewards on their heads, but some consider these stories as probable exaggerations.[28][29]

"... Pushyamitra equipped a fourfold army, and intending to destroy the Buddhist religion, he went to the Kukkutarama.... Pushyamitra therefore destroyed the sangharama, killed the monks there, and departed.... After some time, he arrived in Sakala, and proclaimed that he would give a... reward to whoever brought him the head of a Buddhist monk."

— Asokavadanaaccount of theDivyavadana[30]: 293 


Pushyamitra is known to have revived the supremacy of theBramahnicalreligion and reestablished animal sacrifices (Yajnas) that had been prohibited byAshoka.[29]

Accounts against persecution

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Shunga periodstupaatSanchi.
East Gateway and Railings, Red Sandstone,BharhutStupa, 2nd century BCE.Indian Museum,Kolkata.

Later Shunga emperors were seen as amenable to Buddhism and as having contributed to the building of the stupa atBharhut.[31]During his reign the Buddhist monuments of Bharhut andSanchiwere renovated and further improved. There is enough evidence to show thatPushyamitrapatronised buddhist art.[32]However, given the rather decentralised and fragmentary nature of the Shunga state, with many cities actually issuing their own coinage, as well as the relative dislike of the Shungas for the Buddhist religion, some authors argue that the constructions of that period in Sanchi for example cannot really be called "Shunga". They were not the result of royal sponsorship, in contrast with what happened during the Mauryas, and most of the dedications at Sanchi were private or collective, rather than the result of royal patronage.[33]

Some writers believe that Brahmanism competed in political and spiritual realm with Buddhism[28]in theGangetic plains.Buddhism flourished in the realms of the Bactrian kings.[citation needed]

Some Indian scholars are of the opinion that the orthodox Shunga emperors were not intolerant towards Buddhism and that Buddhism prospered during the time of the Shunga emperors. The existence of Buddhism in Bengal in the Shunga period can also be inferred from a terracotta tablet that was found atTamraliptiand is on exhibit at theAsutosh Museumin Kolkata.

Royal dedications

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Two dedications by a king namedBrahmamitraas well as the monarch Indragnimitra are recorded at theMahabodhi TempleinBodh Gaya.Some may claim these show Sunga support for Buddhism. These kings, however, are essentially unknown, and do not form a part of the Shunga recorded genealogy. They are thought to be post-Ashokanand to belong to the period of Sunga rule.[34][35]ABrahmamitrais known otherwise as a local ruler ofMathura,but Indragnimitra is unknown, and according to some authors, Indragnimitra is in fact not even mentioned as a king in the actual inscription.[35][36]

  • An inscription at Bodh Gaya at theMahabodhi Templerecords the construction of the temple as follows:
"The gift of Nagadevi the wife of King Brahmamitra."
  • Another inscription reads:
"The gift of Kurangi, the mother of living sons and the wife of King Indragnimitra, son of Kosiki. The gift also of Srima of the royal palace shrine."[37][38]

Cunninghamhas regretted the loss of the latter part of these important records. As regards the first coping inscription, he has found traces of eleven Brahmi letters after "Kuramgiye danam",the first nine of which read"rajapasada-cetika sa".Bloch reads these nine letters as"raja-pasada-cetikasa"and translates this expression in relation to the preceding words:

"(the gift of Kurangi, the wife of Indragnimitra and the mother of living sons)," to the caitya (cetika) of the noble temple ", taking the word raja before pasada as an epithet on ornans, distinguishing the temple as a particularly large and stately building similar to such expressions as rajahastin 'a noble elephant', rajahamsa 'a goose' (as distinguished from hamsa 'a duck'), etc."

Cunningham has translated the expression "the royal palace, the caitya", suggesting that "the mention of the raja-pasada would seem to connect the donor with the king's family." Luders doubtfully suggests "to the king's temple" as a rendering of "raja-pasada-cetikasa."

Shunga period contributions in Sanchi

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Main article:Sanchi
The Great Stupa under the Shungas. The Shungas nearly doubled the diameter of the initial stupa, encasing it in stone, and built abalustradeand a railing around it.

