Wikipedia

Syrian Arab Armed Forces

Not to be confused with the new transitional Syrian government and its military capabilities seen atSyrian Armed Forces.

TheSyrian Arab Armed Forces(SAAF;Arabic:القوات المسلحة العربية السورية,romanized:al-Quwwāt al-Musallaḥah al-ʿArabīyah as-Sūrīyah) were the combinedarmed forces of Syriafrom 1963 to 2024.[citation needed]They served during the rule of theBa'ath PartyinSyria.

Syrian Arab Armed Forces
القوات المسلحة العربية السورية‎
Flag of the Syrian Arab Armed Forces
Coat of arms of the Syrian Arab Armed Forces
Mottoوطن، شرف، إخلاص
Watan, Sharaf, Ikhlas
( "Homeland, Honor, Sincerity" )
Founded1963;62 years ago(1963)
Disbanded29 January 2025[1]
Service branchesSyrian Arab Army
Syrian Arab Navy
Syrian Arab Air Force
Syrian Arab Air Defense Force
National Defence Forces[2]
HeadquartersHay'at al-Arkan,Umayyad Square,Damascus
Leadership
President of SyriaHafez al-Assad
Bashar al-Assad
Minister of DefenceGeneralAli Mahmoud Abbas(last)
Chief of the General StaffGeneralAbdul Karim Mahmoud Ibrahim(last)
Personnel
Military age18
ConscriptionYes
Active personnel170,000 (2023)[3]
Expenditure
Budget$1.8 billion (2019)
Percent of GDP4.5% (2020)
Industry
Domestic suppliersSyrian Scientific Studies and Research Center(CERS)[4][5]
Établissement Industriel de la Défense (EID)[6][7]
Syrian Defense Laboratories (SDL)[8]
Foreign suppliersArmenia[9]
Belarus[9]
Bulgaria[10]
China[9]
Iran[11][9]
North Korea[9][12]
Iraq[9]
Russia[9]
Venezuela[9]
Cuba[9]
Laos[9]
Pakistan[9]
Related articles
HistoryMilitary history of Syria
RanksMilitary ranks of Syria

The SAAF consisted of theSyrian Arab Army,Syrian Arab Air Force,Syrian Arab Navy,Syrian Arab Air Defence Force,and paramilitary forces, such as theNational Defence Forces.According to the 2012Constitution of Syria,thePresident of Syriawas theCommander-in-chiefof the Armed Forces.[13]TheMinister of Defenceheld the position of Deputy Commander-in-chief of the Army and Armed Forces.[14]

The SAAF utilized conscription; males served in the military at age 18, but they were exempted from service if they did not have a brother who can take care of their parents. After the beginning of theSyrian Civil War,Syrian military enlisted strength dropped by over half from a pre-civil war figure of 325,000 to 150,000 soldiers in the army in December 2014 due to casualties,desertionsanddraft dodging,[15]reaching between 178,000 and 220,000 soldiers in the army,[16]in addition to 80,000 to 100,000 irregular forces. By 2023, the number of active Syrian soldiers had increased to 170,000,[17]but the number of active paramilitary and reserve forces may have decreased by as much as 50,000.[17]

The Syrian Arab Armed Forces collapsed in 2024 with thefall of the Assad regimeand flight of Bashar al-Assad.[18]The new de-facto rulers of Syria,Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham,are making preparations to drastically reorganise Syria's military forces and ambitions.[19]On 21 December 2024 it was reported thatMurhaf Abu Qasrahad been appointed the new defence minister for the interim government.[20]

History

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See also:Ba'athist Syria

The 1963 coup and early history of the Arab Armed Forces

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In 1963, the Military Committee of theSyrian Regional Commandof theArab Socialist Ba'ath Partyspent most of its time planning to take power through a conventional military coup. From the very beginning, the Military Committee knew it had to captureal-KiswahandQatana—two military camps—seize control of the 70th Armored Brigade at al-Kiswah, the Military Academy in the city of Homs and the Damascus radio station. While the conspirators of the Military Committee were all young, their aim was not out of reach; the sitting regime had been slowly disintegrating and the traditional elite had lost effective political power over the country.[21]A small group of military officers, includingHafez al-Assad,seized control in theMarch 1963 Syrian coup d'etat.Following the coup, Gen.Amin al-Hafizdischarged many ranking Sunni officers, thereby,Stratforsays, "providing openings for hundreds ofAlawitesto fill top-tier military positions during the 1963–1965 period on the grounds of being opposed to Arab unity. This measure tipped the balance in favor of Alawite officers who staged a coup in 1966 and, for the first time, placed Damascus in the hands of the Alawites. "[22]

The Arab Armed Forces were involved in the 1967Six-Day War(against Israel). Since 1967, most of theGolan Heightsterritory of southwestern Syria has been under Israeli occupation. They then fought in the late 1960sWar of Attrition(against Israel) and the 1970Black Septemberinvasion of Jordan.

