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Sustainable fishery

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A conventional idea of asustainable fisheryis that it is one that is harvested at a sustainable rate, where the fish population does not decline over time because of fishing practices.Sustainabilityinfisheriescombines theoretical disciplines, such as thepopulation dynamics of fisheries,with practical strategies, such as avoidingoverfishingthrough techniques such asindividual fishing quotas,curtailingdestructiveandillegal fishing practicesby lobbying for appropriate law and policy, setting up protected areas, restoring collapsed fisheries, incorporating allexternalitiesinvolved in harvesting marine ecosystems into fishery economics, educating stakeholders and the wider public, and developing independent certification programs.

SeaWiFSmap showing the levels ofprimary productionin the world's oceans
Primary production required (PPR) to sustain global marine fisheries landings expressed as percentage of local primary production (PP). The maps represent total annual landings for 1950 (top) and 2005 (bottom). Note that PP estimates are static and derived from the synoptic observation for 1998.[1]

Some primary concerns around sustainability are that heavy fishing pressures, such asoverexploitationandgrowthorrecruitment overfishing,will result in the loss of significantpotential yield;thatstockstructure will erode to the point where it loses diversity and resilience to environmental fluctuations; that ecosystems and their economic infrastructures will cycle between collapse and recovery; with each cycle less productive than its predecessor; and that changes will occur in thetrophicbalance (fishing down marine food webs).[2]

Overview

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Sustainability can mean different things to different people. Some may view sustainable fishing to be catching very little in order for fish populations to return to their historical levels (represented by the blue dot), while others consider sustainability to be the maximum amount of fish we can catch without depleting stocks any further (red dot). Most research, industry and policy backs the second view: viewing fish as a resource.[3]

Globalwild fisheriesare believed to have peaked and begun a decline, with valuable habitats, such asestuariesandcoral reefs,in critical condition.[4]Currentaquacultureorfarmingofpiscivorousfish, such assalmon,does not solve the problem because farmed piscivores are fed products from wild fish, such asforage fish.Salmon farmingalso has majornegative impactson wild salmon.[5][6]Fish that occupy the highertrophic levelsare less efficient sources of food energy.

A report at theHigh-level Political Forum on Sustainable Developmentin 2021 stated that: "Sustainable fisheries accounted for approximately 0.1 per cent of global GDP in 2017".[7]: 22 

Defining sustainability

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Further information:Sustainability

Three ways of defining a sustainable fishery exist:

  • Long term constant yieldis the idea that undisturbed nature establishes a steady state that changes little over time. Properly done, fishing at up tomaximum sustainable yieldallows nature to adjust to a new steady state, without compromising future harvests. However, this view is naive, because constancy is not an attribute of marine ecosystems, which dooms this approach. Stock abundance fluctuates naturally, changing the potential yield over short and long-term periods.[2]
  • Preservingintergenerational equityacknowledges natural fluctuations and regards as unsustainable only practices which damage thegenetic structure,destroy habitat,or depletestock levelsto the point where rebuilding requires more than a single generation. Providing rebuilding takes only one generation,overfishingmay be economically foolish, but it is not unsustainable. This definition is widely accepted.[2]
  • Maintaining a biological, social and economic systemconsiders the health of the human ecosystem as well as the marine ecosystem. A fishery which rotates among multiple species can deplete individual stocks and still be sustainable so long as the ecosystem retains its intrinsic integrity.[8]Such a definition might consider as sustainable fishing practices that lead to the reduction and possible extinction of some species.[2]

Social sustainability

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Fisheries and aquaculture are, directly or indirectly, a source of livelihood for over 500 million people, mostly in developing countries.[9]

Social sustainability can conflict with biodiversity. A fishery is socially sustainable if the fishery ecosystem maintains the ability to deliver products the society can use. Major species shifts within the ecosystem could be acceptable as long as the flow of such products continues.[2]Humans have been operating such regimes for thousands of years, transforming many ecosystems, depleting or driving to extinction many species.[10]

To a great extent, sustainability is like good art, it is hard to describe but we know it when we see it.

Ray Hilborn,[2]

According to Hilborn, the "loss of some species, and indeed transformation of the ecosystem is not incompatible with sustainable harvests."[2]For example, in recent years,barndoor skateshave been caught asbycatchin the western Atlantic. Their numbers have severely declined and they will probably go extinct if these catch rates continue.[11]Even if the barndoor skate goes extinct, changing the ecosystem, there could still be sustainable fishing of other commercial species.[2]

Sustainable management of fisheries cannot be achieved without an acceptance that the long-term goals of fisheries management are the same as those of environmental conservation.