On the basis ofAshokavadana,it is presumed that the stupa may have been vandalised at one point sometime in the 2nd century BCE, an event some have related to the rise of the Shunga emperor Pushyamitra who overtook the Mauryan empire as an army general. It has been suggested that Pushyamitra may have destroyed the original stupa, and his sonAgnimitrarebuilt it.[39]The original brick stupa was covered with stone during the Shunga period.

According to historian Julia Shaw, the post-Mauryan constructions at Sanchi cannot be described as "Sunga" as sponsorship for the construction of the stupas, as attested by the numerous donative inscriptions, was not royal but collective, and the Sungas were known for their opposition to Buddhism.[40]

Great Stupa (No 1)

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During the later rule of the Shunga, the stupa was expanded with stone slabs to almost twice its original size. The dome was flattened near the top and crowned by three superimposed parasols within a square railing. With its many tiers it was a symbol of thedharma,the Wheel of the Law. The dome was set on a high circular drum meant forcircumambulation,which could be accessed via a double staircase. A second stone pathway at ground level was enclosed by a stone balustrade. The railing around Stupa 1 do not have artistic reliefs. These are only slabs, with some dedicatory inscriptions. These elements are dated toc. 150 BCE.[41]

Stupa No2 and Stupa No3

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The buildings which seem to have been commissioned during the rule of the Shungas are the Second and Thirdstupas(but not the highly decorated gateways, which are from the followingSatavahanaperiod, as known from inscriptions), and the ground balustrade and stone casing of the Great Stupa (Stupa No 1). TheRelics of Sariputra and Mahamoggallanaare said to have been placed in Stupa No 3.[42]These are dated toc. 115 BCEfor the medallions, 80 BCE for the gateway carvings,[43]slightly after the reliefs ofBharhut,with some reworks down to the 1st century CE.[41][43]

The style of the Shunga period decorations at Sanchi bear a close similarity to those ofBharhut,as well as the peripheral balustrades atBodh Gaya,which are thought to be the oldest of the three.

Shunga structures and decorations
(150-80 BCE)

Great Stupa
(Stupa expansion and balustrades only are Shunga).
Undecorated ground railings dated to approximately 150 BCE.[41]
  • Shunga balustrade and staircase.
  • Shunga stonework.
  • Shungavedika(railing) with inscriptions.
  • Deambulatory pathway.
  • Summit railing and umbrellas.

Stupa No 2
Entirely Shunga work. The reliefs are thought to date to the last quarter of the 2nd century BCE (c. 115 BCEfor the medallions, 80 BCE for the gateway carvings),[43]slightly after the reliefs ofBharhut,with some reworks down to the 1st century CE.[41][43]
  • Elephant and Riders.
  • Balustrade post with Lakshmi.
  • Balustrade post with Yaksha.
  • Pillar with elephants supporting a wheel.
  • Personage.
  • Lotus.
  • Floral motif.
  • Foreigner on a horse,c. 115 BCE.[43]
  • Ashokasupported by his two wives. Similar tothe later relief at Gateway 1.
  • Relic boxes found inside the stupa.

Stupa No 3
(Stupa and balustrades only are Shunga).

Warfare

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Main article:Shunga–Greek War
class=notpageimage|
Main polities in Asia, circa -100.[45][46][47][48]

War and conflict characterised the Shunga period. They are known to have warred with theKalingas,Satavahanas,theIndo-Greeks,and possibly thePanchalasandMathuras.[citation needed]

The Shunga empire's wars with the Indo-Greek kingdom figure greatly in the history of this period. From around 180 BCE theGreco-BactrianrulerDemetriusconquered the Kabul Valley and is theorised to have advanced into the trans-Indus to confront the Shungas.[29]The Indo-GreekMenander Iis credited with either joining or leading a campaign toPataliputrawith other Indian rulers; however, very little is known about the exact nature and success of the campaign. The net result of these wars remains uncertain.[citation needed]

Vedika pillar with "Yavana"Greek warrior.Bharhut, Madhya Pradesh, Shunga Period,c. 100-80 BC. Reddish brown sandstone.[49]Indian Museum,Calcutta.

Literary evidence

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Several works, such as theMahabharataand theYuga Puranadescribe the conflict between the Shungas and the Indo-Greeks.

