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Tai chi

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This article is about the Chinese martial art. For the philosophical concept, seeTaiji (philosophy).For other uses of tai chi, seeTaiji.

Tai chiis an ancientChinese martial art.Initially developed for combat and self-defense,[1]it has evolved into a sport and form ofexercise.Tai chi is a gentle, low-impact form of exercise in which practitioners perform a series of deliberate, flowing motions while focusing on deep, slow breaths. Often referred to as "meditationin motion, "tai chi aims to concentrate and balance the body'sqi(vital energy), providing benefits to mental and physical health.[2]

Tai chi
Thái cực quyền
The lowerdantianin tai chi:
Taijitu(yin and yang) rotate, while
the core reverts to stillness (wuji).
Yang Chengfu(c. 1931) inSingle Whipposture ofYang-style tai chisolo form
Also known asSeeetymology
FocusTaoism
HardnessForms:
  • Competition
  • Light contact (pushing hands,no strikes)
  • Full contact (strikes, kicks, throws, takedowns etc.)
Country of originChina
Date of formationDaoyin
CreatorChen WangtingorZhang Sanfeng
Famous practitioners
Olympic sportDemonstration sport
Tai chi
Traditional ChineseThái cực quyền
Simplified ChineseThái cực quyền
Literal meaning"TaijiFist "
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinTàijíquán
Bopomofoㄊㄞˋ ㄐㄧˊ ㄑㄩㄢˊ
Wade–GilesT'ai4-chi2ch'üan2
IPA[tʰâɪ.tɕǐ tɕʰɥɛ̌n]
Wu
Shanghainese
Romanization		Tha-ciq jioe
Yue: Cantonese
Yale RomanizationTaai-gihk kyùhn
JyutpingTaai3 gik6 kyun4
IPA[tʰaj˧ kɪk̚˨ kʰyn˩]
Southern Min
HokkienPOJThài-ke̍k kûn
Tâi-lôThài-ki̍k kûn

Many forms of tai chi are practiced, both traditional and modern. While the precise origins are not known, the earliest documented practice is fromChen VillageandZhabao VillageinHenan,which are located a few hundred miles from theShaolin Monasteryon Song Mountain.[3]Most modern styles trace their development to the five traditional schools:Chen,Yang,Wu (Hao),Wu,andSun.Practitioners such asYang ChengfuandSun Lutangin the early 20th century promoted the art for its health benefits.[4]Tai chi was included in theUNESCO List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanityin 2020.[5]

Etymology

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The name "tai chi", the most common English spelling, is not a standardromanizationof the Chinese name for the art (simplified Chinese:Thái cực quyền;traditional Chinese:Thái cực quyền;lit.'Taijiboxing'). The Chinese name was first commonly written in English using theWade–Gilessystem as "tʻai chi chʻüan".But English speakers abbreviated it to"tʻai chi"and dropped the mark of aspiration. Since the late twentieth century,pinyinhas been officially adopted in China and replaced Wade–Giles as the most popular system for romanizing Chinese. In pinyin, tai chi is spelledtaijiquan(tàijíquán).[6][7]In English, tai chi is sometimes referred to as "shadowboxing".[8]

Characters Wade–Giles Pinyin Meaning
Thái cực tʻai chi tàijí Taiji,the cosmological relationship of Yin and Yang
Quyền chʻüan quán fist, or boxing

The etymology of tai chi's Chinese name is somewhat uncertain because of the lack of a record of spoken usage. Before the mid-nineteenth century, it appears that outsiders generically described the art aszhanquan(Triêm quyền,"touch boxing" ), "Long Boxing" (Trường quyền),[note 1]mianquan( "Soft/Cotton/Neutralizing Boxing";Nhuyễn / miên / hóa quyền)[citation needed]orshisan shi(Thập tam thức,"the thirteen techniques" ).[9]In the mid-nineteenth century, the art began to be associated with the philosophy oftaiji(seeConceptual background).[10]This association may have originated in thewritings of the founders of Wu (Hao)-style tai chi,perhaps inspired by a tai chi classic attributed to the semi-mythicalWang Zongyuethat begins with the words "Taijiis born fromWuji;it is the mother ofYin and Yang".[note 2]However, as the Wu (Hao) founders had no financial need to promote their art, their contributions to the "tai chi classics" were not distributed widely for many years. The first public association betweentaijiand the art was a poem by Imperial Court scholarWeng Tonghedescribing a tai chi performance byYang Luchan.[12][13][14][15]It is not clear whether Weng was making a new connection or whether the new name was already in use. Written evidence for the Yang family's adoption of the nametaijifirst appeared in a later text, possibly completed in 1875 by Yang Luchan's son,Yang Banhou,or no later than the first decade of the twentieth century by one or more of Yang Banhou's disciples.[16][17][18][14]By the second decade of the twentieth century,Yang Chengfu's disciples andSun Lutangwere using the termtaijiquanin their publications, including in the titles of some of the tai chi classics. It then appeared in a book by a Chen family member, Chen Xin, published after he died in 1929.[12][19]

