SuvalkijaorSudovia(Lithuanian:SuvalkijaorSūduva) is the smallest of the fivecultural regions of Lithuania.Its unofficial capital isMarijampolė.People from Suvalkija (Suvalkijans, Suvalkians) are calledsuvalkiečiai(plural) orsuvalkietis(singular) in Lithuanian.[2]It is located south of theNeman River,in the former territory ofVilkaviškisbishopric.[3]Historically, it is the newest ethnographic region as its most distinct characteristics and separate regional identity formed during the 19th century when the territory was part ofCongress Poland.[4]It was never a separate political entity and even today it has no official status in theadministrative division of Lithuania.However, it continues to be the subject of studies focusing on Lithuanian folk culture of the 19th and early 20th centuries.
Sudovia
Suvalkija Sūduva | |
|---|---|
   
| |
 Flag  Coat of arms | |
| Motto: Vienybė težydi (Let the unity blossom) | |
 Location of Sudovia within Lithuania | |
| Country | Lithuania |
| Capital and largest city | Marijampolė |
| Area | |
| • Total | 5,794 km2(2,237 sq mi) |
| • ExcludingAleksotasandPanemunė | 5,745 km2(2,218 sq mi) |
| • Aleksotas and Panemunė | 49 km2(19 sq mi) |
| Population (2021)[1] | |
| • Total | 239,296 |
| • Excluding Aleksotas and Panemunė | 203,018 |
| • Aleksotas and Panemunė | 36,278 |
| Time zone | UTC2(CET (GMT +2)) |
Most of Lithuania's cultural differences blended or disappeared during theSoviet occupation(1944–1990), remaining the longest in southeastern Lithuania.[5]The concept remains popular among Lithuanian people. A 2008 survey of freshmen and sophomores (first- and second-year students) atKaunas'Vytautas Magnus Universityfound that 80% of the students continued to identify themselves with one of the regions.[6]Efforts are made to preserve, record, and promote any remaining aspects of the original folk culture.
Geography
editSuvalkija is in the southwest part of Lithuania. The largest city located entirely within the region inMarijampolė,which is considered to be the capital, though not in a strict political sense. Lithuania's second-largest city ofKaunasis bisected by the Neman River, placing the southern part of the city in this region and the northern part inAukštaitija.
Subdivisions
editDemographics
editThe largest cities (by population, not including the portion of Kaunas within this region) are:
- Marijampolė– 34,968
- Garliava– 9,873
- Vilkaviškis– 9,444
- Prienai- 8,651
- Kazlų Rūda– 5,666
- Kybartai– 4,461
- Kalvarija– 3,766
Naming
editRegion
editIn Lithuania three different names have been applied to region, causing some confusion:
- Sudovia(Sūduva) is derived from the ancientBaltic tribeofSudovians,the original inhabitants of the region. The term Sudovia is ambiguous as it is also used to refer to the ancient Sudovian-inhabited areas, which stretched much further south.
- Suvalkijais derived from the formerSuwałki Governorate(1867–1914) ofCongress Poland.[7]The city ofSuwałki(Lithuanian:Suvalkai) was a part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from the 13th century to 1795. It became part of Poland in 1919/1920.
- Užnemunė(literally:beyond theNemunas River) describes the geographical location of the region, but is not entirely accurate. The southwestern portion ofDzūkija,sometimes known as Dainava,[8]is also on the left bank of the river.[9]The areas became distinct as a result of drastically different economic developments in Suvalkija (northern Užnemunė) and Dzūkija (southeastern Užnemunė).[10]
In recent years there has been a public debate as to which name, Suvalkija or Sudovia, is preferable. Historians have argued thatSudoviais ananachronismthat refers to the land in the 13th and 14th centuries.[11]One commentator labeled the effort to rename the region as "neotribalism" – an artificial attempt to find connections with the long-extinct tribe.[12]Supporters ofSudoviaprotested against using a term imposed on the region by the Russian Empire, especially since the city of Suwałki is in Poland and the current region has no connection with it.[13]They have also argued that the termSuvalkijais a fairly recent and artificial political development, popularized by Soviet historians, and that the more archaicSudoviamore correctly reflects the region's historical roots.[14]The suffix-ijais not generally used in theLithuanian languageto derive placenames from city names (the only exception isVilnija,used to describe theVilnius Region).[15]An official petition from the Council for Protection of the Suvalkija Regional Ethnic Culture to theCommission of the Lithuanian Language,requesting an official name change fromSuvalkijatoSudovia,was rejected in 2005. The Commission based the decision on its finding thatSuvalkijaprevails in both academic literature and everyday life.[11]
Sub-regions
editSuvalkija is roughly subdivided into two areas, inhabited by Zanavykai (singular:Zanavykas) and by Kapsai (singular:Kapsas). Zanavykai occupy northern Suvalkija in the area approximately bounded by theNeman,Šešupė,and Višakis Rivers.[16]Before 1795 that part of Suvalkija lay within theEldership of Samogitia,while the rest was within theTrakai Voivodeship.[17]Šakiaiis considered to be the capital of this subregion, sometimes called Zanavykija. Another important center is inVeliuona.The nameZanavykaiis derived from the Nova River, a tributary of theŠešupė River.People who lived beyond the river (Polish:za Nawą) became known asZanavykai.Theprefixza-and thesuffix-ykareSlavic.[16]To correct this, linguists proposed naming the groupUžnoviečiaiorUžnoviškiai,terms which also mean "beyond the Nova river" but follow Lithuanian language precedents.[16]However, this proposal did not gain popular support and the termZanavykaiis still widely used.
