Wikipedia

Syrian Armed Forces

(Redirected fromSyrian Arab Armed Forces)
Not to be confused withSyrian National Army.

TheSyrian Arab Armed Forces(SAAF;Arabic:القوات المسلحة العربية السورية,romanized:al-Quwwāt al-Musallaḥah al-ʿArabīyah as-Sūrīyah) are themilitary forcesof theSyrian Arab Republic.They consist of theSyrian Army,Syrian Air Force,Syrian Navy,Syrian Air Defense Force,and paramilitary forces, such as theNational Defence Forces.According to theConstitution of Syria,thePresident of Syriais theCommander-in-chiefof the Armed Forces.[13]Minister of Defenseholds the position of Deputy Commander-in-chief of the Army and Armed Forces.[14]

Syrian Arab Armed Forces
القوات المسلحة العربية السورية‎
Flag of the Syrian Arab Armed Forces
Coat of arms of the Syrian Arab Armed Forces
Mottoوطن، شرف، إخلاص
Watan, Sharaf, Ikhlas
( "Homeland, Honor, Sincerity" )
Founded1946;78 years ago(1946)
Current form1971;53 years ago(1971)
Service branchesSyrian Arab Army
Syrian Arab Navy
Syrian Arab Air Force
Syrian Arab Air Defense Force
National Defence Forces[1]
HeadquartersHay'at al-Arkan,Umayyad Square,Damascus
Leadership
Commander-in-chiefMarshalBashar al-Assad[2]
Minister of DefenceGen.Ali Mahmoud Abbas
Chief of the General StaffGen.Abdul Karim Mahmoud Ibrahim
Personnel
Military age18
ConscriptionYes
Active personnel170,000[3]
Reserve personnel50,000[3](NDF+LDF)
Expenditure
Budget$1.8 billion (2019)
Percent of GDP4.5% (2020)
Industry
Domestic suppliersSyrian Scientific Studies and Research Center(CERS)[4][5]
Établissement Industriel de la Défense (EID)[6][7]
Syrian Defense Laboratories (SDL)[8]
Foreign suppliersArmenia[9]
Belarus[9]
Bulgaria[10]
China[9]
Iran[11][9]
North Korea[9][12]
Iraq[9]
Russia[9]
Venezuela[9]
Cuba[9]
Laos[9]
Pakistan[9]
Related articles
HistoryMilitary history of Syria
RanksMilitary ranks of Syria

The military is a conscripted force; males serve in the military at age 18, but they are exempted from service if they do not have a brother who can take care of their parents. Since theSyrian Civil War,the enlisted members of the Syrian military have dropped by over half from a pre-civil war figure of 325,000 to 150,000 soldiers in the army in December 2014 due to casualties,desertionsanddraft dodging,[15]reaching between 178,000 and 220,000 soldiers in the army,[16]in addition to 80,000 to 100,000 irregular forces. By 2023, the number of active soldiers in the Syrian military increased to 170,000.[17]Also in 2023, the number of active paramilitary and reserve forces in the Syrian military may have decreased by as much as 50,000.[17][18]

History

edit

From Mandate to Independence

edit

TheFrench Mandatevolunteer force, which would later become the Syrian army, was established in 1923 with the threat ofSyrian Arab nationalismin mind. Although the unit's officers were originally all French, it was, in effect, the first indigenous modern Syrian army. In 1925 this force was expanded and designated theSpecial Troops of the Levant(Troupes Spéciales du Levant). In 1941, duringWorld War II,the Army of the Levant participated in a futile resistance to the British andFree Frenchinvasion that ousted theVichy Frenchfrom Syria during theSyria–Lebanon Campaign.

After theAlliedtakeover, the army came under the control of the Free French and was designated theLevantine Forces(Troupes du Levant).[19]French Mandate authorities maintained agendarmerieto police Syria's vast rural areas. This paramilitary force was used to combat criminals and political foes of the Mandate government. As with the Levantine Special Troops, French officers held the top posts, but asSyrian independenceapproached, the ranks below major were gradually filled by Syrian officers who had graduated from theHoms Military Academy,which had been established by the French during the 1930s. In 1938 the Troupes Spéciales numbered around 10,000 men and 306 officers (of whom 88 were French, mainly in the higher ranks). A majority of the Syrian troops were of rural background and minority ethnic origin, mainlyAlawis,Druzes,KurdsandCircassians.By the end of 1945 the army numbered about 5,000 and the gendarmerie some 3,500. In April 1946 the last French officers were forced to leave Syria due to sustained resistance offensives; the Levantine Forces then became the regular armed forces of the newly independent state and grew rapidly to about 12,000 by the time of the 1948 Arab−Israeli War, the first of four Arab−Israeli wars involving Syria between 1948 and 1986.[20]

After the Second World War

edit

The Syrian Armed Forces fought in the1948 Arab–Israeli War(against Israel) and were involved in a number ofmilitary coups.Between 1948 and 1967 a series of coups destroyed the stability of the government and any remaining professionalism within the armed forces.[21]In March 1949 the chief of staff, Gen.Husni al-Za'im,installed himself as president. Two more military dictators followed by December 1949. Gen.Adib Shishaklithen held power until deposed in the1954 Syrian coup d'etat.Further coups followed, each attended by a purge of the officer corps to remove supporters of the losers from the force.[22]