Philosophical background

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See also:Tai chi philosophy
Zhou Dunyi'sTaijitudiagram which illustrates theTaijitucosmology.

Chinese philosophy,particularlyTaoistandConfucian thought,forms the conceptual background to tai chi.[20]Early tai chi texts include embedded quotations from early Chinese classics like theI Ching,Great Learning,Book of Documents,Records of the Grand Historian,andZhuangzi,as well as from famous Chinese thinkers likeZhu Xi,Zhou Dunyi,andMencius.[20]

Early tai chi sources are grounded inTaijicosmology.Taijicosmology appears in bothTaoistandConfucianphilosophy,where it represents the single source or mother ofyin and yang(represented by thetaijitusymbol).[21][20]Tai chi also draws on Chinese theories of the body, particularly Taoistneidan(internal alchemy) teachings onqi(vital energy) and on the threedantian.Cheng Man-ch'ingemphasizes the Taoist background of tai chi and states that it "enables us to reach the stage of undifferentiated pure yang, which is exactly the same asLaozi's 'concentrating the qi and developing softness' ".[20]

As such, tai chi considers itself an "internal" (neijia) martial art focused on developingqi.[20]In China, tai chi is categorized under theWudanggroup of Chinese martial arts[22]—that is, arts applied with internal power.[23]Although the termWudangsuggests these arts originated in theWudang Mountains,it is used only to distinguish the skills, theories, and applications ofneijiafrom those of theShaolingrouping, orwaijia(hard/external styles).[20]

Tai chi also adopts the Taoist ideals of softness overcoming hardness, ofwu wei(effortless action), and of yielding into its martial art technique while also retaining Taoist ideas of spiritual self-cultivation.[20]

Tai chi's path is one of developing naturalness by relaxing, attending inward, and slowing mind, body, and breath.[20]This allows the practitioner to become less tense, to drop conditioned habits, to let go of thoughts, to allowqito flow smoothly, and thus to flow with theTao.It is thus a kind of moving meditation that allows us to let go of the self and experience no-mind (wuxin) and spontaneity (ziran).[20]

A key aspect of tai chi philosophy is to work with the flow ofyin(softness) andyang(hardness)elements. When two forces push each other with equal force, neither side moves. Motion cannot occur until one side yields. Therefore, a key principle in tai chi is to avoid using force directly against force (hardness against hardness). Laozi provided thearchetypefor this in theTao Te Chingwhen he wrote, "The soft and the pliable will defeat the hard and strong."[24]Conversely, when in possession of leverage, one may want to use hardness to force the opponent to become soft. Traditionally, tai chi uses both soft and hard. Yin is said to be the mother of Yang, using soft power to create hard power.

Traditional schools also emphasize that one is expected to showwude( "martial virtue/heroism" ), to protect the defenseless, and to show mercy to one's opponents.[4]

In December 2020, the 15th regular session of the UNESCO Intergovernmental Committee for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage included tai chi in the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.[25]

Practice

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Traditionally, the foundational tai chi practice consists of learning and practicing a specific solo forms or routines (taolu).[20]This entails learning a routine sequence of movements that emphasize a straight spine,abdominal breathingand a natural range of motion. Tai chi relies on knowing the appropriatechangein response to outside forces, as well as on yielding to and redirecting an attack, rather than meeting it with opposing force.[26]Physical fitness is also seen as an important step towards effectiveself-defense.

Tai chi movements were inspired by animals, especially birds and leopards.[27]

There are also numerous other supporting solo practices such as:[20]

There is no scientific evidence for the existence of qi,[29] nor any demonstrating the effectiveness of acupressure[30][31][32] or traditional Chinese medicine[33][34] beyond that ofplacebotreatment.