Daniel Paulyand Dave Preikshot,[12]

Environmental sustainability

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The focus of sustainable fishing is often on the fish. Other factors are sometimes included in the broader question of sustainability. The use ofnon-renewable resourcesis not fully sustainable. This might includediesel fuelfor the fishing ships and boats: there is even a debate about the long term sustainability ofbiofuels.Modernfishing netsare usually made of artificialpolyamideslikenylon.Synthetic braidedropesare generally made from nylon, polyester, polypropylene or high performance fibers such as ultra high modulus polyethylene (HMPE) andaramid.

Energy and resources are employed infish processing,refrigeration,packaging,logistics,etc. The methodologies oflife-cycle assessmentare useful to evaluate the sustainability of components and systems.[13][14]These are part of the broad question of sustainability.

Obstacles

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Highlighted in light green are the continental shelves, home to the most productive fishing areas in the world. Large areas have been destroyed by heavy bottom trawls.

Overfishing

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Main article:Overfishing

Overfishing can be sustainable.[dubious–discuss]According to Hilborn, overfishing can be "a misallocation of societies' resources", but it does not necessarily threaten conservation or sustainability ".[2]

Overfishingis traditionally defined as harvesting so many fish that the yield is less than it would be if fishing were reduced.[2]For example,Pacific salmonare usually managed by trying to determine how many spawning salmon, called the "escapement",are needed each generation to produce the maximum harvestable surplus. The optimum escapement is that needed to reach that surplus. If the escapement is half the optimum, then normal fishing looks like overfishing. But this is still sustainable fishing, which could continue indefinitely at its reduced stock numbers and yield. There is a wide range of escapement sizes that present no threat that the stock might collapse or that the stock structure might erode.[2]

On the other hand, overfishing can precede severe stock depletion and fishery collapse.[15]Hilborn points out that continuing to exert fishing pressure while production decreases, stock collapses and the fishery fails, is largely "the product of institutional failure".[2]

Today over 70% of fish species are either fully exploited, overexploited, depleted, or recovering from depletion. If overfishing does not decrease, it is predicted that stocks of all species currently commercially fished for will collapse by 2048.[16]

A Hubbert linearization (Hubbert curve) has been applied to thewhalingindustry, as well as charting the price ofcaviar,which depends onsturgeonstocks.[17]Another example isNorth Seacod.Comparing fisheries and mineral extraction tells us that human pressure on the environment is causing a wide range of resources to go through a Hubbert depletion cycle.[18][19]

Fishing down thefood web
Coastal fishing communities in Bangladesh are vulnerable to flooding from sea-level rises.[20]
Island withfringing reefin theMaldives.Coral reefsare dying around the world.[21]
Shrinking of the Aral Sea

Habitat modification

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See also:Environmental effects of fishingandDestructive fishing practices

Nearly all the world'scontinental shelves,and large areas ofcontinental slopes,underwater ridges, andseamounts,have had heavybottom trawlsanddredgesrepeatedly dragged over their surfaces. For fifty years, governments and organizations, such as theAsian Development Bank,have encouraged the fishing industry to develop trawler fleets. Repeatedbottom trawlingand dredging literally flattens diversity in thebenthichabitat, radically changing the associated communities.[22]

Changing the ecosystem balance

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Main article:Fishing down the food web

Since 1950, 90 percent of 25 species of big predator fish have gone.

Climate change

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Main articles:Climate change and fisheriesandEffects of climate change on oceans

Rising ocean temperatures[23]andocean acidification[24]are radically alteringaquatic ecosystems.Climate changeis modifying fish distribution[25]and the productivity of marine and freshwater species. This reduces sustainable catch levels across many habitats, puts pressure on resources needed foraquaculture,on the communities that depend on fisheries, and on the oceans' ability to capture and store carbon (biological pump).Sea level riseputs coastalfishing communitiesat risk, while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland (freshwater) fisheries and aquaculture. As climate change causes oceans to warm up, fish are forced to move away, into cooler Northern waters. This can cause overcrowding in these areas.

Ocean pollution

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Main article:Marine pollution

A recent survey of global ocean health concluded that all parts of the ocean have been affected by human development and that 41 percent has been fouled with human polluted runoff,overfishing,and other abuses.[26]Pollutionis not easy to fix, because pollution sources are so dispersed, and are built into the economic systems we depend on.