Military expeditions of the Shungas

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Scriptures such as theAshokavadanaclaim that Pushyamitra toppled EmperorBrihadrathaand killed many Buddhist monks.[50]Then it describes how Pushyamitra sent an army toPataliputraand as far as Sakala (Sialkot), in thePunjab,to persecute Buddhist monks.[51]

War with the Yavanas (Greeks)

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TheIndo-Greeks,calledYavanasin Indian sources, either led byDemetrius IorMenander I,then invaded India, possibly receiving the help of Buddhists.[52]Menander in particular is described as a convert to Buddhism in theMilindapanha.

The Hindu text of theYuga Purana,which describes Indian historical events in the form of a prophecy,[53][note 1]relates the attack of the Indo-Greeks on the Shunga capitalPataliputra,a magnificent fortified city with 570 towers and 64 gates according toMegasthenes,[55]and describes the impending war for city:

Then, after having approachedSaketatogether with thePanchalasand theMathuras,the Yavanas, valiant in battle, will reach Kusumadhvaja "the town of the flower-standard",Pataliputra.Then, once Puspapura (another name of Pataliputra) has been reached and its celebrated mud-walls cast down, all the realm will be in disorder

— Yuga Purana,Paragraph 47–48, 2002 edition)

However, the Yuga Purana indicates that the Yavanas (Indo-Greeks) did not remain for long in Pataliputra, as they were faced with a civil war inBactria.

Western sources also suggest that this new offensive of the Greeks into India led them as far as the capitalPataliputra:[56]

Those who came afterAlexanderwent to theGangesandPataliputra

— Strabo,15.698

Battle on the Sindhu river

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An account of a direct battle between the Greeks and the Shunga is also found in theMālavikāgnimitram,a play byKālidāsawhich describes a battle between a squadron of Greek cavalrymen andVasumitra,the grandson ofPushyamitra,accompanied by a hundred soldiers on the "Sindhu river", in which the Indians defeated a squadron of Greeks and Pushyamitra successfully completed theAshvamedhaYagna.[57]This river may be theIndus Riverin the northwest, but such expansion by the Shungas is unlikely, and it is more probable that the river mentioned in the text is theSindh Riveror theKali Sindh Riverin theGanges Basin.[58]

Epigraphic and archaeological evidence

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Dhanadeva-Ayodhya inscription

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Ultimately, Shunga rule seems to have extended to the area of Ayodhya. Shunga inscriptions are known as far asAyodhyain northern central India;[24]in particular, theDhanadeva-Ayodhya inscriptionrefers to a local kingDhanadeva,who claimed to be the sixth descendant of Pushyamitra. The inscription also records that Pushyamitra performed twoAshvamedhas(victory sacrifices) in Ayodhya.[59]

Yavanarajya inscription

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TheYavanarajya inscription,dated to "year 116 ofYavanahegemony ", probably 70 or 69 BCE, was discovered inMathura.Mathura Museum.

The Greeks seem to have maintained control of Mathura. TheYavanarajya inscription,also called the "Maghera inscription", discovered inMathura,suggests that the Indo-Greeks were in control of Mathura during the 1st century BCE.[60][61]The inscription is important in that it mentions the date of its dedication as "The last day of year 116 ofYavanahegemony (Yavanarajya) ". It is considered that this inscription is attesting the control of theIndo-Greeksin the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE in Mathura, a fact that is also confirmed by numismatic and literary evidence.[25]Moreover, it does not seem that the Shungas ever ruled in Mathura orSurasenasince no Shunga coins or inscriptions have been found there.[25]

TheAnushasana Parvaof theMahabharataaffirms that the city of Mathura was under the joint control of theYavanasand theKambojas.[62]

Later however, it seems the city of Mathura was retaken from them, if not by the Shungas themselves, then probably by other indigenous rulers such as theDatta dynastyor theMitra dynasty,or more probably by theIndo-ScythianNorthern SatrapsunderRajuvula.In the region of Mathura, theArjunayanasandYaudheyasmention military victories on their coins ( "Victory of the Arjunayanas", "Victory of the Yaudheyas" ), and during the 1st century BCE, theTrigartas,Audumbarasand finally theKunindasalso started to mint their own coins, thus affirming independence from the Indo-Greeks, although the style of their coins was often derived from that of the Indo-Greeks.