When Hafez al-Assad came to power in 1971, the army began to modernize and change. In the first 10 years of Assad's rule, the army increased by 162%, and by 264% by 2000. At one point, 70% of the country's GDP went only to the army. At the beginning of theYom Kippur Warof 1973 the Syrian Army launched an attack to seize the Golan Heights that was only narrowly repulsed by two vastly outnumbered Israeli brigades. Since 1973 thecease-fireline has been respected by both sides, with very few incidents until theSyrian civil war.[23][24]

The Lebanese President invited Syria into his country in 1976, to intervene on the side of the Lebanese government againstPLOguerilla and Lebanese Christian forces. TheArab Deterrent Forceoriginally consisted of a Syrian core, up to 25,000 troops, with participation by some otherArab Leaguestates totalling only around 5,000 troops.[25][26]In late 1978, after the Arab League had extended the mandate of the Arab Deterrent Force, theSudanese,the Saudis and theUnited Arab Emiratesannounced intentions to withdraw troops from Lebanon, extending their stay into the early months of 1979 at the Lebanese government's request.[27]The Libyan troops were essentially abandoned and had to find their own way home (if at all), and the ADF thereby became a purely Syrian force (which did include thePalestinian Liberation Army(PLA)).[28]A year after Israel invaded and occupiedSouthern Lebanonduring the1982 Lebanon War,the Lebanese government failed to extend the ADF's mandate, thereby effectively ending its existence, although not the Syrian or Israeli military presence in Lebanon.[29]Eventually the Syrian presence became known as theSyrian occupation of Lebanon.

Occupation of Lebanon (1982–2005)

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Main article:Syrian occupation of Lebanon

Syrian forces, still technically known as the Arab Deterrent Force, lingered in Lebanon throughout theLebanese civil war(1975–90). Eventually the Syrians brought most of the nation under their control as part of a power struggle with Israel, which had occupied areas of southern Lebanon in 1978. In 1985, Israel began to withdraw from Lebanon, as a result of domestic opposition in Israel and international pressure.[30]In the aftermath of this withdrawal, theWar of the Campsbroke out, with Syria fighting their former Palestinian allies. Following the end of the Lebanese civil war in 1990, theSyrian occupation of Lebanoncontinued until they themselves were also forced out by widespread public protest and international pressure. About 20,000 Syrian soldiers were deployed in Lebanon until 27 April 2005, when the last of Syria's troops left the country.[31]Syrian forces were accused of involvement in the murder ofRafiq al-Hariri,as well as continued meddling in Lebanese affairs, and an international investigation into the Hariri killing and several subsequent bomb attacks has been launched by the UN.

Other engagements

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Engagements since 1979 included the Muslim Brotherhood insurgency (1979–82), notably including theHama massacre,the1982 Lebanon War(against Israel) and the dispatch of the9th Armored Divisionto Saudi Arabia in 1990–91, ahead of theGulf Waragainst Iraq. The 9th Armored Division served as the Arab Joint Forces Command North reserve and saw little action.[32]Syria's force numbered ~20,000 in strength (the sixth-largest contingent) and its involvement was justified domestically as an effort to defend Saudi Arabia. Syria's initial involvement inOperation Desert Shieldalso rolled into the AlliedOperation Desert Storm,as Syrian forces did participate in helping dislodge and drive Iraqi forces out ofKuwait City.Total losses sustained were two dead and one wounded. There were indications the Syrian government had been prepared to double its force to 40,000.[33]

Modernisation

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Further information:Russia–Syria relations § Arms contracts

In recent years Syria has relied on Russian arms purchases to obtain modern weapons. Purchases included anti-tank and air defense systems. In early September 2008 the Syrian government orderedMiG-29SMTfighters,[34]Pantsir S1E air-defence systems,Iskander tactical missile systems,Yak-130aircraft, and twoAmur-1650submarines from Russia. Russia's Foreign MinisterSergei Lavrovasserted that the sale wouldn't upset the balance of power in the Middle East and were "in line with... international law."