TheUnited Nations Environment Programme(UNEP) mapped the impacts of stressors such as climate change, pollution,exotic species,andover-exploitationof resources on the oceans. The report shows at least 75 percent of the world's key fishing grounds may be affected.[27][28][29]

Diseases and toxins

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See also:Fish diseases and parasites,Harmful algal blooms,andMercury in fish

Large predator fish can contain significant amounts of mercury, a neurotoxin which can affectfetal development,memory, mental focus, and produce tremors.

Irrigation

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Lakes are dependent on the inflow of water from itsdrainage basin.In some areas, aggressive irrigation has caused this inflow to decrease significantly, causing water depletion and a shrinking of the lake. The most notable example is theAral Sea,formerly among the fourlargest lakesin the world, now only a tenth of its former surface area.

Remediation

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Fisheries management

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Main article:Fisheries management

Fisheries managementdraws onfisheries scienceto enable sustainable exploitation. Modern fisheries management is often defined as mandatory rules based on concrete objectives and a mix of management techniques, enforced by amonitoring control and surveillancesystem.[30][31][32]

  • Ideas and rules: EconomistPaul Romerbelievessustainable growthis possible providing the right ideas (technology) are combined with the right rules, rather than simply hectoring fishers. There has been no lack of innovative ideas about how to harvest fish. He characterizes failures as primarily failures to apply appropriate rules.[33][34]
  • Fishing subsidies:Government subsidies influence many of the world fisheries. Operating cost subsidies allow European and Asianfishing fleetsto fish in distant waters, such as West Africa. Many experts reject fishing subsidies and advocate restructuring incentives globally to help struggling fisheries recover.[35][36]
  • Valorization of by-catch: helping to avoid discards (and their associated adverse ecological impacts) by valorizing by-catch products, as they are good sources for protein hydrolizates, peptones, enzymatic mixtures or fish oil being these products of interest different industrial sectors.[38]
  • Payment for Ecosystem Services:Environmental economist Essam Y Mohammed argues that by creating direct economic incentives, whereby people are able to receive payment for the services their property provides, will help to establish sustainable fisheries around the world as well as inspire conservation where it otherwise would not.[39]
  • Sustainable fisheries certification: A promising direction is the independent certification programs for sustainable fisheries conducted by organizations such as theMarine Stewardship CouncilandFriend of the Sea.These programs work at raising consumer awareness and insight into the nature of their seafood purchases.
  • Ecosystem based fisheries: See next section

Ecosystem based fisheries

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We propose that rebuilding ecosystems, and not sustainability per se, should be the goal of fishery management. Sustainability is a deceptive goal because human harvesting of fish leads to a progressive simplification of ecosystems in favour of smaller, high turnover, lower trophic level fish species that are adapted to withstand disturbance and habitat degradation.

Tony PitcherandDaniel Pauly,[40]

According tomarine ecologistChris Frid, thefishing industrypoints tomarine pollutionandglobal warmingas the causes of recent, unprecedented declines in fish populations. Frid counters thatoverfishinghas also altered the way theecosystemworks:[41]

Everybody would like to see the rebuilding of fish stocks and this can only be achieved if we understand all of the influences, human and natural, on fish dynamics.... fish communities can be altered in a number of ways, for example they can decrease if particular-sized individuals of a species are targeted, as this affectspredator and prey dynamics.Fishing, however, is not the sole cause of changes tomarine life—pollution is another example.... No one factor operates in isolation and components of the ecosystem respond differently to each individual factor.

The traditional approach to fisheries science and management has been to focus on a single species. This can be contrasted with theecosystem-based approach.Ecosystem-based fishery concepts have been implemented in some regions.[42]In a 2007 effort to "stimulate much needed discussion" and "clarify the essential components" of ecosystem-based fisheries science, a group of scientists offered the followingten commandments for ecosystem-based fisheries scientists:[43]

  • Keep a perspective that is holistic, risk-averse and adaptive.
  • Maintain an "old growth" structure in fish populations, since big, old and fat female fish have been shown to be the best spawners, but are also susceptible to overfishing.
  • Characterize and maintain the natural spatial structure of fish stocks, so that management boundaries match natural boundaries in the sea.
  • Monitor and maintain seafloor habitats to make sure fish have food and shelter.
  • Maintain resilient ecosystems that are able to withstand occasional shocks.
  • Identify and maintain critical food-web connections, including predators and forage species.
  • Adapt to ecosystem changes through time, both short-term and on longer cycles of decades or centuries, including global climate change.
  • Account for evolutionary changes caused by fishing, which tends to remove large, older fish.
  • Include the actions of humans and their social and economic systems in all ecological equations.

