Ten Great Campaigns

TheTen Great Campaigns(Chinese:Thập toàn võ công;pinyin:Shíquán Wǔgōng) were a series of military campaigns launched by theQing dynastyof China in the mid–late 18th century during the reign of theQianlong Emperor(r. 1735–1796). They included three to enlarge the area ofQing control in Inner Asia:two against theDzungars(1755–1757) and the "pacification" ofXinjiang(1758–1759). The other seven campaigns were more in the nature of police actions on frontiers already established: two wars to suppress theGyalrongof Jinchuan,Sichuan,another to suppress theTaiwanese aboriginals(1787–1788), and four expeditions abroad againstthe Burmese(1765–1769),the Vietnamese(1788–1789), and theGurkhason the border betweenTibetandNepal(1790–1792), with the last counting as two.

Qing generalZhaohuiled the fight against theDzungar Khanate

Campaigns

Three campaigns against the Dzungars and the pacification of Xinjiang (1755–1759)

Main article:Dzungar–Qing Wars

See also:Xinjiang under Qing ruleandQing reconquest of Xinjiang

First campaign

First campaign against the Dzungars
Surrender of Dawachi Khan in 1755
Date 1755 Location Xinjiang Result Qing victory Territorial changes Qing conquest of Xinjiang
Belligerents
Qing dynasty	Dzungar Khanate
Commanders and leaders
Qianlong Emperor Bandi(Overall Command) Zhaohui(Assistant Commander) Emin Khoja Amursana Burhān al-Dīn Khwāja-i Jahān	Dawachi(POW)
Strength
9,000 Manchu Eight Bannermen 19,500 Inner Mongols 6,500 Outer Mongols 2,000 Zunghars 5,000 Uyghurs from Hami and Turfan 12,000 Chinese	7,000
Casualties and losses
Unknown	Unknown

Of the ten campaigns, the final destruction of theDzungars(or Zunghars)was the most significant. The 1755 pacification of Dzungaria and the later suppression of theRevolt of the Altishahr Khojassecured the northern and western boundaries ofXinjiang,eliminated rivalry for control over theDalai Lamain Tibet, and thereby eliminated any rival influence in Mongolia. It also led to the pacification of the Islamicised, Turkic-speaking southern half of Xinjiang immediately thereafter.

Second campaign

In 1752,Dawachiand theKhoit-OiratprinceAmursanacompeted for the title of Khan of the Dzungars. Dawachi defeated Amursana various times and gave him no chance to recover. Amursana was thus forced to flee with his small army to the Qing imperial court. The Qianlong Emperor pledged to support Amursana since Amursana accepted Qing authority; among those who supported Amursana and the Chinese were theKhojabrothersBurhān al-DīnandKhwāja-i Jahān.In 1755, Qianlong sent the Manchu generalZhaohui,who was aided by Amursana, Burhān al-Dīn and Khwāja-i Jahān, to lead a campaign against the Dzungars. After several skirmishes and small scale battles along the riverIli,the Qing army led by Zhaohui approached Ili (Gulja) and forced Dawachi to surrender. Qianlong appointed Amursana as the Khan of Khoit and one of four equal khans – much to the displeasure of Amursana, who wanted to be the Khan of the Dzungars.

Second campaign against the Dzungars
The Battle of Oroi-Jalatu in 1758, Zhao Hui ambushes Amursana at night.
Date 1756–1758 Location Xinjiang Result Qing victory
Belligerents
Qing dynasty	Dzungars loyal toAmursana
Commanders and leaders
Qianlong Emperor Bandi†(1757) (Overall Command until death in battle) Cäbdan-jab(Overall Command) Zhaohui(Assistant Commander) Ayushi Emin Khoja Burhān al-Dīn Khwāja-i Jahān	Amursana Chingünjav†
Strength
10,000Bannermen 5,000 Uyghurs from Turfan and Hami Plus Zunghars	20,000 Dzungars
Casualties and losses
Unknown	Everyone defeated except for 50 men of Chingünjav who fled

In the summer of 1756, Amursana started a Dzungar revolt against the Chinese with the help of PrinceChingünjav.The Qing dynasty reacted at the start of 1757 and sent General Zhaohui with support from Burhān al-Dīn and Khwāja-i Jahān. Among several battles, the most important ones were illustrated in Qianlong's paintings. The Dzungar leader Ayushi defected to the Qing side and attacked the Dzungar camp at Gadan-Ola (Battle of Gadan-Ola).