Russia aimed to turn theRussian naval base in Tartusinto a permanent base. Israel and the US oppose further arms sales to Syria due to fears that the weapons could fall under the control of Iran orHezbollahfighters in Lebanon.[35]

Syrian civil war 2011–2024

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A Syrian soldier manning a checkpoint near Damascus.

Because of the violence against the people by the Syrian Army and the detention of a great number of people, some soldiers from different religions and sects (Sunni, Shia, Druze and Christian) defected in protest at orders to kill protesters in April 2011[citation needed].By 2014, the number of defecting officers had reached approximately 170,000, from different ranks. They formed theFree Syrian Armyon 29 July 2011 (interview with Riad Al-Asaad - the founder and leader of the Free Syrian Army), and at the beginning of the conflict they depended on light weapons. The arming of the Free Syrian Army began in mid-2012.

In March 2012 the Syrian government issued new travel restrictions for military-aged males. Under the new restrictions, reported bylocal Syrian news outlets,all males between 18–42 were banned from traveling outside the country.[36]In a late June 2012 interview given by the FSA'sAsharq Al-Awsathe claimedRiad al-Asaadsaid that about 20–30 Syrian officers defected to Turkey each day.[37]

On 18 July 2012 the Syrian Defense MinisterDawoud Rajha,former defense ministerHasan Turkmaniand the president's brother-in-law Gen.Assef Shawkatwere killed in abomb attackin Damascus.[38]Syrian intelligence chiefHisham Bekhityarand Head of the 4th Army Division Maher Al Assad—brother of President Assad—were also injured in the explosion.[39]

Since the start of theconflict in Syria,human rights groups say that the majority of abuses were committed by the Syrian government's forces, and UN investigations concluded that the government's abuses were the greatest in both gravity and scale.[40][41]The branches of the Syrian Armed Forces that committed war crimes include at least the Syrian Arab Army,[42][43]Syrian Arab Air Force[44]and the Syrian Military Intelligence.[45]However the Syrian authorities denied these accusations[46]and claimed that irregular armed groups with foreign support[47][48]are behind the atrocities, including Al Qaeda linked Insurgents.[49]

The numbers in the Syrian armed forces had reduced considerably during the Civil War, although estimates varied.

Syrian Armed Forces size during the Civil War[50]
Year Army personnel Air Force personnel Total: Army + Air Force
2011
220,000
100,000
320,000
2014
110,000
63,000
173,000

Russian sources gave higher estimates. In 2011, 300,000 reserves were reported in addition to regular forces.[citation needed]In 2014,Gazeta.rureported that the regular army had reduced from 325,000 to 150,000 due to "mortality, desertions and deviations", but that this was supplemented by 60,000 Republican Guards and 50,000 Kurdish militias.[51]In 2015,LifeNewsstill reported the same figures.[52]

Despite shrinking by nearly half from the 2011 beginning of the civil war by 2014, the Armed Forces became much more flexible and capable, especially in anti-guerilla warfare.[53]Theirmodus operandiswitched from traditional Soviet-modeled conventional military forces into a force of smaller groups fighting in close-quarters guerrilla combat with an increasing role for junior officers.[53]

In September 2018,StatistaCharts estimated that the Syrian military had lost 111 warplanes since the beginning of the civil war, including reconnaissance and attack drones. The Syrians lost most of their warplanes during the first four years of the war, with losses significantly decreasing after theRussian interventioninto the war.[54]

Fall of the al-Assad regime and insurgency

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Main article:Western Syria clashes (December 2024–present)

In December 2024, the Syrian Arab Army, alongside the Syrian Arab Republic itself, collapsed as theAssad regime fell.Some of the remaining SAA forces crossed into Iraq, others removed their uniforms before the rebels could arrive in Damascus, the last remaining territory controlled by the SAR.[18]Retired U.S. GeneralWesley Clarksaid that a video showing the SAA forces evacuating to Iraq showed the "demoralization and collapse of an army", and that the forces knew they would lose, with the rebels taking Damascus and Assad's whereabouts unknown. He compared it to thefall of Kabul in 2021,where the U.S.-backedAfghan Armed Forcescollapsed, and that when faced with certain defeat, armies simply "melt away".[55]