Marine protected areas

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Main article:Marine protected areas

Strategies and techniques for marine conservation tend to combine theoretical disciplines, such as population biology, with practical conservation strategies, such as setting up protected areas, as withMarine Protected Areas(MPAs) orVoluntary Marine Conservation Areas.Each nation defines MPAs independently, but they commonly involve increased protection for the area from fishing and other threats.[44]

Marine life is not evenly distributed in the oceans. Most of the really valuable ecosystems are in relatively shallow coastal waters, above or near thecontinental shelf,where the sunlit waters are often nutrient rich fromland runofforupwellingsat the continental edge, allowing photosynthesis, which energizes the lowest trophic levels. In the 1970s, for reasons more to do withoil drillingthan with fishing, the U.S. extended its jurisdiction, then 12 miles from the coast, to 200 miles. This made huge shelf areas part of its territory. Other nations followed, extending national control to what became known as theexclusive economic zone(EEZ). This move has had many implications for fisheries conservation, since it means that most of the most productive maritime ecosystems are now under national jurisdictions, opening possibilities for protecting these ecosystems by passing appropriate laws.

Daniel Paulycharacterises marine protected areas as "a conservation tool of revolutionary importance that is being incorporated into the fisheries mainstream."[12]The Pew Charitable Trustshave funded various initiatives aimed at encouraging the development of MPAs and other ocean conservation measures.[45][46][47][48]

Sustainable Fish Farming

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See also:Salmon farming issues

Over the years, fish farming has made a name for itself in the fishing industry as a means of ensuring that the world's fish supplies do not deplete so rapidly. Sometimes referred to as "aquaculture", fish farming, when done right,canbe one a very environmentally-friendly way to harvest fish. Fish farms are regulated by laws and management plans, which prevents it from falling prey to the same phenomenon of overfishing, which cripples the fish populations and marine ecosystem as a whole. The basic premise of fish farming is just what it sounds like—to breed and raise fish in enclosed environments, then eventually sell the grown fish as food for consumers.[49]Salmon, cod, and halibut are three types of finfish that are often farm-raised. The actual enclosures in which the fish grow and swim are made of mesh "cages" submerged underwater.

Because they are not catching the fish out in the open ocean, fish farmers are able to control the environment in which the fish exist. Sustainable fish farming practices do not use dangerous chemicals, hormones, or antibiotics on their fish, which benefits the surrounding marine environment, and the human consumers themselves. In addition to this, sustainable fish farming is able to control what their fish eat: farmers will take care to keep the fish's diet healthy and balanced. Conversely, one of the most unsustainable practices within the fish farming industry occurs is when farmers feed the fish pellets of animal waste. The quality of ocean water in and around fish farms is up to the farmers to maintain, and due to the fact that the mesh cages take up only a certain amount of space in the ocean, fish farmers can ensure that waste and other byproducts are not polluting the water. Everything from fish oils to fish skin may be incorporated into something new: for example, fish oils can become a beneficiary supplement for both animals and humans.[50]

Laws and treaties

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International laws and treaties related tomarine conservationinclude the 1966Convention on Fishing and Conservation of Living Resources of the High Seas.United Stateslaws related to marine conservation include the 1972Marine Mammal Protection Act,as well as the 1972Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Actwhich established theNational Marine Sanctuariesprogram.Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act.

Reconciling fisheries with conservation

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Management goals might consider theimpact of salmonon bear and river ecosystems.

At the Fourth World Fisheries Congress in 2004,Daniel Paulyasked, "How can fisheries science and conservation biology achieve a reconciliation?", then answered his own question, "By accepting each other's essentials: that fishing should remain a viable occupation; and that aquatic ecosystems and their biodiversity are allowed to persist."[51]

A relatively new concept is relationship farming. This is a way of operating farms so they restore thefood chainin their area. Re-establishing a healthy food chain can result in the farm automatically filtering out impurities from feed water and air, feeding its own food chain, and additionally producing high net yields for harvesting. An example is the large cattle ranchVeta La Palmain southern Spain. Relationship farming was first made popular byJoel Salatinwho created a 220 hectare relationship farm featured prominently inMichael Pollan'sbookThe Omnivore's Dilemma(2006) and the documentary films,Food, Inc.andFresh.The basic concept of relationship farming is to put effort into building a healthy food chain, and then the food chain does the hard work.