Third campaign

General Zhaohui defeated the Dzungars in two battles: theBattle of Oroi-Jalatu(1758) and theBattle of Khurungui(1758). In the first battle, Zhaohui attacked Amursana's camp at night; Amursana was able to fight on until Zhaohui received enough reinforcements to drive him away. Between the time of Oroi-Jalatu and Khurungui, the Chinese under PrinceCäbdan-jabdefeated Amursana at theBattle of Khorgos(known in the Qianlong engravings as the "Victory of Khorgos" ). At Mount Khurungui, Zhaohui defeated Amursana in a night attack on his camp after crossing a river and drove him back. To commemorate Zhaohui's two victories, Qianlong had thePuning TempleofChengdeconstructed, home to the world's tallest wooden sculpture of thebodhisattvaAvalokiteśvaraand hence its alternate name, the "Big Buddha Temple". Afterwards,KhojisofUs-Turfansubmitted to the Qing dynasty. After all of these battles, Amursana fled toRussia(where he died) while Chingünjav fled north toDarkhadbut was captured atWang Tolgoiand executed in Beijing.

Campaign in Altishahr (Pacification of Xinjiang)
The Battle of Qurman 1759, Fude and Machang bring 600 troops to relieve Zhaohui in the Black River.
Date 1758–1759 Location Xinjiang Result Qingvictory
Belligerents
Qing dynasty	Altishahrifollowers of theKhojabrothers Kyrgyzs Dzungar rebels
Commanders and leaders
Qianlong Emperor Zhaohui(Overall Command) Fude (Assistant Commander) Agui Doubin Rongbao Zhanyinbao Fulu Shuhede Mingrui Arigun Machang Namjil† Yan Xiangshi Yisamu Duanjibu Khoja Emin Khoja Si Bek Sultan Shah of Badakhshan	Khwāja-i Jahān(POW) Burhān al-Dīn (POW)
Strength
10,000Bannermen Uyghurs from Hami, Turfan and Badakshan Plus Zunghars	30,000 Altishahr (Tarim Basin) Uyghurs
Casualties and losses
Unknown	Unknown

Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas (1757-1759)

Main article:Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas

After the second campaign against the Dzungars in 1758, twoAltishahrnobles, the Khoja brothers Burhān al-Dīn and Khwāja-i Jahān, started a revolt against the Qing dynasty. Apart from the remaining Dzungars, they were also joined by theKyrgyz peoplesand the Oases Turkic peoples (Uyghurs) in Altishahr (theTarim Basin). After capturing several towns in Altishahr, there were still two rebel fortresses atYarkandandKashgarat the end of 1758. Uyghur Muslims from Turfan and Hami, includingEmin KhojaandKhoja Si Bek,remained loyal to the Qing dynasty and helped the Qing regime fight the Altishahri Uyghurs under Burhān al-Dīn and Khwāja-i Jahān. Zhaohui unsuccessfully besieged Yarkand and fought an indecisive battle outside the city; this engagement is historically known as theBattle of Tonguzluq.Zhaohui instead took other towns east of Yarkand but was forced to retreat; the Dzungar and Uyghur rebels laid siege to him at thesiege of Black River(Kara Usu). In 1759, Zhaohui asked for reinforcements and 600 troops were sent, under the overall command of generals Fude and Machang, with the 200 cavalry led byNamjil;other high-ranking officers includedArigun,Doubin,Duanjibu,Fulu,Yan Xiangshi,Janggimboo,Yisamu,AguiandShuhede.On 3 February 1759, over 5,000 enemy cavalry led by Burhān al-Dīn ambushed the 600 relief troops at theBattle of Qurman.The Uyghur and Dzungar cavalry were stopped by the Qingzamburakartillery camels, musketry, and archers; Namjil and Machang led a cavalry charge on one of the flanks. Namjil was killed while Machang was unseated from horseback and was forced to fight on foot with his bow. After a hard-fought battle, the Qing forces emerged victorious and attacked the Dzungar camp, causing the Dzungars besieging the Black River to withdraw. After the victory at Qurman, the Qing army overran the remaining rebel towns.Mingruiled a detachment of cavalry and defeated Dzungar cavalry at theBattle of Qos-Qulaq.The Uyghurs retreated from Qos-Qulaq but were defeated by Zhaohui and Fude at theBattle of Arcul(Altishahr) on 1 September 1759. The rebels were defeated again at theBattle of Yesil Kol Nor.After these defeats, Burhān al-Dīn and Khwāja-i Jahān fled with their small army of supporters toBadakhshan.Sultan Shah of Badakhshanpromised to protect them but he contacted the Qing dynasty and promised to turn them over. When the fleeing rebels came to the Sultan's capital, he attacked them and captured them. When the Qing army reached Sultan Shah's capital, he handed over the captured rebels to them and submitted to the Qing dynasty. In later years,Durrani Afghanistanand theKhanate of Bukharainvaded Badakhshan and killed Sultan Shah for betraying Khojas to the Qing, while the latter did not respond.