Further training entails learningtuishou(push hands drills),sanshou(striking techniques), free sparring, grappling training, and weapons training.[20]

The fundamental training concepts of the art are detailed in a few dozen classical texts originally written inclassical Chineseby tai chi masters, the "tai chi classics".In these texts, it is noted that the physiological and kinesiological aspects of the body's movements are characterized by the circular motion and rotation of the pelvis, based on the metaphors of the pelvis as the hub and the arms and feet as the spokes of a wheel. Furthermore, the respiration of breath is coordinated with the physical movements in a state of deep relaxation, rather than muscular tension.[35]

Tai chi is a complete martial art system with a full range of bare-hand movement sets and weapon forms, such as thejian(straight sword),dao(curved sword), andqiang(spear), which are based on the dynamic relationship betweenyinandyang.While tai chi is typified by its slow movements, many styles (including the three most popular:Yang,Wu,andChen) have secondary, faster-paced forms. Some traditional schools teach martial applications of the postures of different forms (taolu).

Solo practices

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Further information:List of tai chi forms
Painting inChenjiagou,illustratingtaoluaccording to theChen styleof tai chi

Taolu(solo "forms" ) are choreographed sets of movements practiced alone or in unison as a group. Tai chi is often characterized by slow movements in Taolu practice, and one of the reasons is to develop body awareness. Accurate, repeated practice of the solo routine is said to retrain posture, encourage circulation throughout students' bodies, maintain flexibility, and familiarize students with the martial sequences implied by the forms. Usually performed standing, solo forms have also been adapted for seated practice.[36]

Weapon practice

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Taijijian
A pair ofjianwith theirscabbards
Wushu jianpair event at the10th All China games

Tai chi practices involving weapons also exist. Weapons training andfencingapplications often employ:

  • thejian,a straight double-edged sword, practiced astaijijian;
  • thedao,a heavier curved saber, sometimes called a broadsword;
  • thetieshan,a folding fan, also calledshanand practiced astaijishan;
  • thegun,a 2 m long wooden staff and practiced astaijigun;
  • theqiang,a 2 m longspearor a 4 m longlance.

More exotic weapons include:

History

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A statue ofChen Wangting,an early pioneer of tai chi

Early development

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Tai chi's formative influences came from practices undertaken inTaoistandBuddhistmonasteries, such asWudang,Shaolin,and The Thousand Year Temple inHenan.[37]The early development of tai chi proper is connected with Henan's Thousand Year Temple and a nexus of nearby villages: Chen Village, Tang Village, Wangbao Village, and Zhaobao Town. These villages were closely connected, shared an interest in the martial arts and many went to study at Thousand Year Temple (which was a syncretic temple with elements from thethree teachings).[37]New[clarify]documents from these villages, mostly dating to the 17th century, are some of the earliest sources for the practice of tai chi.[37]

Some traditionalists claim that tai chi is a purely Chinese art that comes from ancientTaoismandConfucianism.[20]These schools believe that tai chi theory and practice were formulated by Taoist monkZhang Sanfengin the 12th century. These stories are often filled with legendary andhagiographicalcontent and lack historical support.[20][37]

Modern historians point out that the earliest reference indicating a connection betweenZhang Sanfengand martial arts is actually a 17th-century piece calledEpitaph for Wang Zhengnan(1669), composed byHuang Zongxi(1610–1695).[10][20]Aside from this single source, the other claims of connections between tai chi and Zhang Sanfeng appeared no earlier than the 19th century.[10][20]According to Douglas Wile, "there is no record of a Zhang Sanfeng in theSong Dynasty(960–1279), and there is no mention in theMing(1368–1644) histories or hagiographies of Zhang Sanfeng of any connection between the immortal and the martial arts. "[20]

Another common theory for the origin of tai chi is that it was created byChen Wangting(1580–1660) while living in Chen Village ( trần gia câu ), Henan.[38]The other four contemporary traditional tai chi styles (Yang, Sun, Wu and Wu/Hao) trace their teachings back to Chen village in the early 1800s.[4][39]

Yang Luchan(1799–1872), the founder of the popularYang style,trained with the Chen family for 18 years before he started to teach inBeijing,which strongly suggests that his work was heavily influenced bythe Chen family art.Martial arts historian Xu Zhen claimed that the tai chi of Chen Village was influenced by theTaizu changquanstyle practiced at nearbyShaolin Monastery,whileTang Haothought it was derived from a treatise byMing dynastygeneralQi Jiguang,Jixiao Xinshu( "New Treatise on Military Efficiency" ), which discussed several martial arts styles includingTaizu changquan.[40][41]

Standardization

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Taoist practitioners practising

In 1956, the Chinese government sponsored the Chinese Sports Committee (CSC), which brought together fourwushuteachers to truncate the Yang family hand form to24 postures.[42]This was an attempt to standardize tai chi forwushutournaments as they wanted to create a routine that would be much less difficult to learn than the classical 88 to 108 posture solo hand forms.