Awareness campaigns

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See also:Sustainable seafood advisory lists and certification

Various organizations promote sustainable fishing strategies, educate the public and stakeholders, and lobby for conservation law and policy. The list includes the Marine Conservation Biology Institute andBlue Frontier Campaignin the U.S., The U.K.'s Frontier (The Society for Environmental Exploration) andMarine Conservation Society,Australian Marine Conservation Society,International Council for the Exploration of the Sea(ICES),Langkawi Declaration,Oceana,PROFISH,and theSea Around Us Project,International Collective in Support of Fishworkers,World Forum of Fish Harvesters and Fish Workers,Frozen at Sea Fillets Association andCEDO.

Some organizations certify fishing industry players for sustainable or good practices, such as theMarine Stewardship CouncilandFriend of the Sea.

Other organizations offer advice to members of the public who eat with an eye to sustainability. According to the marine conservation biologistCallum Roberts,four criteria apply when choosing seafood:[52]

  • Is the species in trouble in the wild where the animals were caught?
  • Does fishing for the species damage ocean habitats?
  • Is there a large amount ofbycatchtaken with the target species?
  • Does the fishery have a problem with discards—generally, undersized animals caught and thrown away because their market value is low?

The following organizations have download links for wallet-sized cards, listing good and bad choices:[53]

Global goals

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The United NationsMillennium Development Goals(MDGs) include, as goal number 7: target 2, the intention to "reducebiodiversity loss,achieving, by 2010, a significant reduction in the rate of loss ", including improving fisheries management to reduce depletion of fish stocks.[59][60]

In 2015, the MDGs then evolved to become theSustainable Development GoalswithGoal 14aimed at conserving life below water.[61]Its Target 14.7 states that "By 2030, increase the economic benefits to small island developing States and least developed countries from the sustainable use of marine resources, including through sustainable management of fisheries, aquaculture and tourism".

Data issues

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Data quality

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One of the major impediments to the rational control of marine resources is inadequate data. According to fisheries scientist Milo Adkison (2007), the primary limitation in fisheries management decisions is poor data. Fisheries management decisions are often based on population models, but the models need quality data to be accurate. Scientists and fishery managers would be better served with simpler models and improved data.[62]

Unreported fishing

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Estimates of illegal catch losses range between $10 billion and $23 billion annually,[63]representing between 11 and 26 milliontonnes.[64]

Shifting baselines

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Shifting baselinesis the way significant changes to a system are measured against previous baselines, which themselves may represent significant changes from the original state of the system. The term was first used by thefisheries scientistDaniel Paulyin his paper "Anecdotes and the shifting baseline syndrome of fisheries".[65]Pauly developed the term in reference tofisheries managementwhere fisheries scientists sometimes fail to identify the correct "baseline"population size (e.g. how abundant a fish species population wasbeforehuman exploitation) and thus work with ashifted baseline.He describes the way that radically depleted fisheries were evaluated by experts who used the state of the fishery at the start of their careers as the baseline, rather than the fishery in its untouched state. Areas that swarmed with a particular species hundreds of years ago, may have experienced long-term decline, but it is the level of decades previously that is considered the appropriate reference point for current populations. In this way large declines in ecosystems or species over long periods of time were, and are, masked. There is a loss ofperceptionof change that occurs when eachgenerationredefines what is "natural".[66]

History

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In the end, we will conserve only what we love; we will love only what we understand; and we will understand only what we are taught.

Senegalese conservationistBaba Dioum,[67]

In his 1883 inaugural address to the International Fisheries Exhibition in London,Thomas Huxleyasserted that overfishing or "permanent exhaustion" was scientifically impossible, and stated that probably "all the great sea fisheries are inexhaustible".[68]In reality, by 1883 marine fisheries were already collapsing. TheUnited States Fish Commissionwas established 12 years earlier for the purpose of finding why fisheries inNew Englandwere declining. At the time of Huxley's address, the Atlantichalibutfishery had already collapsed (and has never recovered).[69]

Traditional management of fisheries

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Traditionally,fisheries managementand the science underpinning it was distorted by its "narrow focus ontarget populationsand the corresponding failure to account for ecosystem effects leading to declines ofspecies abundanceand diversity "and by perceiving the fishing industry as" the sole legitimate user, in effect the owner, of marine living resources. "Historically, stock assessment scientists usually worked in government laboratories and considered their work to be providing services to the fishing industry. These scientists dismissed conservation issues and distanced themselves from the scientists and the science that raised the issues. This happened even as commercial fish stocks deteriorated, and even though many governments were signatories to binding conservation agreements.[12]

See also

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References

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Sources

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