On 22 December 2024,Ahmed al-Sharaasaid that the new Syrian government would announce the new structure of the Syrian military within days.[56]On 24 December 2024, it was announced that the leaders of the different Syrian rebel forces would disband their forces and merge them under the defence ministry.[19]

On 26 December 2024, the "former forces of deposed leader Bashar al-Assad" killed 14 HTS fighters following thecapture of Mohammad Kanjo Hassan.This has led to theWestern Syria clashes (December 2024–present)against the newSyrian transitional government.[57]

Structure

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Demographics and military service

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Bashar al-Assad(centre) alongside SyrianDefence MinisterGeneralMustafa Tlass(right) andMilitary Chief of StaffHasan Turkmani(left), both Ba'athist leaders. Military-Ba'ath party nexus constructed byHafez al-Assadconstituted the backbone ofAssad regime's support base.

With its headquarters inDamascus,the Syrian military consisted of air, ground and naval forces. Active personnel were estimated as 295,000 in 2011, with an additional 314,000 reserves. Paramilitary forces were estimated at 108,000 in 2011.[58][59]Estimates of the declining size of the armed forces over time include[15]141,400 as of June 2019.(50% shrinkage according to sources)[60][61]By 2023, the number of active soldiers in the Syrian military increased to 170,000.[17]Also in 2023, the number of active paramilitary and reserve forces in the Syrian military decreased up to 50,000.[17]

In 2011, the majority of the Syrian military wereSunni,but most of the military leadership wereAlawites.[22][59]Alawites made up 12% of the pre-war Syrian population, but 70% of the career soldiers in theSyrian Army.[22][62]A similar imbalance was seen in the officer corps, where some 80% of the officers are Alawites. The military's most elite divisions, theRepublican Guardand the4th Armored Division,which were commanded byBashar al-Assad's brother Maher,were exclusively Alawite. Most of Syria's 300,000 conscripts in 2011 were Sunni.[22][59]

Before the start of the Syrian Civil War, the obligatory military service period was being decreased over time. In 2005, it was reduced from two and a half years to two years, in 2008 to 21 months and in 2011 to a year and a half.[63]Since the Syrian Civil War the Syrian government has implemented a retention system for those in compulsory service (conscript retention into service after the specified period has passed) and enacted new regulations, with citizens who completed mandatory conscription being called up for reserve duty.[15]By 2020, with the Syrian government having regained control over a large portion of Syrian territory, the General Staff of the Army and Armed Forces issued several demobilization decisions from service (retention and reserve) in batches.[64]

Soldiers of the Syrian Armed Forces were divided into two main categories:[65]

  • Volunteerswere those who join its ranks voluntarily after they reach eighteen years of age, of all ranks, specializations, and both sexes. They were promoted according to the internal regulations and receive a salary and compensation in return.
  • The assignedwere males were called (exclusively) to serve in the army when they reach the age of eighteen and until they reach the age of forty-two, but they were exempted from service as long as they were single to their mothers, or do not have another brother capable of taking care of their parents or have an impediment such as a health condition that prevents them from performing their service.

There were also civilian employees and reserves in the ranks of the armed forces who were called to serve in times of war and emergencies.

Administrative departments

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Syrian Arab Army

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Main article:Syrian Arab Army
A Syrian soldier aims aType 56assault rifle from his position in a foxhole duringOperation Desert Shield.The soldier is wearing a Soviet-made Model ShMS nuclear-biological-chemical warfare mask.

In 1987 Joshua Sinai of theLibrary of Congresswrote that theSyrian Arab Army(SAA) was the dominant military service, and as such controlled the senior-most posts in the armed forces and had the most manpower, approximately 80% of the combined services. In 1987 Joshua Sinai wrote that the major development in structural organization was the establishment of an additional divisional framework based on thespecial forcesand the organization of ground formations into three corps.[71]In 2010, theInternational Institute for Strategic Studiesestimated army regulars or professionals at 220,000, with an additional 280,000 reserves. That figure was unchanged in the 2011 edition of theMilitary Balance,[58]but in the 2013 edition, in the midst of the war, the IISS estimated that army strength was 110,000.[72]By the end of 2018, analysts estimated the SAA to have just 100,000 combat-ready troops.[72]