In 1963 the Military Committee of theSyrian Regional Commandof theArab Socialist Ba'ath Partyspent most of its time planning to take power through a conventional military coup. From the very beginning the Military Committee knew it had to captureal-KiswahandQatana—two military camps—seize control of the 70th Armored Brigade at al-Kiswah, the Military Academy in the city of Homs and the Damascus radio station. While the conspirators of the Military Committee were all young, their aim was not out of reach; the sitting regime had been slowly disintegrating and the traditional elite had lost effective political power over the country.[23]A small group of military officers, includingHafez al-Assad,seized control in theMarch 1963 Syrian coup d'etat.Following the coup, Gen.Amin al-Hafizdischarged many ranking Sunni officers, thereby,Stratforsays, "providing openings for hundreds ofAlawitesto fill top-tier military positions during the 1963–1965 period on the grounds of being opposed to Arab unity. This measure tipped the balance in favor of Alawite officers who staged a coup in 1966 and for the first time placed Damascus in the hands of the Alawites. "[24]

The Armed Forces were involved in the 1967Six-Day War(against Israel). Since 1967 most of theGolan Heightsterritory of southwestern Syria has been under Israeli occupation. They then fought in the late 1960sWar of Attrition(against Israel) and the 1970Black Septemberinvasion of Jordan.

When Hafez al-Assad came to power in 1971, the army began to modernize and change. In the first 10 years of Assad's rule, the army increased by 162%, and by 264% by 2000. At one point, 70% of the country's GDP went only to the army. At the beginning of theYom Kippur Warof 1973 the Syrian Army launched an attack to seize the Golan Heights that was only narrowly repulsed by two vastly outnumbered Israeli brigades. Since 1973 thecease-fireline has been respected by both sides, with very few incidents until theSyrian civil war.[25][26]

Syria was invited into Lebanon by that country's president in 1976, to intervene on the side of the Lebanese government againstPLOguerilla and Lebanese Christian forces. TheArab Deterrent Forceoriginally consisted of a Syrian core, up to 25,000 troops, with participation by some otherArab Leaguestates totaling only around 5,000 troops.[27][28][29]In late 1978, after the Arab League had extended the mandate of the Arab Deterrent Force, theSudanese,the Saudis and theUnited Arab Emiratesannounced intentions to withdraw troops from Lebanon, extending their stay into the early months of 1979 at the Lebanese governments request.[30]The Libyan troops were essentially abandoned and had to find their own way home (if at all), and the ADF thereby became a purely Syrian force (which did include thePalestinian Liberation Army(PLA)).[31]

A year afterIsraelinvaded and occupiedSouthern Lebanonduring the1982 Lebanon War,the Lebanese government failed to extend the ADF's mandate, thereby effectively ending its existence, although not the Syrian or Israeli military presence in Lebanon.[32]Eventually the Syrian presence became known as theSyrian occupation of Lebanon.

Occupation of Lebanon

edit
Main article:Syrian occupation of Lebanon

Syrian forces, still technically known as the Arab Deterrent Force, lingered in Lebanon throughout theLebanese civil war(1975–90). Eventually the Syrians brought most of the nation under their control as part of a power struggle with Israel, which had occupied areas of southern Lebanon in 1978. In 1985, Israel began to withdraw from Lebanon, as a result of domestic opposition in Israel and international pressure.[33]In the aftermath of this withdrawal, theWar of the Campsbroke out, with Syria fighting their former Palestinian allies. Following the end of the Lebanese civil war in 1990, theSyrian occupation of Lebanoncontinued until they themselves were also forced out by widespread public protest and international pressure. About 20,000 Syrian soldiers were deployed in Lebanon until 27 April 2005, when the last of Syria's troops left the country.[34][35]Syrian forces have been accused of involvement in the murder ofRafiq al-Hariri,as well as continued meddling in Lebanese affairs, and an international investigation into the Hariri killing and several subsequent bomb attacks has been launched by the UN.

Other engagements

edit

Engagements since 1979 have included the Muslim Brotherhood insurgency (1979–82), notably including theHama massacre,the1982 Lebanon War(against Israel) and the dispatch of the9th Armored Divisionto Saudi Arabia in 1990–91, ahead of theGulf Waragainst Iraq. The 9th Armored Division served as the Arab Joint Forces Command North reserve and saw little action.[36]Syria's force numbered ~20,000 in strength (the sixth-largest contingent) and its involvement was justified domestically as an effort to defend Saudi Arabia. Syria's initial involvement inOperation Desert Shieldalso rolled into the AlliedOperation Desert Storm,as Syrian forces did participate in helping dislodge and drive Iraqi forces out ofKuwait City.Total losses sustained were two dead and one wounded. There were indications the Syrian government had been prepared to double its force to 40,000.[37]

Modernisation

edit
Further information:Russia–Syria relations § Arms contracts

In recent years Syria has relied on Russian arms purchases to obtain modern weapons. Purchases have included anti-tank and air defense systems. In early September 2008 the Syrian government orderedMiG-29SMTfighters,[38]Pantsir S1E air-defence systems,Iskander tactical missile systems,Yak-130aircraft, and twoAmur-1650submarines from Russia. Russia's Foreign MinisterSergei Lavrovasserted that the sale wouldn't upset the balance of power in the Middle East and were "in line with... international law."

Russia aims to turn theRussian naval base in Tartusinto a permanent base. Israel and the US oppose further arms sales to Syria due to fears that the weapons could fall under the control of Iran orHezbollahfighters in Lebanon.[39]

Syrian Civil War

edit
A Syrian soldier manning a checkpoint near Damascus.