Another 1950s form is the "97 movements combined tai chi form", which blends Yang, Wu, Sun, Chen, and Fu styles.

In 1976, they developed a slightly longer demonstration form that would not require the traditional forms' memory, balance, and coordination. This became the "Combined 48 Forms" that were created by threewushucoaches, headed by Men Hui Feng. The combined forms simplified and combined classical forms from the original Chen, Yang, Wu, and Sun styles. Other competitive forms were designed to be completed within a six-minute time limit.

In the late 1980s, CSC standardized more competition forms for the four major styles as well as combined forms. These five sets of forms were created by different teams, and later approved by a committee ofwushucoaches in China. These forms were named after their style: the "Chen-style national competition form" is the "56 Forms". The combined forms are "The 42-Form" or simply the "Competition Form".

In the 11thAsian Gamesof 1990,wushuwas included as an item for competition for the first time with the42-Formrepresenting tai chi. TheInternational Wushu Federation(IWUF) applied forwushuto be part of theOlympic games.[43]

Tai chi was added to theUNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Listsin 2020 for China.[44]

Styles

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See also:History of Chinese martial arts

Chinese origin

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Wu-stylemasterEddie Wudemonstrating the form "Grasp the bird's tail" at a tournament inToronto, Ontario,Canada

The five major styles of tai chi are named for the Chinese families who originated them:

The most popular is Yang, followed by Wu, Chen, Sun, and Wu/Hao.[20]The styles share underlying theory, but their training differs.

Dozens of new styles, hybrid styles, and offshoots followed, although the family schools are accepted as standard by the international community. Other important styles areZhaobao tai chi,a close cousin of Chen style, which is recognized by Western practitioners; Fu style, created byFu Zhensong,which evolved from Chen, Sun and Yang styles, and incorporates movements frombaguazhang;[citation needed]andCheng Man-ch'ingstyle, which simplifies Yang style.

Around the world in the 20th and 21st centuries, some Chinese emigrants who had learned tai chi in China continued to practice it together in their new communities.[45]

North America

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United States

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Choy Hok Pang,a disciple ofYang Chengfu,was the first known proponent of tai chi to openly teach in the United States, beginning in 1939. His son and student Choy Kam Man emigrated to San Francisco from Hong Kong in 1949 to teach tai chi inChinatown.Choy Kam Man taught until he died in 1994.[46][47]

Sophia Delza,a professional dancer and student ofMa Yueliang,performed the first known public demonstration of tai chi in the United States at the New York CityMuseum of Modern Artin 1954. She wrote the first English language book on tai chi,T'ai-chi Ch'üan: Body and Mind in Harmony,in 1961. She taught regular classes atCarnegie Hall,theActors Studio,and theUnited Nations.[48][49]

Cheng Man-ch'ingopened his school Shr Jung tai chi after he moved to New York from Taiwan in 1964. Unlike the older generation of practitioners, Cheng was cultured and educated in American ways,[clarification needed]and thus was able to transcribe Yang's dictation into a written manuscript that became the de facto manual for Yang style. Cheng felt Yang's traditional 108-movement form was unnecessarily long and repetitive, which makes it difficult to learn.[citation needed]He thus created a shortened 37-movement version that he taught in his schools. Cheng's form became the dominant form in the eastern United States until other teachers immigrated in larger numbers in the 1990s. He taught until his death in 1975.[50]

Canada

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Moy Lin-shinarrived inToronto, Canada,from China in 1970, where he started teaching tai chi and related internal arts.[51]

Europe

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United Kingdom

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NorwegianPytt Geddeswas the first European to teach tai chi in Britain, holding classes atThe Placein London in the early 1960s. She had first encountered tai chi in Shanghai in 1948, and studied with Choy Hok Pang and his son Choy Kam Man (who both also taught in the United States) while living in Hong Kong in the late 1950s.[52]

Yin and yang

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More traditional practitioners hold that the two aspects of health and martial arts make up the art'syinandyang.The "family" schools present their teachings in a martial art context, whatever the intention of their students.[53]

Health

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See also:World Tai Chi and Qigong Day
Outdoor practice inBeijing'sTemple of Heaven

Tai chi's health training concentrates on relieving stress on the body and mind. In the 21st century, tai chi classes that purely emphasize health are popular in hospitals, clinics, community centers and senior centers. Tai chi's low-stress training method for seniors has become better known.[54]

A Chinese woman performs Yang-style tai chi.