Heliodorus pillar

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TheHeliodorus pillarwas built inVidishaunder the Shungas, at the instigation ofHeliodorus,ambassador of theIndo-GreekkingAntialcidas.The pillar originally supported a statue ofGaruda.Established circa 100 BCE.

Very little can be said with great certainty. However, what does appear clear is that the two realms appeared to have established normalised diplomatic relations in the succeeding reigns of their respective rulers. The Indo-Greeks and the Shungas seem to have reconciled and exchanged diplomatic missions around 110 BCE, as indicated by theHeliodorus pillar,which records the dispatch of a Greek ambassador namedHeliodorus,from the court of theIndo-GreekkingAntialcidas,to the court of the Shunga emperorBhagabhadraat the site ofVidishain centralIndia.

Decline

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After the death of Agnimitra, the second king of the dynasty, the empire rapidly disintegrated:[6]inscriptions and coins indicate that much of northern and central India consisted of small kingdoms and city-states that were independent of any Shunga hegemony.[7]

The Sunga territory circa 100 BCE, greatly reduced to the region ofMagadhaonly, with many independent, petty kingdoms such as such asMathuraandPanchala

The last king of Sungas,Devabhutiwas assassinated by his ministerVasudeva Kanva,who then establishedKanva dynasty.[22]According to the Puranas: "TheAndhraSimukawill assail theKanvayanasand Susarman, and destroy the remains of the Sungas' power and will obtain this earth. "[63]TheAndhrasdid indeed destroy the last remains of the Sunga state in central India somewhere around Vidisha,[64]probably as a feeble rump state.

Art

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The Shunga art style differed somewhat from imperialMauryan art,which was influenced byPersian art.In both, continuing elements of folk art and cults of theMother goddessappear in popular art, but are now produced with more skill in more monumental forms. The Shunga style was thus seen as 'more Indian' and is often described as the more indigenous.[65]

Art, education, philosophy, and other learning flowered during this period. Most notably, Patanjali's Yoga Sutras and Mahabhashya were composed in this period. It is also noted for its subsequent mention in the Malavikaagnimitra. This work was composed by Kalidasa in the later Gupta period, and romanticised the love of Malavika and King Agnimitra, with a background of court intrigue.

Artistry on the subcontinent also progressed with the rise of the Mathura school, which is considered the indigenous counterpart to the more Hellenistic Gandhara school (Greco-Buddhist art) of Afghanistan and North-Western frontier of India (modern day Pakistan).

During the historical Shunga period (185 to 73 BCE), Buddhist activity also managed to survive somewhat in central India (Madhya Pradesh) as suggested by some architectural expansions that were done at thestupasofSanchiandBharhut,originally started under Emperor Ashoka. It remains uncertain whether these works were due to the weakness of the control of the Shungas in these areas, or a sign of tolerance on their part.

Shunga statuettes and reliefs
  • Chandraketugarth, goddess of fecundity.
  • Chandraketugarth.
  • Shunga Yakshi, 2nd–1st century BCE.
  • Shunga masculine figurine (molded plate). 2nd–1st century BCE.
  • Shunga woman with child. 2nd–1st century BCE.
  • Shunga Yaksha. 2nd–1st century BCE.
  • Shunga mother figure, with attendant. 2nd–1st century BCE.
  • Shunga fecundity deity. 2nd–1st century BCE.
  • Baluster-holdingyakṣa,Madhya Pradesh,Shunga period (2nd–1st century BCE).Guimet Museum.
  • Royal family, Shunga, West Bengal 1st century BCE.
  • Amorous royal couple. Shunga, 1st century BCE, West Bengal.
  • Erotic art from Shunga period.
  • Fragments of gold ornament, 185-72 BCE.
  • Fragments of gold ornament, 185-72 BCE.
  • Fragment of gold ornament, 185-72 BCE.
  • Gold bracelet from Shunga period, 185-72 BCE.
  • Ivory bowl fragment, 2nd–1st century B.C.
  • Shunga pottery with decorative figurine motifes.

Script

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The script used by the Shunga was a variant ofBrahmi,and was used to write the Sanskrit language. The script is thought to be an intermediary between theMauryaand theKalingaBrahmi scripts.[66]

Shunga coinage
  • Bronze coin of the Shunga period, Eastern India. 2nd–1st century BCE.
  • Another Shunga coin
  • A copper coin of 1/4karshapanaof Ujjain in Malwa.
  • Shunga coin.