Because of the violence against the people by the Syrian Army and the detention of a great number of people, some soldiers from different religions and sects (Sunni, Shia, Druze and Christian) defected in protest at orders to kill protesters in April 2011[citation needed].By 2014, the number of defecting officers had reached approximately 170,000, from different ranks. They formed theFree Syrian Armyon 29 July 2011 (interview with Riad Al-Asaad - the founder and leader of the Free Syrian Army), and at the beginning of the conflict they depended on light weapons. The arming of the Free Syrian Army began in mid-2012.

In March 2012 the Syrian government issued new travel restrictions for military-aged males. Under the new restrictions, reported bylocal Syrian news outlets,all males between 18–42 were banned from traveling outside the country.[40]In a late June 2012 interview given by the FSA'sAsharq Al-Awsathe claimedRiad al-Asaadsaid that about 20–30 Syrian officers defected to Turkey each day.[41]

On 18 July 2012 the Syrian Defense MinisterDawoud Rajha,former defense ministerHasan Turkmaniand the president's brother-in-law Gen.Assef Shawkatwere killed in abomb attackin Damascus.[42]Syrian intelligence chiefHisham Bekhityarand Head of the 4th Army Division Maher Al Assad—brother of President Assad—were also injured in the explosion.[43]

Since the start of theconflict in Syria,human rights groups say that the majority of abuses have been committed by the Syrian government's forces, and UN investigations have concluded that the government's abuses are the greatest in both gravity and scale.[44][45]The branches of the Syrian Armed Forces that have committed war crimes include at least the Syrian Arab Army,[46][47]Syrian Arab Air Force[48]and the Syrian Military Intelligence.[49]However the Syrian authorities deny these accusations[50]and claim that irregular armed groups with foreign support[51][52]are behind the atrocities, including Al Qaeda linked Insurgents.[53]

The numbers in the Syrian armed forces have reduced considerably during the Civil War, although estimates vary.

Syrian Armed Forces size during the Civil War[54]
Year Army personnel Air Force personnel Total: Army + Air Force
2011
220,000
100,000
320,000
2014
110,000
63,000
173,000

Russian sources give higher estimates. In 2011, 300,000 reserves were reported in addition to regular forces.[citation needed]In 2014,Gazeta.rureported that the regular army had reduced from 325,000 to 150,000 due to "mortality, desertions and deviations", but that this was supplemented by 60,000 Republican Guards and 50,000 Kurdish militias.[55]In 2015,LifeNewsstill reported the same figures.[56]

Despite shrinking by nearly half from the 2011 beginning of the civil war by 2014, the Armed Forces have become much more flexible and capable, especially in anti-guerilla warfare.[57]Theirmodus operandiswitched from traditional Soviet-modeled conventional military forces into a force of smaller groups fighting in close-quarters guerrilla combat with an increasing role for junior officers.[57]

In September 2018,StatistaCharts estimated that the Syrian military had lost 111 warplanes since the beginning of the civil war, including reconnaissance and attack drones. The Syrians lost most of their warplanes during the first four years of the war, with losses significantly decreasing after theRussian interventioninto the war.[58]

Structure

edit

Demographics and military service

edit
Bashar al-Assad(centre) alongside SyrianDefence MinisterGeneralMustafa Tlass(right) andMilitary Chief of StaffHasan Turkmani(left), both Ba'athist leaders. Military-Ba'ath party nexus constructed byHafez al-Assadconstitute the backbone ofAssad government's support base.

With its headquarters inDamascus,the Syrian military consists of air, ground and naval forces. Active personnel were estimated as 295,000 in 2011, with an additional 314,000 reserves. Paramilitary forces were estimated at 108,000 in 2011.[59][60]Estimates of the declining size of the armed forces over time include[15]141,400 as of June 2019.(50% shrinkage according to sources)[61][62]By 2023, the number of active soldiers in the Syrian military increased to 170,000.[17]Also in 2023, the number of active paramilitary and reserve forces in the Syrian military decreased up to 50,000.[17]

In 2011, the majority of the Syrian military wereSunni,but most of the military leadership wereAlawites.[24][60]Alawites made up 12% of the pre-war Syrian population, but 70% of the career soldiers in theSyrian Army.[24][63]A similar imbalance is seen in the officer corps, where some 80% of the officers are Alawites. The military's most elite divisions, theRepublican Guardand the4th Armored Division,which are commanded byBashar al-Assad's brother Maher,are exclusively Alawite. Most of Syria's 300,000 conscripts in 2011 were Sunni.[24][60]

Before the start of the Syrian Civil War, the obligatory military service period was being decreased over time. In 2005, it was reduced from two and a half years to two years, in 2008 to 21 months and in 2011 to a year and a half.[64]Since the Syrian Civil War the Syrian government has implemented a retention system for those in compulsory service (conscript retention into service after the specified period has passed) and enacted new regulations, with citizens who have completed mandatory conscription being called up for reserve duty.[15]By 2020, with the Syrian government regaining control over a large portion of Syrian territory, the General Staff of the Army and Armed Forces issued several demobilization decisions from service (retention and reserve) in batches.[65]

Soldiers of the Syrian Armed Forces are divided into two main categories:[66]

  • Volunteersare those who join its ranks voluntarily after they reach eighteen years of age, of all ranks, specializations, and both sexes. They are promoted according to the internal regulations and receive a salary and compensation in return.
  • The assigned,where males are called (exclusively) to serve in the army when they reach the age of eighteen and until they reach the age of forty-two, but they are exempted from service as long as they are single to their mothers, or do not have another brother capable of taking care of their parents or have an obstacle, a health condition prevents them from performing the service.