Kapsai inhabit southern Suvalkija, with major centers inMarijampolėandVilkaviškis.The term is not used by local inhabitants to identify themselves, but is rather a term coined by linguists; thus it did not gain much popularity in the public. When linguists classified Lithuanian language dialects, they identified two major sub-dialects in Suvalkija: one in the territory inhabited by Zanavykai and another in the south.[18]Southerners pronounced the wordkaip(how) askap.This distinct characteristic earned them the nameKapsai,but they could also be calledTepsaias they pronounced wordtaip(yes) astep.[19]A revised classification of the dialects, proposed in 1965 by linguistsZigmas ZinkevičiusandAleksas Girdenis,[20]eliminates this distinction and deems the local dialect a sub-dialect of WesternAukštaitian dialect.[21]However, other cultural distinctions between Zanavykai and Kapsai exist, including their traditional clothing styles.
History
editPolitical history
edit
The lands of theSudovianswere incorporated into theGrand Duchy of Lithuaniaduring the 13th century. The region was frequently ravaged by theTeutonic Knightsand was abandoned by most of its inhabitants. After the 1422Treaty of Melno,its western borders were fixed and the territory became the sole property of the Grand Duke himself.[17]In 1569 the Grand Duchy joined theKingdom of Polandto form thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.The Commonwealth was partitioned in 1795 and Suvalkija, as part of the larger territory on the left bank of the Neman River, was incorporated into theProvince of East Prussia.This meant that Suvalkija was separated fromLithuania Proper,which was taken by theRussian Empire.In 1807 Suvalkija was briefly part of theDuchy of Warsaw,a small Polish state established byNapoleon Bonaparte,before being incorporated in 1815 intoCongress Poland,an entity formed by personal union with the Russian Empire. During the remainder of the 19th century and the early 20th century, Suvalkija was administratively part of theAugustów Governorate,and later of theSuwałki Governorate.Russian census statistics showed that Lithuanians formed a slight majority in the northern part of the governorate, and that Poles, concentrated in theSuwalszczyznain the south, accounted for about 23% of the Governorate's total population.[22]Lithuania and Poland regained independence after World War I, and disputed their borders in this region. The Suwałki Governorate was split more or less along ethnic lines. Suvalkija has since been part of Lithuania, andSuwalszczyzna– part of Poland.
Economic history
editSuvalkija has long been known as an affluent agricultural region. An increased demand for wood prompted resettlement and deforestation of the region during the 16th and 17th centuries.[23]The demand led to illegal tree-harvesting incursions from theDuchy of Prussia.To discourage this, the Grand Dukes of Lithuania established several border villages betweenJurbarkasandVirbalis.[23]QueenBona Sforza,who governed the land on behalf of her husbandSigismund I the Oldbetween 1527 and 1556, was especially supportive of these new settlements.[17]Resettlement also came from the north, particularly along theNeman River.There large territories were granted by the Grand Duke to various nobles, including theSapiehafamily.[17]These settlements slowly spread further south and east.