List of Shunga emperors

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Emperor Reign
Pushyamitra 185–149 BCE
Agnimitra 149–141 BCE
Vasujyeshtha 141–131 BCE
Vasumitra 131–124 BCE
Bhadraka 124–122 BCE
Pulindaka 122–119 BCE
Ghosha or Vajramitra 119–114 BCE
Bhagabhadra 114–83 BCE
Devabhuti 83–73 BCE

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^Formerly, scholars doubted the validity of the Yuga Purana, because manuscripts of it have been highly corrupted over its history; however, Sanskrit scholarLudo Rochersays that recent "research has [...] been concerned with establishing a more acceptable text," and "The Yuga [Purana] is important primarily as a historical document. It is a matter-of-fact chronicle [...] of the Magadha empire, down to the breakdown of the Sungas and the arrival of the Sakas. It is unique in its description of the invasion and retirement of the Yavanas in Magadha."[54]

References

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Citations

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  1. ^Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (1978).A Historical atlas of South Asia.Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 145, map XIV.1 (c).ISBN0226742210.
  2. ^Stadtner, Donald (1975). "A Śuṅga Capital from Vidiśā".Artibus Asiae.37(1/2): 101–104.doi:10.2307/3250214.JSTOR3250214.
  3. ^Mani, Chandra Mauli (2005).A Journey Through India's Past.Northern Book Centre. p. 38.ISBN978-81-7211-194-6.
  4. ^Sen, Sailendra Nath (1999).Ancient Indian History and Civilization.New Age International. p. 170.ISBN978-81-224-1198-0.
  5. ^Raychaudhuri, Hem Channdra (1923).Political history of ancient India, from the accession of Parikshit to the extinction of the Gupta dynasty.Robarts - University of Toronto. Calcutta, Univ. of Calcutta. p. 205.
  6. ^abK.A. Nilkantha Shastri (1970),A Comprehensive History of India: Volume 2,p.108: "Soon after Agnimitra there was no 'Sunga empire'."
  7. ^abBhandare, Shailendra. "Numismatics and History: The Maurya-Gupta Interlude in the Gangetic Plain". inBetween the Empires: Society in India, 300 to 400,ed. Patrick Olivelle (2006), p.96
  8. ^abcdSalomon, Richard (10 December 1998).Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages.Oxford University Press. pp. 141–142.ISBN978-0-19-535666-3.
  9. ^"Bharhut Gallery".INC-ICOM Galleries.Indian National Committee of the International Council of Museums. Archived fromthe originalon 3 March 2016.Retrieved29 September2014.
  10. ^abKumar, Ajit (2014)."Bharhut Sculptures and their untenable Sunga Association".Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology.2:230.
  11. ^Olivelle, Patrick (13 July 2006).Between the Empires: Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE.Oxford University Press. p. 58.ISBN978-0-19-977507-1.
  12. ^Salomon, Richard (1998).Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages.Oxford University Press. p. 141.ISBN978-0-19-535666-3.
  13. ^Luders, H. (1963).CORPUS INSCRIPTIONS INDICARUM VOL II PART II.India Archaeological Society. p.11.
  14. ^The Stupa of Bharhut, Alexander Cunningham,p.128
  15. ^abcQuintanilla, Sonya Rhie (2007).History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE - 100 CE.BRILL. pp. 8–9.ISBN9789004155374.
  16. ^abQuintanilla, Sonya Rhie (2007).History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE - 100 CE.BRILL. p. 13.ISBN9789004155374.
  17. ^A Comprehensive History Of Ancient India (3 Vol. Set).Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. 1 December 2003. p. 93.ISBN978-81-207-2503-4.
  18. ^Indian History.Allied Publishers. 22 January 1988. p. 254.ISBN978-81-8424-568-4.
  19. ^Taylor, McComas (2021)."The Royal Dynasties".The Visnu Purana.ANU Press: 330.doi:10.2307/j.ctv1sjwpmj.10.JSTORj.ctv1sjwpmj.10.S2CID244448788.
  20. ^The story of Ancient India (1947).The Story of Ancient India.
  21. ^"Pushyamitra is said in the Puranas to have been thesenānīor army-commander of the last Maurya emperor Brihadratha "The Yuga Purana, Mitchener, 2002.