There are also civilian employees and reserves in the ranks of the armed forces who are called to serve in times of war and emergencies.

Administrative Departments

edit

Syrian Army

edit
Main article:Syrian Arab Army
A Syrian soldier aims aType 56assault rifle from his position in a foxhole duringOperation Desert Shield.The soldier is wearing a Soviet-made Model ShMS nuclear-biological-chemical warfare mask.

In 1987 Joshua Sinai of theLibrary of Congresswrote that theSyrian Arab Army(SAA) was the dominant military service, and as such controlled the senior-most posts in the armed forces and had the most manpower, approximately 80% of the combined services. In 1987 Joshua Sinai wrote that the major development in structural organization was the establishment of an additional divisional framework based on thespecial forcesand the organization of ground formations into three corps.[20]In 2010, theInternational Institute for Strategic Studiesestimated army regulars or professionals at 220,000, with an additional 280,000 reserves. That figure was unchanged in the 2011 edition of theMilitary Balance,[59]but in the 2013 edition, in the midst of the war, the IISS estimated that army strength was 110,000.[72]By the end of 2018, analysts estimated the SAA to have just 100,000 combat-ready troops.[72]

Between 2015 and 2018, the Syrian military under the supervision of Ministry of Defense underwent major structural changes, with the cooperation ofRussiaandIran.[4]This reform reflected a broader trend of consolidation within the Army. Part of this included the recruitment and mass integration of reconciled rebels.[73]Since 2018, the Syrian military renewed its fortification and the annual training to prepare for war againstIsrael,while at the same time trying to increase its strategic independence.[4]TheSyrian governmentinvested major sums in rebuilding the Syrian military through force buildup and reorganization measures, including with new personnel appointments.[4][74]

By 2019, the Army's formations included three army corps (the1st,2ndand3rd), one assault corps (5th), eight armored divisions, five mechanized divisions, two semi-autonomous reserve divisions, three armored/airborne special forces divisions and sevenborder guardregiments.[75][72]Evolution of the command structure, training and military system continued.[76]

Reports since the beginning of the war clarified the organisation of the army. In addition to the14th Special Forces Division,the15th Special Forces Divisionwas identified byHuman Rights Watchin 2011.[77]New Special Forces units formed during the war included25th Special Mission Forces Division.[78]In addition, new regular army units such as2nd Armored Division,6th Armored Divisionand8th Armored Division,were created by 2015.[75]Units reporting to the Chief of Staff are4th Armored Division,theRepublican Guardand25th Special Mission Forces Division.The 4th Armored Division became one of the Syrian government's most trusted security forces.[79]

By 2023, the number of active soldiers in the Syrian Arab Army increased to 130,000.[3]In April 2024, Major GeneralSuhayl al-Hasanwas named as commander of the Special Operations Forces (SOF) of the Syrian Army.[80]In July 2024, the first phase of training began to build and form new SOF units in the SAA.[81]The main aim is to createspecialized military unitscomparable to theSpecial Operations Forces(SSO) in Russia.[82]

Syrian Air Force

edit
Main article:Syrian Arab Air Force

TheSyrian Arab Air Forceis theaviationbranch of the Syrian Armed Forces. It was established in 1948 and saw combat in 1948, 1967, 1973 and in 1982 against Israel. It has seen combat against militant groups on Syrian soil from 2011 to 2012, during theSyrian civil war.Presently there are at least 15Syrian air force basesthroughout the country. In 2011, Russian sources reported 40,000 personnel in the Air Force,[citation needed]while Reuters reported 100,000.[60]In 2022 the Air Force was reportedly estimated at 15,000 strong.[83]

Syrian Navy

edit
Main article:Syrian Navy

In 1950 theSyrian Navywas established following the procurement of a few naval craft from France. The initial personnel consisted of soldiers who had been sent to French academies of naval training.[84]In 1985 the Navy consisted of approximately 4,000 regular and 2,500 reserve officers and men. The navy is under the army's Latakia regional command. The fleet was based in the ports of Latakia, Baniyas, Minat al Bayda and Tartus. Among the 41 vessel fleet were two frigates, 22 missile attack craft (including ten advancedOsa IImissile boats), three old submarines, two submarine chasers, four mine warfare vessels, eight gunboats, six patrol craft, four missile corvettes (on order), three landing craft (on order), one torpedo recovery vessel and, as part of its coastal defense system, Sepal shore-based, anti-ship missiles with a range of 300 km. In 2011, the Navy was estimated have 5,000 personnel.[60]In 2022 it was estimated at 4,000.[85]

Syrian Air Defence Force

edit
Main article:Syrian Air Defense Force

In 1986, according to theLibrary of Congress Country Studies,the Air Defence Command, within the Army Command but also composed of Air Force personnel, numbered approximately 60,000.[20]In 1987 units included 20 air defense brigades (with approximately 95 SAM batteries) and two air defense regiments. The Air Defence Command had command access to interceptor aircraft and radar facilities. Air defenses included SA-5 long-range SAM batteries around Damascus and Aleppo, with additional SA-6 and SA-8 mobile SAM units deployed along Syria's side of the Lebanese border and in eastern Lebanon.

At some later point in time, the Air Defence Command was upgraded into a separate Syrian Air Defense Force.[86]In 2022, it was reported as 21,000 strong.[87]

Paramilitary forces

edit
See also:List of armed groups in the Syrian Civil War § Syrian government and allies

Role of women in the Armed Forces

edit
Female Syrian soldiers with anMTs-116Mrifle inJobar,December 2015.