Clinical studies exploring tai chi's effect on specific diseases and health conditions exist, though there are insufficient studies with consistent approaches to generate a comprehensive conclusion.[55]

Tai chi has been promoted for treating various ailments, and is supported by theParkinson's FoundationandDiabetes Australia,among others. However,medical evidenceof effectiveness is lacking.[56][57]A 2017 systematic review found that it decreased falls in older people.[58]

A 2011 comprehensive overview ofsystematic reviewsof tai chi recommended tai chi to older people for its physical and psychological benefits. It found positive results forfall preventionand overallmental health.No conclusive evidence showed benefit for most of the conditions researched, includingParkinson's disease,diabetes,cancerandarthritis.[56]

A 2015 systematic review found that tai chi could be performed by those with chronic medical conditions such aschronic obstructive pulmonary disease,heart failure,andosteoarthritiswithout negative effects, and found favorable effects on functional exercise capacity.[59]

In 2015 theAustralian Government's Department of Healthpublished the results of a review of alternative therapies that sought to identify any that were suitable for coverage byhealth insurance.Tai chi was one of 17 therapies evaluated. The study concluded that low-quality evidence suggests that tai chi may have some beneficial health effects when compared to control in a limited number of populations for a limited number of outcomes.[57]

A 2020 review of 13 studies found that tai chi had positive effect on the quality of life and depressive symptoms of older adults with chronic conditions who lived in community settings.[60]

In 2022, the U.S.A agency theNational Institutes of Healthpublished an analysis of various health claims, studies and findings. They concluded the evidence was of low quality, but that it appears to have a small positive effect on quality of life.[61]

Sport and self-defense

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As a martial art, tai chi emphasizes defense over attack and replies to hard with soft. The ability to use tai chi as a form ofcombatis the test of a student's understanding of the art. This is typically demonstrated via competition with others.

Practitioners test their skills against students from other schools and martial arts styles intuishou( "pushing hands" ) andsanshoucompetition.

See also

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Other names

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  • Tai Ji Quan
  • Taijiquan
  • Taichi
  • Tʻai chi
  • Tʻai chi chʻüan

References

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Notes

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  1. ^"Long" as in "Continuous"; not to be confused with the external martial art also known as Long Fist orChangquan.
  2. ^Original text:Thái cực giả. Vô cực nhi sinh. Âm dương chi mẫu dã.[11]

Citations

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  2. ^Slow and Steady: The Health Benefits of Tai Chi,Cleveland Clinic, 2023-09-05
  3. ^Shahar, Meir(2008).The Shaolin Monastery: History, Religion, and the Chinese Martial Arts.ISBN978-0824833497.
  4. ^abcWile 1996.
  5. ^"Tai Chi now on Unesco's intangible heritage list".South China Morning Post.Retrieved2023-07-17.
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    "Wudang Martial Arts".China Daily.2010-06-17.Wudang boxing includes boxing varieties such as Taiji (shadowboxing)
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  11. ^Wang Zongyue (attributed),Taijiquan JingThái cực quyền kinh
  12. ^abDavis 2004, p. 38-40
  13. ^Wile 1996, p. 20
  14. ^abLi Jianqing, p. 37-38
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  48. ^Dunning, Jennifer (July 7, 1996)."Sophia Delza Glassgold, 92, Dancer and Teacher".The New York Times.Archivedfrom the original on March 20, 2017.RetrievedFebruary 18,2017.
  49. ^"Inventory of the Sophia Delza Papers, 1908–1996"(PDF).Jerome Robbins Dance Division,New York Public Library for the Performing Arts.February 2006.Archived(PDF)from the original on 2016-06-16.Retrieved2014-12-24.
  50. ^Wolfe Lowenthal (1991).There Are No Secrets: Professor Cheng Man Ch'ing and His Tai Chi Chuan.North Atlantic Books.ISBN978-1-55643-112-8.
  51. ^Scrivener, Leslie (September 9, 2007)."Marshalling praise for art of Tai Chi".The Toronto Star.Retrieved2008-02-11.
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  54. ^Yip, Y. L. (Autumn 2002). "Pivot – Qi".The Journal of Traditional Eastern Health and Fitness.12(3). Insight Graphics Publishers.ISSN1056-4004.
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  56. ^abLee, M. S.; Ernst, E. (2011). "Systematic reviews of t'ai chi: An overview".British Journal of Sports Medicine.46(10): 713–8.doi:10.1136/bjsm.2010.080622.PMID21586406.S2CID206878632.
  57. ^abBaggoley C (2015)."Review of the Australian Government Rebate on Natural Therapies for Private Health Insurance"(PDF).Australian Government – Department of Health. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 22 December 2015.Retrieved12 December2015.
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  59. ^Chen, Yi-Wen; Hunt, Michael A.; Campbell, Kristin L.; Peill, Kortni; Reid, W. Darlene (2015-09-17)."The effect of Tai Chi on four chronic conditions – cancer, osteoarthritis, heart failure and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a systematic review and meta-analyses".British Journal of Sports Medicine.50(7): bjsports-2014-094388.doi:10.1136/bjsports-2014-094388.ISSN1473-0480.PMID26383108.Archivedfrom the original on 2015-10-16.Retrieved2015-10-09.
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Further reading