  22. ^abThapar 2013,p. 296.
  23. ^Between the Empires: Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE By Patrick Olivelle, Oxford University Press, Page 147-152
  24. ^abcdAncient Indian History and Civilization, Sailendra Nath Sen, New Age International, 1999, p.169
  25. ^abcdHistory of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE - 100 CE, Sonya Rhie Quintanilla, BRILL, 2007, p.8-10[1]
  26. ^John S. Strong(1989).The Legend of King Aśoka: A Study and Translation of the Aśokāvadāna.Motilal Banarsidass.ISBN978-81-208-0616-0.Retrieved30 October2012.
  27. ^Mishra, Ram Kumar (2012)."Pushyamitra Sunga and the Buddhists".Proceedings of the Indian History Congress.73:50–57.ISSN2249-1937.JSTOR44156189.Pushyamitra Sunga, himself a Brahmana,...
  28. ^abcSarvastivada pg 38–39
  29. ^abcA Journey Through India's Past Chandra Mauli Mani, Northern Book Centre, 2005, p.38
  30. ^John S. Strong(1989).The Legend of King Aśoka: A Study and Translation of the Aśokāvadāna.Motilal Banarsidass.ISBN978-81-208-0616-0.Retrieved30 October2012.
  31. ^Akira Hirakawa, Paul Groner, "A History of Indian Buddhism: From Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana", Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1996,ISBN81-208-0955-6pg 223
  32. ^Sir john Marshall, "A Guide to Sanchi",1918
  33. ^Buddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change, c. Third Century BC to Fifth Century AD Julia Shaw, Routledge, 2016p.58
  34. ^Asoka, Mookerji Radhakumud, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1962p.152
  35. ^abBetween the Empires: Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE Patrick Olivelle, Oxford University Press, 2006p.58-59
  36. ^Between the Empires: Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE Patrick Olivelle, Oxford University Press, 2006p.75
  37. ^(Barua, B.M., 'Old Buddhist Shrines at Bodh-Gaya Inscriptions)
  38. ^"Bodh Gaya from 500 BCE to 500 CE".buddhanet.net.
  39. ^"Who was responsible for the wanton destruction of the original brick stupa ofAshokaand when precisely the great work of reconstruction was carried out is not known, but it seems probable that the author of the former wasPushyamitra,the first of the Shunga kings (184-148 BC), who was notorious for his hostility to Buddhism, and that the restoration was affected byAgnimitraor his immediate successor. "in John Marshall,A Guide to Sanchi,p. 38. Calcutta: Superintendent, Government Printing (1918).
  40. ^Shaw, Julia (12 August 2016).Buddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change, c. Third Century BC to Fifth Century AD.Routledge. p. 58.ISBN978-1-315-43263-2.It is inaccurate to refer to the post-Mauryan monuments at Sanchi as Sunga. Not only was Pusyamitra reputedly animical to Buddhism, but most of the donative inscriptions during this period attest to predominantly collective and nonroyal modes of sponsorship.
  41. ^abcdBuddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change, C. Third Century BC to Fifth Century AD, Julia Shaw, Left Coast Press, 2013p.88ff
  42. ^Marshallp.81
  43. ^abcdeBuddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change, C. Third Century BC to Fifth Century AD, Julia Shaw, Left Coast Press, 2013p.90
  44. ^Marshallp.82
  45. ^Coatsworth, John; Cole, Juan; Hanagan, Michael P.; Perdue, Peter C.; Tilly, Charles; Tilly, Louise (16 March 2015).Global Connections: Volume 1, To 1500: Politics, Exchange, and Social Life in World History.Cambridge University Press. p. 138.ISBN978-1-316-29777-3.
  46. ^Atlas of World History.Oxford University Press. 2002. p. 51.ISBN978-0-19-521921-0.
  47. ^Fauve, Jeroen (2021).The European Handbook of Central Asian Studies.Ibidem Press. p. 403.ISBN978-3-8382-1518-1.
  48. ^Török, Tibor (July 2023)."Integrating Linguistic, Archaeological and Genetic Perspectives Unfold the Origin of Ugrians".Genes.14(7): Figure 1.doi:10.3390/genes14071345.ISSN2073-4425.PMC10379071.PMID37510249.