As theSyrian Civil Warprogressed and casualties mounted, more and more positions were opened to women. The National Defense Force allows female volunteers into its ranks, mainly in securing checkpoints. In 2013, the Republican Guard also formed a female section, an all-female tank battalion of 800 strong, nicknamed "Lionesses of Defense", fighting within the limits of Damascus.[95]

Weapons, uniforms and awards

edit
See also:Equipment of the Syrian Army

Weapons

edit
A Syrianmilitary policemanstanding guard as his unit prepares for the arrival of a visiting dignitary during theGulf War.

The breakup of theSoviet Union— long the principal source of training, material, and credit for the Syrian forces – may have slowed Syria's ability to acquire modern military equipment. It has an arsenal of surface-to-surface missiles. In the early 1990s,Scud-Cmissiles with a 500-kilometer range were procured fromNorth Korea,andScud-D,with a range of up to 700 kilometers, is allegedly being developed by Syria with the help of North Korea and Iran, according to Eyal Zisser.[96]

Syria received significant financial aid from Persian Gulf Arab states as a result of its participation in thePersian Gulf War,with a sizable portion of these funds earmarked formilitary spending.In 2005, Russia forgave Syria of three-fourths, or about $9.8 billion, of its $13.4 billionSoviet-eradebt. Russia wrote off the debt to renew arms sales with Syria.[97]As of 2011,arms contracts with Russia,Syria's main arms supplier, were worth at least $4 billion.[98][99][100][101]Syria has conducted research and producedweapons of mass destruction.[102]

Uniforms (1987)

edit
Syrian honor guard stands at attention duringOperation Desert Shield.The soldier is armed with anAK-47assault rifle.

In 1987, according to aLibrary of Congress Country Studyon Syria, service uniforms for Syrian military officers generally followed theBritish Armystyle, although army combat clothing followed the older British model. Each uniform had two coats: a long one for dress and a short jacket for informal wear. Army officer uniforms were khaki in summer, olive in winter. Certain Army and Air Defense personnel (i.e., commandos and paratroops) may have worn camouflage uniforms. Air force officers had two uniforms for each season: a khaki and a light gray for summer and a dark blue and a light gray in winter. Naval officers wore white in summer and navy blue in winter while lower ranks wear the traditional bell bottoms and white blouse. The uniform for naval chief petty officers was a buttoned jacket, similar to that worn by American chief petty officers. Officers had a variety of headgear, including a service cap, garrison cap, and beret (linen in summer and wool in winter). The color of the beret varied by season and according to the officer's unit.[103]

Syrian Commando and Paratroop uniforms consist oflizardorwoodland-patternedcamouflage fatigues along with combat boots, helmets and bulletproof vests. Headgear consisted of a red or orange beret. The Syrian military providesNBC uniformsto soldiers to remain effective in an environment affected by biological or chemical agents. This uniform consisted of a Russian-made Model ShMS-41 mask similar to those made in the Desert Storm conflict.[104]Previous models of the ShMS used a hose, while the improved "ShmS-41" used a canister-styleRespirator.[105][106] It is difficult to assess how well equipped the Syrian Arab Army is. Although hundreds of hours of videos showing dead and captured Syrian soldiers filmed by rebels have been uploaded to social media, none show this equipment having been carried by or issued to frontline soldiers.

Rank insignia (1987)

edit
Main article:Military ranks of Syria

In 1987, according to a Library of Congress Country Study on Syria, the rank insignia of Syrian commissioned officers were identical for both the army and air force. These were gold on a bright green shoulder board for the army and gold on a bright blue board for the air force. Officer ranks were standard, although the highest is the equivalent of lieutenant general, a rank held in 1986 only by the commander in chief and the minister of defence. Navy officer rank insignia were gold stripes worn on the lower sleeve. The highest-ranking officer in Syria's navy is the equivalent of lieutenant general. Army and air force rank for warrant officers were indicated by gold stars on an olive green shield worn on the upper left arm. Lower noncommissioned ranks were indicated by upright and inverted chevrons worn on the upper left arm.[103]

Awards and decorations

edit

Although some twenty-five orders and medals were authorized, generally only senior officers and warrant officers wear medal ribbons. The following were some important Syrian awards:Order of Umayyad,Medal of Military Honor, the War Medal, Medal for Courage, Yarmuk Medal, Wounded in Action Medal, and Medal of8 March 1963.[103]

See also

edit

References

edit

This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.Syria: A Country Study.Federal Research Division.