By the mid-17th century, the pace of resettlement had slowed. The demand for wood experienced a sharp decrease and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania lost almost half of its population due to theNorthern Wars(1655–1661), famine, and plague. Settlers were attracted by its fertile farmland, which had largely been cleared of forests, and by the relative ease of serfdom in the area: because much of the land was owned by the Grand Duke himself, serfs did not have to performcorvée.[23]The repopulation in private holdings of nobles in the north took place at a much slower rate. Another important factor in the area's regrowth was the proximity ofEast Prussiaand its capitalKönigsberg.The city had become a major trade center and was the second-largest export destination (followingRiga,Latvia) of the Grand Duchy.[23]Kudirkos Naumiestiswas the region's gateway to Prussia. When theGreat Northern War(1700–1721) depopulated Lithuania further, repopulation of Suvalkija was almost complete.[17]
Serfdomin Suvalkija was abolished in 1807 by Napoleon Bonaparte: peasants acquired personal freedoms, although they could not own land. That changed only in 1861 whenserfdom was abolished in the entire Russian Empire.After theUprising of 1863,peasants were given free land (they no longer needed to buy out the land from nobles).[24]By the 1820s,[25]farmers in Suvalkija had begun to divide their villages into individual farmsteads (Lithuanian: singular –vienkemis,plural –vienkemiai).[26]This development is a clear indicator of economic prosperity among the peasants. The oldthree-field systemwas becoming obsolete; under that system the land was managed by the community and individuals could not introduce any technological advances without their approval.[27]By contrast, in other parts of Lithuania this process did not begin until serfdom was abolished throughout the Empire in 1861, intensifying after theStolypin reformin 1906.
Early abolition of serfdom, fertile land, and close economic ties with East Prussia contributed to Suvalkija's relative wealth. This situation led to the ongoing perception that its inhabitants are very rational, clever, and extremely frugal, even greedy.[28]Such stereotypes, also applied to other regions,[29]gave rise to many anecdotes and practical jokes.[30]
Suvalkija remains the least-forested area of Lithuania (in 2005 forests covered 21.6% ofMarijampolė Countywhile forests cover 32% of the country as a whole).[31]The third-largest forest in Lithuania, Kazlų Rūda Forest (587 square kilometres or 227 square miles), is in Suvalkija, but is located on sandy soil unsuitable for farming.[32]Suvalkija remains one of the most important agricultural regions of Lithuania, harvesting large crops ofsugar beets.
Cultural history
editOriginally, the region was inhabited by the Baltic tribe of theSudovians(hence the name "Sudovia" ). TheTeutonic Knightsfrequently raided the region during theMiddle Agesin ongoing attempts to conquer and baptize thepaganGrand Duchy of Lithuania.As a result, most of ancient Sudovia became a sparsely-inhabited wilderness covered by large forests. After theBattle of Grunwaldin 1410, which ended the crusades against Lithuania, the territory was slowly repopulated by settlers fromSamogitiaandAukštaitija.They brought their cultures, which mingled with that of the remaining localSudovians,and anethnologically-distinct culture gradually took shape, combining Samogitian and Aukštaitian elements and indigenous elements not found anywhere else.[20]
Significant changes took place during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Suvalkija was separated from Lithuania Proper. While the Napoleonic period was brief, it resulted in lasting impacts. Of these impacts, the most important were the introduction of theNapoleonic Code,the usage of theGregorian Calendar,and the abolition of serfdom almost 50 years earlier than in the rest of Lithuania. Peasants gained personal freedom and opportunities to acquire wealth. The region also offered better educational opportunities to its residents –Veiveriai Teachers' SeminaryandMarijampolė Gymnasiumcontinued their operations at a time when most educational institutions in Lithuania were closed following the 1863January Uprisingagainst the Russian Empire.[19]Students could also attendRoman Catholicseminaries in SejnyandKaunas.According to the census taken in 1897, the rate of literacy among the peasants of the Suvalkai Province was the highest in the Russian Empire.[4]The people of Suvalkija were also among the first and most numerous emigrants to the United States.[33]
These developments led to the formation of a new well-educated class, which fueled theLithuanian National Revivalin the second half of the 19th century.[34]Among the many notable figures from the region were the patriarch of Lithuanian independenceJonas Basanavičius,Vincas Kudirka,the author of theLithuanian nation anthem,andJonas Jablonskis,a linguist frequently credited with the creation of a standardized Lithuanian language. Dialects spoken in Suvalkija became the basis for the modern language.[35]The Revival, which had previously been centered in eastern Samogitia, gradually shifted to Suvalkija due to the activities of these prominent figures and its better economic conditions.[36]
Folk culture
editLanguage
edit
The traditional classification of the Lithuanian dialects divided those of Suvalkija into two sections: Zanavykai, spoken in its north, and Kapsai, spoken in its south. These two sub-dialects are often described as the basis of the standard Lithuanian language.[16]It has proven quite difficult, however, to identify language characteristics unique to those regions, as the characteristics are extremely diverse and unevenly distributed.[17]A revised classification of the dialects, proposed in 1965, eliminates this distinction and groups the Zanavykai, Kapsai, and Central Aukštaitian sub-dialects as a single sub-grouping, namedKaunas sub-dialectof the WesternAukštaitian dialect.[21]The territory of this sub-dialect encompasses a much larger area than Suvalkija and stretches beyond theNeman River.