  49. ^D.N. Jha, "Early India: A Concise History" p.150, plate 17
  50. ^John S. Strong(1989).The Legend of King Aśoka: A Study and Translation of the Aśokāvadāna.Motilal Banarsidass.ISBN978-81-208-0616-0.Retrieved30 October2012.
  51. ^"Pushyamitra equipped a fourfold army, and intending to destroy the Buddhist religion, he went to theKukkutarama(inPataliputra).... Pushyamitra therefore destroyed thesangharama,killed the monks there, and departed.... After some time, he arrived inSakala,and proclaimed that he would give a... reward to whoever brought him the head of a Buddhist monk. "John S. Strong(1989).The Legend of King Aśoka: A Study and Translation of the Aśokāvadāna.Motilal Banarsidass.ISBN978-81-208-0616-0.Retrieved30 October2012.
  52. ^A Journey Through India's Past Chandra Mauli Mani, Northern Book Centre, 2005, p.39
  53. ^"For any scholar engaged in the study of the presence of the Indo-Greeks or Indo-Scythians before the Christian Era, theYuga Puranais an important source material "Dilip Coomer Ghose, General Secretary,The Asiatic Society,Kolkata,2002
  54. ^Rocher, Ludo (1986).The Purāṇas.Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 253–254.ISBN9783447025225.
  55. ^"Megasthenes:Indika".Project South Asia.Archived fromthe originalon 10 December 2008.The greatest city in India is that which is called Palimbothra, in the dominions of the Prasians [...] Megasthenes informs us that this city stretched in the inhabited quarters to an extreme length on each side of eighty stadia, and that its breadth was fifteen stadia, and that a ditch encompassed it all round, which was six hundred feet in breadth and thirty cubits in depth, and that the wall was crowned with 570 towers and had four-and-sixty gates. (Arr. Ind. 10. 'Of Pataliputra and the Manners of the Indians')
  56. ^Indian History Allied Publishers
  57. ^The Malavikágnimitra: a Sanskrit play by Kālidāsa; Tawney, C. H. p.91
  58. ^"Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian coins in the Smithsonian institution",Bopearachchi,p16. Also: "Kalidasa recounts in his Mālavikāgnimitra (5.15.14–24) thatPuṣpamitraappointed his grandson Vasumitra to guard his sacrificial horse, which wandered on the right bank of the Sindhu river and was seized by Yavana cavalrymen- the latter being thereafter defeated by Vasumitra. The "Sindhu" referred to in this context may refer the riverIndus:but such an extension of Shunga power seems unlikely, and it is more probable that it denotes one of two rivers in central India -either the Sindhu river which is a tributary of theYamuna,or the Kali-Sindhu river which is a tributary of theChambal."The Yuga Purana,Mitchener, 2002.
  59. ^Bakker, Hans(1982). "The rise of Ayodhya as a place of pilgrimage".Indo-Iranian Journal.24(2): 103–126.doi:10.1163/000000082790081267.S2CID161957449.
  60. ^Sonya Rhie Quintanilla (2007).History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE - 100 CE.BRILL. p. 254.ISBN978-90-04-15537-4.
  61. ^Shankar Goyal, ed. (2004).India's ancient past.Jaipur: Book Enclave. p. 189.ISBN9788181520012.Some Newly Discovered Inscriptions from Mathura: The Meghera Well Stone Inscription of Yavanarajya Year 160 Recently a stone inscription was acquired in the Government Museum, Mathura.
  62. ^"tatha Yavana Kamboja Mathuram.abhitash cha ye./ ete ashava.yuddha.kushaladasinatyasi charminah." //5 — (MBH 12/105/5, Kumbhakonam Ed)
  63. ^Raychaudhuri, Hem Channdra (1923).Political history of ancient India, from the accession of Parikshit to the extinction of the Gupta dynasty.Calcutta, Univ. of Calcutta. p.216.
  64. ^Sen, Sailendra Nath (1999).Ancient Indian History and Civilization.New Age International, 1999. p. 170.ISBN978-8-12241-198-0.
  65. ^Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2004).A History of India.Psychology Press.ISBN9780415329200.
  66. ^"Silabario Sunga".proel.org.

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