Between 2015 and 2018, the Syrian military under the supervision of Ministry of Defense underwent major structural changes, with the cooperation ofRussiaandIran.[4]This reform reflected a broader trend of consolidation within the Army. Part of this included the recruitment and mass integration of reconciled rebels.[73]Since 2018, the Syrian military renewed its fortification and the annual training to prepare for war againstIsrael,while at the same time trying to increase its strategic independence.[4]TheSyrian governmentinvested major sums in rebuilding the Syrian military through force buildup and reorganization measures, including with new personnel appointments.[4][74]

By 2019, the Army's formations included three army corps (the1st,2ndand3rd), one assault corps (5th), eight armored divisions, five mechanized divisions, two semi-autonomous reserve divisions, three armored/airborne special forces divisions and sevenborder guardregiments.[75][72]Evolution of the command structure, training and military system continued.[76]

Reports since the beginning of the war clarified the organisation of the army. In addition to the14th Special Forces Division,the15th Special Forces Divisionwas identified byHuman Rights Watchin 2011.[77]New Special Forces units formed during the war included25th Special Mission Forces Division.[78]In addition, new regular army units such as2nd Armored Division,6th Armored Divisionand8th Armored Division,were created by 2015.[75]Units reporting to the Chief of Staff are4th Armored Division,theRepublican Guardand25th Special Mission Forces Division.The 4th Armored Division became one of the Syrian government's most trusted security forces.[79]

By 2023, the number of active soldiers in the Syrian Arab Army had increased to 130,000.[3]In April 2024, Major GeneralSuhayl al-Hasanwas named as commander of the Special Operations Forces (SOF) of the Syrian Army.[80]In July 2024, the first phase of training began to build and form new SOF units in the SAA.[81]The main aim was to createspecial forcescomparable to theSpecial Operations Forcesin Russia.[82]

Air Force

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Main article:Syrian Arab Air Force

TheSyrian Arab Air Forcewas theaviationbranch of the Syrian Armed Forces. It was established in 1948 and saw combat in 1948, 1967, 1973 and in 1982 against Israel. It has seen combat against militant groups on Syrian soil from 2011 to 2012, during theSyrian civil war.Previously there were at least 15Syrian air force basesthroughout the country. In 2011, Russian sources reported 40,000 personnel in the Air Force,[citation needed]while Reuters reported 100,000.[59]In 2022 the Air Force was reportedly estimated at 15,000 strong.[83]Following the fall of Assad's regime,Israelexecuted several air strikes that have eliminated most of Syria's air force, according to foreign reports.[84]

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Main article:Syrian Arab Navy

In 1950 theSyrian Navywas established following the procurement of a few naval craft from France. The initial personnel consisted of soldiers who had been sent to French academies of naval training.[85]In 1985 the Navy consisted of approximately 4,000 regular and 2,500 reserve officers and men. The navy was under the army's Latakia regional command. The fleet was based in the ports of Latakia, Baniyas, Minat al Bayda and Tartus. Among the 41 vessel fleet were two frigates, 22 missile attack craft (including ten advancedOsa IImissile boats), three old submarines, two submarine chasers, four mine warfare vessels, eight gunboats, six patrol craft, four missile corvettes (on order), three landing craft (on order), one torpedo recovery vessel and, as part of its coastal defense system, Sepal shore-based, anti-ship missiles with a range of 300 km. In 2011, the Navy was estimated have 5,000 personnel.[59]In 2022 it was estimated at 4,000.[86]After the downfall of the Assad regime, Israel launched a series of air and navy strike, targeting and eliminating the Syrian navy while at port.[87]

Air Force

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Main article:Syrian Air Defense Force

In 1986, according to theLibrary of Congress Country Studies,the Air Defence Command, within the Army Command but also composed of Air Force personnel, numbered approximately 60,000.[71]In 1987 units included 20 air defense brigades (with approximately 95 SAM batteries) and two air defense regiments. The Air Defence Command had command access to interceptor aircraft and radar facilities. Air defenses included SA-5 long-range SAM batteries around Damascus and Aleppo, with additional SA-6 and SA-8 mobile SAM units deployed along Syria's side of the Lebanese border and in eastern Lebanon.

At some later point in time, the Air Defence Command was upgraded into a separate Syrian Air Defense Force.[88]In 2022, it was reported as 21,000 strong.[89]Following the downfall of Assad's regime, Israel launched several air strikes eliminating Syria's air defence system, which it considers one of the most powerful air defense systems in the Middle East.[87][90]

Paramilitary forces

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See also:List of armed groups in the Syrian Civil War § Syrian government and allies

References

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Bibliography

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