The Western Aukštaitian dialect, unlike other dialects of Lithuanian, preserves the mixeddiphthongsan,am,en,emand theogonekvowelsąandę.[20]The dialect is subdivided into Kaunas and Šiauliai sub-dialects. The Kaunas sub-dialect, in contrast to the Šiauliai sub-dialect, in most cases separates long and short vowels andstressesword endings in the same way as standard Lithuanian. Since they had close economic contacts with East Prussia, people from Suvalkija borrowed a number of German words.[20]There are efforts to preserve, record, and promote the local dialects. Between 2003 and 2006 theScience and Encyclopaedia Publishing Institutepublished a three-volume dictionary of Zanavykai sub-dialect. Since 1973,Šakiai district municipalityorganizes an annual Language Day to encourage preservation of the sub-dialect.[37]
Along a gradient from north (Zanavykai) to south (Kapsai and Dzūkija) the stressed first component of mixed diphthongsul,um,un,ur,il,im,in,andir,changes from short to semi-long to long (fromkúlttokùlttokūlc– to thresh, frompírmastopìrmastopyrmas– first, frompíntitopìntitopync– to braid).[19]Kapsai tend to modify word beginnings. If a word starts ineiore,they often replace it withaiora(aikinstead ofeik– go,ažerasinstead ofežeras– lake). Zanavykai also modify vowels, but in the other direction (ekmuoreplacesakmuo– stone,ešisinstead ofašis– axis).[16]Kapsai often add avto words that, in standard Lithuanian, start withuo,u,oro(vuogainstead ofuoga– berry,vorasinstead oforas– air) andjto words that start withi,y,ori.e.('jilgasinstead ofilgas– long,jievainstead ofieva– bird cherry).[18]Zanavykai tend to shorten words. They often dropnfrom verbs (gyvekinstead ofgyvenk– live!) and truncate the past tense form of verbs (žinoinstead ofžinojo– he knew,galėinstead ofgalėjo– he could,ėinstead ofėjo– he walked).[16]Zanavykai also preserved some archaic forms and rules ofdeclension,especially in pronominalpronouns,and ofconjugation,especially indualverbs.[20]
Clothing
edit
Traditional peasant clothing in Suvalkija, while consisting of the same basic items, can be clearly differentiated from clothing in other parts of Lithuania. Because the region was relatively wealthier, the clothes were richer in color, decoration, and ornament. They were also made of better and more expensive materials, includingbrocade,silk, wool, anddamask.Regional differences existed even within Suvalkija. Kapsai women wore long, wide dress garments with large designs of stars and tulips, semidark in colour and partially striped. The Zanavykai costume is one of the most decorative in design, colour and style.[38]
Suvalkija women wore wide,gatheredskirts of one main color (dark and rich, such as dark red, blue, violet, or green) with narrow multi-colored stripes woven into the fabric. Women's blouses in Suvalkija are distinguishable from those of other regions by their wider sleeves and by more extensive decorations.[39]Theirapronswere especially richly decorated and colorful,[40]with Kapsai laying stripes and other ornaments horizontally, while the Zanavykai preferred vertical compositions.[39]Women also wore richly decoratedsashesaround their waists. These sashes used more complex ornaments than in other regions, where more archaic but simpler geometric forms prevailed. Because of their relative complexity, folk art collectors placed a higher value on these sashes.[40]A few examples were presented in the first Lithuanian art exhibition in 1907.[34]Bodicesat first were identical to those inDzūkija,but diverged by the mid-19th century. Bodices in Zanavykai had short laps, while bodices of Kapsai were long and flared.[39]Young girls and married women could be told apart by their headdresses. Young girls in Kapsai wore tall goldengalloons,while maidens in Zanavykai wore narrow galloons, sometimes replacing them with beads. Married women worebonnetssimilar to those in Dzūkija.[39]
Men's wear was simpler and only occasionally decorated with a modest amount ofembroidery.Men worecaftanspleatedat the back. These caftans, usually sewn from light gray or white woolen cloth, were later replaced by coats.[39]Shirts, resembling atunic,were sewn from white linen cloth and were not usually decorated. The most ornamental detail of men's garments were the decorative patterned sashes they wore around their waists. Men also wore high boots and hats with straight brims that were decorated with feathers and flowers.[39]