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Books

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  • Agar-Hutton, Robert (2018).The Metamorphosis of Tai Chi: Created to kill; evolved to heal; teaching peace.Ex-L-Ence Publishing.ISBN978-1-9164944-1-1.
  • Bluestein, Jonathan (2014).Research of Martial Arts.CreateSpace.ISBN978-1-4991-2251-0.
  • Bond, Joey(1999).See Man Jump See God Fall: Tai Chi Vs. Technology.International Promotions Promotion Pub.ISBN978-1-57901-001-0.
  • Choy, Kam Man (1985).Tai Chi Chuan.San Francisco, California: Memorial Edition 1994.[ISBN missing]
  • Davis, Barbara (2004).Taijiquan Classics: An Annotated Translation.North Atlantic Books.ISBN978-1-55643-431-0.
  • Eberhard, Wolfram (1986).A Dictionary of Chinese Symbols: Hidden Symbols in Chinese Life and Thought.London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.ISBN0-415-00228-1.
  • Frantzis, Bruce (2007).The Power of Internal Martial Arts and Chi: Combat and Energy Secrets of Ba Gua, Tai Chi and Hsing-I.Blue Snake Books.ISBN978-1-58394-190-4.
  • Gaffney, David; Sim, Davidine Siaw-Voon (2014).The Essence of Taijiquan.CreateSpace.ISBN978-1-5006-0923-8.
  • Lǐ, Jiànqīng (2006).Vĩnh niên thái cực quyền chí[Yongnian Taijiquan Gazetteer]. People's Sports Publishing House.ISBN7-5009-3044-5.
  • Sūn (Tôn), Lùtáng (Lộc đường) (1921).Tàijí quán xuéThái cực quyền học[A Study of Taiji Boxing].
    • Sūn (Tôn), Lùtáng (Lộc đường) (2018).Tàijí quán xuéThái cực quyền học[A Study of Taiji Boxing] (in Traditional Chinese). Dazhan Publishing House.ISBN978-986-346-201-9.
    • Tôn lộc đường võ học tập chú thái cực quyền học[Sun Lutang Martial Theory Collection: A Study of Taiji Boxing] (in Simplified Chinese). Beijing: Beijing Science and Technology Press. 2016.ISBN9787530486252.
  • Wile, Douglas (1983).Tai Chi Touchstones: Yang Family Secret Transmissions.Sweet Ch'i Press.ISBN978-0-912059-01-3.
  • Wile, Douglas (1996).Lost T'a-Chi Classics from the Late Ch'ing Dynasty.State University of New York Press.ISBN0-7914-2653-X.
  • Yang, Banhou (Dương ban hầu,1875*),Thái cực pháp thuyết(Explaining Taiji Principles), available online in Chinese and English translation atScribdand also included in Chinese and English translation in Wile, Douglas (1996) (*Scholars estimate the publication date to be between 1875 and 1910, and believe the author(s) to be Yang Banhou and/or his disciples)
  • Yang, Yang; Grubisich, Scott A. (2008).Taijiquan: The Art of Nurturing, The Science of Power(2nd ed.). Zhenwu Publication.ISBN978-0-9740990-1-9.

Magazines

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