  1. ^"SYRIA UPDATE: THE FALL OF AL-QUSAYR".Institute for the Study of War.Archivedfrom the original on 10 June 2013.Retrieved7 June2013.
  2. ^"Bashal al-Assad in uniform with rank of Marshal".thewhatandthewhy.com.Archivedfrom the original on 9 October 2017.Retrieved24 March2018.
  3. ^abcIISS 2023,p. 354.
  4. ^abcdEden Kaduri, Yehoshua Kalisky, Tal Avraham (6 September 2023)."Rebuilding the Syrian Military: The Threat to Israel".INSS Tel Aviv University.Retrieved25 November2023.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ^Gertz, Bill (23 July 1996)."CIA Suspects Chinese Firm of Syria Missile Aid".The Washington Times.[dead link‍]
  6. ^"IDENTIFYING MATERIEL MANUFACTURED IN THE DEMOCRATIC PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF KOREA (DPRK)".Conflict Armament Research.Retrieved10 April2024.
  7. ^"Exploring Iran's Role in Syrian Defence Industry and its Geopolitical Ramifications".Special Eurasia.8 August 2023.Retrieved10 May2024.
  8. ^A Syrian-produced North Korean Type 68 rifle on sale in Yemen. We can notice the Syrian Defense Laboratories logo stamped on it, which we have seen in the past across Syria. (h/t @FighterXwar_ar).
  9. ^abcdefghijk"Trade Registers".Archivedfrom the original on 29 December 2017.Retrieved26 May2019.
  10. ^"War Gains: Bulgarian Arms Add Fuel to Middle East Conflicts".21 December 2015.
  11. ^"Chinese Air Defense System Spotted in Syria: Russian Media".Islam Times.1 January 2020.
  12. ^"Analysing the Online Arms Trade in Opposition-controlled Syria: July 2021 update".2 September 2021.
  13. ^"Syrian Arab Republic: Constitution, 2012".refworld.26 February 2021. Archived fromthe originalon 5 March 2019.
  14. ^"عنوان السيرة الذاتية للعماد علي عبد الله أيوب نائب رئيس مجلس الوزراء- وزير الدفاع"(in Arabic). pministry.gov.sy.Retrieved23 January2022.
  15. ^abc"Syria increasing efforts to build up military after substantial losses".South China Morning Post.29 December 2014.Archivedfrom the original on 30 December 2014.Retrieved29 December2014.
  16. ^Daily Star23 September 2014
  17. ^abcdJames Hackett, International Institute for Strategic Studies, ed. (2023).The Military Balance 2023.London.ISBN978-1-003-40022-6.OCLC1372013483.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  18. ^"Syria Military Strength".www.globalfirepower.com. Archived fromthe originalon 21 May 2020.Retrieved21 May2020.
  19. ^Sinai 1987,p. 190.
  20. ^abcSinai 1987.
  21. ^Pollack 2002.
  22. ^Pollack 2002,p. 457–458.
  23. ^Seale 1990,p. 72.
  24. ^abcdBhalla, Reva (5 May 2011)."Making Sense of the Syrian Crisis".Stratfor.Archivedfrom the original on 9 October 2017.Retrieved9 May2011.
  25. ^"Israel bombs Syria's Golan after blast".Al Jazeera English.Retrieved20 March2014.
  26. ^Ian Deitch (17 March 2017)."Syria fires missiles at Israeli jets after airstrikes".Yahoo! News. Associated Press.
  27. ^Weisburd, Arthur (1997).Use of force: the practice of states since World War II.Penn State Press. p. 156.ISBN9780271016801.
  28. ^The Current legal regulation of the use of force.Antonio Cassese. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: M. Nijhoff. 1986. pp. 195–197.ISBN90-247-3247-6.OCLC12663376.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: others (link)
  29. ^Thompson, Eric V. (2002)."Will Syria Have to Withdraw from Lebanon?".Middle East Journal.56(1): 72–93, 76.ISSN0026-3141.JSTOR4329721.
  30. ^The Current legal regulation of the use of force.Antonio Cassese. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: M. Nijhoff. 1986. pp. 196–197.ISBN90-247-3247-6.OCLC12663376.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: others (link)
  31. ^The Current legal regulation of the use of force.Antonio Cassese. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: M. Nijhoff. 1986. pp. 192–197.ISBN90-247-3247-6.OCLC12663376.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: others (link)
  32. ^The Current legal regulation of the use of force.Antonio Cassese. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: M. Nijhoff. 1986. pp. 198–201.ISBN90-247-3247-6.OCLC12663376.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: others (link)
  33. ^Friedman, Thomas (26 May 1985)."LEGACY OF WAR; ISRAEL MAKES A BITTER DEAL, NEW BATTLE JOLTS LEBANON".NY Times.Retrieved23 May2021.
  34. ^"Assad announces Lebanon troop withdrawal".www.theguardian.com. 5 March 2005.Retrieved23 May2021.
  35. ^"Retrait syrien total fin avril au plus tar"(in French). Archived fromthe originalon 16 June 2021.Retrieved23 May2021.
  36. ^Schwarzkopf 1993,p. 467–469.
  37. ^Miller, Judith(27 March 1991)."AFTER THE WAR; Syria Plans to Double Gulf Force".New York Times.Archived fromthe originalon 11 October 2017.
  38. ^Katz, Yaakov (3 September 2009)."Russia confirms MiG jet sale to Syria".The Jerusalem Post.
  39. ^"Russia defends arms sales to Syria".United Press International.29 September 2008.Archivedfrom the original on 12 April 2011.Retrieved30 September2008.