As elsewhere, clothing styles began to rapidly change at the beginning of the 20th century as city and town culture increasingly influenced the traditional peasant life. Clothes became simpler, less colorful and decorated. Women started wearing a variety of jackets, usually of one dark color, and covered their heads with simple scarves tied under their chins.[39]Skirts became less and less gathered and colored stripes disappeared. The celebrated aprons and sashes were completely lost.[39]
The first concepts and models of thenational costumewere formed inLithuania Minor(East Prussia), where Lithuanian cultural activities were legal and not suppressed by theLithuanian press ban.After the ban was lifted in 1904, clothing from Lithuania Minor was promoted as the best candidate for the national dress until the 1920s, when attention shifted to clothing from Suvalkija.[41]The shift can be attributed to the relative abundance of original clothing from the region, which was rich in decoration and could compete with the costumes of other European nations. A number of prominent activists, including President of LithuaniaKazys Griniusand his wife Joana Griuniuvienė, collected and promoted the clothing of Suvalkija, especially aprons and sashes.[41]At the time regional differences were not emphasized and cultural activists were attempting to arrive at a single model of a "Lithuanian" national dress, based on samples from Suvalkija. The concept of a single representative Lithuanian national dress was dropped in the 1930s in favor of regional costumes, unique to each of the ethnographic regions.[41]
Music
editThe musical traditions of Suvalkija are distinctive. Thekanklės,possibly the most archaic Lithuanian instrument, took on distinguishable characteristics in the region; more heavily ornamented than elsewhere, its end is narrow, spreading out into a rounded shape.[42]Recordings made in the 1930s, and reissued in the 21st century by the Institute of Lithuanian Literature and Folklore, containwaltzes,marches,schottisches,andkrakowiaks.Popularpolkasperformed on thefiddlewere a significant part of the local musicians' repertoire. The recordings from this era aremonodic;there is usually one singer, and the music relies on variable modal structures, changes of tempo, and subtle ornamentation of the melody for interest.[43]
The composition of the musical ensembles in the region changed during the middle 19th century. Earlier versions featured between one and threekanklės,a fiddle, and abūgnas(drum). Later ensembles often included one or two fiddles, a German or Vienneseharmonica,abūgnas,and at times a cymbal, a clarinet, acoronet,or abesetle(a stringedbass). Ensembles featuring the fiddle and the būgnas were also popular.[44]
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- ^Simas Sužiedėlis, ed. (1970–1978). "National Costumes".Encyclopedia Lituanica.Vol. IV. Boston, Massachusetts: Juozas Kapočius. p. 30.LCCN74-114275.
- ^abcdefghJurkuvienė, Teresė."The Clothing of Suvalkija".Anthology of Lithuanian Ethnoculture.Lithuanian Folk Culture Centre. Archived fromthe originalon 2 February 2011.Retrieved1 May2008.
- ^abWelters, Linda (1999).Folk Dress in Europe and Anatolia: Beliefs about Protection and Fertility.Berg Publishers. pp. 214–215.ISBN1-85973-287-9.
- ^abcJurkuvienė, Teresė (2001)."Suvalkijos tautinis kostiumas pirmaisiais XX a. dešimtmečiais"(PDF).Menotyra(in Lithuanian).2(23): 77–79.ISSN1392-1002.
- ^Lunys, Arūnas."Instrumental Music – String Instruments (Chordophones)".Anthology of Lithuanian Ethnoculture.Lithuanian Folk Culture Centre. Archived fromthe originalon 12 June 2011.Retrieved13 May2008.
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Further reading
edit- Totoraitis, Jonas(2003).Sūduvos Suvalkijos istorija(in Lithuanian). Marijampolė: Piko valanda.ISBN9986-875-87-0.
- Švambatytė, Janina; Čepaitienė, Giedrė (2003–2006).Zanavykų šnektos žodynas(in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas.ISBN5-420-01504-8.
External links
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