  40. ^David Enders (27 March 2012)."As Syria's war rages, Assad bans military-age men from leaving".The Christian Science Monitor.Archivedfrom the original on 22 June 2012.Retrieved24 June2012.
  41. ^סוריה: התקפה עזה על המשמר הרפובליקני(in Hebrew). Tel Aviv:Maariv.26 June 2012. Archived fromthe originalon 28 July 2013.Retrieved26 June2012.
  42. ^Damien McElroy (18 July 2012)."Assad's brother-in-law and top Syrian officials killed in Damascus suicide bomb".Daily Telegraph.London.Archivedfrom the original on 19 July 2012.Retrieved18 July2012.
  43. ^"Two Syrian rebel groups claim Damascus attack".Reuters.18 July 2012. Archived fromthe originalon 19 July 2012.Retrieved18 July2012.
  44. ^"UPDATE 4-Syrian govt forces, rebels committing war crimes -U.N."Reuters.Archivedfrom the original on 20 October 2012.Retrieved17 December2012.
  45. ^"Friends of Syria must use their influence to stop cycle of repression and violence".Amnesty International.5 July 2012. Archived fromthe originalon 6 December 2012.Retrieved19 January2013.
  46. ^"Why the Syrian regime is killing babies".CNN.com.Archivedfrom the original on 22 August 2013.Retrieved3 September2013.
  47. ^"Syrian siege of Homs is genocidal, say trapped residents".The Guardian.7 February 2012.Archivedfrom the original on 25 February 2017.Retrieved16 December2016.
  48. ^"Syria: Despite Denials, More Cluster Bomb Attacks"Archived18 December 2016 at theWayback Machine.HRW.org. 23 October 2012.
  49. ^"Torture Archipelago: Arbitrary Arrests, Torture and Enforced Disappearances in Syria's Underground Prisons since March 2011"(PDF).Human Rights Watch. July 2012.Archived(PDF)from the original on 25 July 2012.Retrieved3 July2012.{{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal=(help)
  50. ^"Al-Assad denies responsibility for Syria crackdown".CNN. 7 December 2011.Archivedfrom the original on 24 December 2013.Retrieved23 December2013.
  51. ^"Exclusive: Obama authorizes secret U.S. support for Syrian rebels".Reuters.1 August 2012.Archivedfrom the original on 2 August 2012.Retrieved2 July2017.
  52. ^"Saudi Arabia plans to fund Syria rebel army".The Guardian.22 June 2012.Archivedfrom the original on 18 December 2016.Retrieved16 December2016.
  53. ^"Al-Qaida-linked group accused of torture in areas of Syria it controls".The Guardian.18 May 2012.Archivedfrom the original on 22 July 2016.Retrieved16 December2016.
  54. ^Sylvia, Westall."Assad's army stretched but still seen strong".The Daily Star.Archivedfrom the original on 22 September 2014.Retrieved23 September2014.
  55. ^"Сколько людей и оружия по обе линии сирийского противостояния".Газета.Ru.Archivedfrom the original on 31 July 2016.Retrieved20 May2016.
  56. ^"LifeNews изучил состояние сирийской армии на момент введения ВКС РФ".Life.ru.1 October 2015.Archivedfrom the original on 27 January 2016.Retrieved20 May2016.
  57. ^ab"Syria army adapts to guerrilla war".The Daily Star.22 October 2014.Archivedfrom the original on 22 October 2014.Retrieved22 October2014.
  58. ^"Infographic: Aircraft Lost During The Syrian Civil War".Statista Infographics.18 September 2018.Archivedfrom the original on 5 November 2018.Retrieved27 January2019.
  59. ^abIISS 2011,p. 330.
  60. ^abcde"Syria's military: what does Assad have?".Reuters.6 April 2011. Archived fromthe originalon 1 May 2011.Retrieved5 May2011.
  61. ^"Assad's army stretched but still seen strong".The Daily Star Newspaper – Lebanon.Archivedfrom the original on 8 July 2015.Retrieved29 June2015.
  62. ^"More casualties raise to 512 including 130 children, the number of citizens who have been killed since the start of the fiercest escalation".June 2019.
  63. ^"Background Note: Syria".US State Department.Archivedfrom the original on 21 January 2017.Retrieved14 September2011.
  64. ^"Syria reduces compulsory military service by three months".China Daily.Xinhua News Agency.20 March 2011. Archived fromthe originalon 3 May 2011.Retrieved6 October2012.
  65. ^"Officially...the Syrian Army Command issues demobilization decisions and these are the details".Snacksyrian.com(in Arabic). 29 March 2020. Archived fromthe originalon 21 May 2020.Retrieved21 May2020.
  66. ^abcdefgMuhsen al-Mustafa (9 November 2021)."Chain of Command in the Syrian Military: Formal and Informal Tracks".Omran Center for strategic studies.Retrieved31 March2024.
  67. ^abGregory Waters (28 March 2024)."Lots of new senior appointments today: Mundhir Ibrahim replaces Ramadan as head of SAA Operations Authority (ex-head of 5th Corps & Idlib Sec Committee). Mohamed Saftly moves from 15th Div to command all Special Forces. Replaced by Suhail Fajr Hassan, fmr 67 Brig commander".Twitter.Retrieved31 March2024.
  68. ^Ayman Al-Das (27 May 2022)."The new appointments in the #Syrian_Army: Major general Mohsen Mahmoud Abbas as a head of Syrian Artillery and Missile forces. (From Harf al-Musaytirah, is a Syrian village in the #Qardaha_District)".Twitter.Retrieved31 March2024.
  69. ^Ayman Al-Das (30 June 2021)."Syria has appointed #Brigadier_General Fadi Jihad Khaddour (From Baniyas) as chief staff of electronic warfare".Twitter.Retrieved31 March2024.
  70. ^Gregory Waters (12 April 2024)."Changes to Syria's special forces this week: Recently appointed Mohamad Saftly moved to command 30th SRG Division. Replaced as head of Special Forces by Suhail Hassan. Suhail replaced as head of 25th Div by former senior Tiger commander, current 30th Div commander Saleh Abdullah".Twitter.Retrieved14 April2024.
  71. ^Ayman Al-Das (24 June 2020)."New appointments in the #Syrian_Army, Major General Hassan Ali Suleiman (from #Safita) was appointed as director of political department. This department was established in 1970 to guide members of armed forces ideologically and to instill in them loyalty toward the regime".Twitter.Retrieved31 March2024.
  72. ^abcIISS 2019,p. 368.
  73. ^Gregory Waters (18 July 2019)."I noted 4 distinct phases of (attempted) rebuilding".Twitter.Retrieved25 June2023.
  74. ^Pesach Malovany (14 September 2018)."The Syrian Phoenix is Arising".Israel Defense.Retrieved17 July2022.
  75. ^abGeorge Waters (18 July 2019)."The Lion and The Eagle: The Syrian Arab Army's Destruction and Rebirth".Middle East Institute.Retrieved20 September2022.
  76. ^The Syrian Civil War – Evolution of the Syrian Army’s Way of War
  77. ^"By All Means Necessary!".Human Rights Watch.16 December 2011. p. 12.Archivedfrom the original on 22 October 2014.Retrieved4 December2016.
  78. ^Harris, William (2018). "Glossary".Quicksilver War: Syria, Iraq and the Spiral of Conflict.New York: Oxford University Press. p. 183.ISBN9780190874872.
  79. ^Waters, Gregory (21 April 2018)."The Growing Role of Reconciled Rebels in Syria".International Review.Retrieved30 October2018.
  80. ^اللواء سهيل الحسن قائداً للقوات الخاصة في الجيش العربي السوري.
  81. ^"انطلاق المرحلة الأولى من التدريبات في معسكر التدريب لبناء وتشكيل قوات العمليات الخاصة SOF في الجيش العربي السوري".
  82. ^قوات العمليات الخاصة (القوات الخاصة) في الجيش العربي السوري تبدأ أولى تدريباتها العسكرية بإشراف اللواء سهيل الحسن، أولى التدريبات تتضمن عمليات الإنزال الجوي من المروحيات.
  83. ^IISS 2022,p. 369.
  84. ^Sinai 1987,p. 237.
  85. ^IISS 2022,p. 370.
  86. ^"Saudi Arabia confirms role in strikes against Islamic State in Syria".Reuters.23 September 2014.Retrieved25 December2022.
  87. ^IISS 2022,p. 371.
  88. ^Al-Tamimi, Aymenn Jawad."The Local Defence Forces: Regime Auxiliary Forces in Aleppo".aymennjawad.org.Archivedfrom the original on 26 March 2018.Retrieved24 March2018.
  89. ^Al-Tamimi, Aymenn Jawad (3 May 2017)."Administrative Decisions on Local Defence Forces Personnel: Translation & Analysis".aymennjawad.org.Archivedfrom the original on 28 February 2018.Retrieved24 March2018.
  90. ^"Turkey shells Assad loyalists trying to cross into Syria's Afrin".Middle East Institute. 21 February 2018.Retrieved29 February2024.
  91. ^"The 313 Battalion: A Syrian 'Islamic Resistance' Formation".Aymenn Jawad. 30 March 2017.Retrieved29 February2024.
  92. ^abAymenn Jawad Al-Tamimi (18 March 2021)."The Qamr Bani Hashim Division".Retrieved20 June2021.
  93. ^Al-Tamimi, Aymenn Jawad (February 2020)."The Life of Farid Khattab of the 313 Force".Aymenn Jawad Al-Tamimi.
  94. ^Aymenn Jawad Al-Tamimi (9 February 2020)."The Special Assignments Battalion: Local Defence Forces Unit".Retrieved3 March2020.
  95. ^Loveday Morris (22 January 2013)."Assad's Lionesses: the female last line in the battle for Syria".The Independent.Retrieved21 September2023.
  96. ^"Syria's embrace of WMD"[permanent dead link‍]by Eyal Zisser,Globe and Mail,28 September 2004 (link leads only to abstract; purchase necessary for full article)[dead link‍]
  97. ^Weitz, Richard (2010).Global security watch—Russia: A reference handbook.Santa Barbara, Calif.: Praeger Security International. p. 30.ISBN978-0-313-35434-2.Archivedfrom the original on 29 July 2016.Retrieved12 October2015.
  98. ^"SIPRI Arms Transfers Database".Stockholm International Peace Research Institute.Archived fromthe originalon 25 November 2015.Retrieved8 September2011.
  99. ^Amos, Howard (26 August 2011)."News Analysis: Russia Damages Image in Arab Spring".The Moscow Times.Archivedfrom the original on 22 December 2011.Retrieved8 September2011.
  100. ^"Russian defence industry and arms trade: facts and figures"(PDF).Centre for Analysis of Strategies and Technologies. pp 15.Archived(PDF)from the original on 20 November 2011.Retrieved8 September2011.
  101. ^Meyer, Henry (7 September 2011)."Assad Ouster Bid May Unleash 'Chaos in Mideast,' Russia Says".Bloomberg.Archivedfrom the original on 27 April 2012.Retrieved8 September2011.
  102. ^"Syria not next on list, says Britain".Sydney Morning Herald.14 April 2003.Archivedfrom the original on 18 April 2014.Retrieved4 December2012.
  103. ^abcSinai 1987,p. 264.
  104. ^Gordon Rottman (27 May 1993).Armies of the Gulf War.Osprey Publishing. p. 58.ISBN978-1-85532-277-6.Archivedfrom the original on 22 April 2014.Retrieved20 March2013.
  105. ^Soviet SCHMS RespiratoronYouTube
  106. ^My Russian SCHMS gas mask with hoseonYouTube

Notes

edit

Further reading

edit
edit
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Syrian_Armed_Forces&oldid=1258629505"