Suppression of the Jinchuan hill peoples (1747–1749, 1771–1776)

Main article:Jinchuan campaigns

First campaign

First campaign against Jinchuan
Depiction of Qing troops on a campaign in Jinchuan ( "Gold Stream" )
Date 1747–1749 Location Sichuan Result Qing victory
Belligerents
Qing dynasty	Jinchuan tribes
Commanders and leaders
Qianlong Emperor Zhang Guangsi(Overall Command) (Executed by Qianlong) Necin(Assistant Commander) (Executed by Qianlong) Fuheng(Overall Command) Zhaohui(Assistant Commander)	Slob Dpon Tshe Dbang
Strength
Unknown	Unknown
Casualties and losses
Unknown	Unknown

The suppression of Jinchuan was the costliest and most difficult, and also the most destructive of the Ten Great Campaigns. Jinchuan (lit. "Golden Stream" ) was located northwest ofChengduin westernSichuan.Its residents were theGyalrongtribes, related to theTibetansofAmdo.The first campaign in 1747–1749 was a simple affair; with little use of force the Qing army induced the native chieftains to accept a peace plan, and departed.

Second campaign

Second campaign against Jinchuan
Qing general Fuk'anggan assaults Luobowa mountain tower
Date 1771–1776 Location Sichuan Result Qing victory
Belligerents
Qing dynasty	Jinchuan tribes
Commanders and leaders
Qianlong Emperor Agui(Overall Command) Fuk'anggan(Assistant Commander) Fude (Executed by Qianlong in 1776) Wenfu†	Sonom Senggesang
Strength
8,000	Unknown
Casualties and losses
Unknown	Unknown

Interethnic conflict brought Qing intervention back after 20 years. The result was the Qing forces being forced to fight a protractedwar of attritioncosting the Imperial Treasury several times the amounts expended on the earlier conquests of the Dzungars and Xinjiang. The resisting tribes retreated to their stone towers and forts in steep mountains and could only be dislodged by cannon fire. The Qing generals were ruthless in annihilating the local Gyalrong Tibetans, then reorganised the region in a military prefecture and repopulated it with more cooperative inhabitants.When victorious troops returned to Beijing, a celebratory hymn was sung in their honour. A Manchu version of the hymn was recorded by the French JesuitJean Joseph Marie Amiotand sent to Paris.

Campaigns in Burma (1765–1769)

Main article:Sino-Burmese War

The Qianlong Emperor launched four invasions of Burma between 1765 and 1769. The war claimed the lives of over 70,000 Qing soldiers and four commanders,and is sometimes described as "the most disastrous frontier war that the Qing dynasty had ever waged",and one that "assured Burmese independence and probably the independence of other states in Southeast Asia".The successful Burmese defence laid the foundation for the present-dayboundary between Myanmar and China.

First and second invasion

At first, Qianlong envisaged an easy war, and sent in only theGreen Standard troopsstationed inYunnan.The Qing invasion came as the majority of Burmese forces were deployed in theBurmese invasionof the SiameseAyutthaya Kingdom.Nonetheless, battle-hardened Burmese troops defeated the first two invasions of 1765 and 1766 at the border. The regional conflict now escalated to a major war that involved military maneuvers nationwide in both countries.

Third invasion

The third invasion (1767–1768) led by the eliteManchu Bannermennearly succeeded, penetrating deep into central Burma within a few days' march from the capital,Ava.However, the Bannermen of northern China could not cope with unfamiliar tropical terrains and lethal endemic diseases, and were driven back with heavy losses.After the close-call, KingHsinbyushinredeployed most of the Burmese armies from Siam to the Chinese border.The successful Burmese defence laid the foundation for the present-day boundary between Myanmar and China.

The Qing Qianlong Emperor ordered Manchu general Eledeng'e (also spelled E'erdeng'e (Ngạch nhĩ đăng ngạch) or possiblyNgạch nhĩ cảnh ngạch) to be sliced to death after his commanderMingruiwas defeated at theBattle of Maymyoin theSino-Burmese Warin 1768 because Eledeng'i was not able to help flank Mingrui when he did not arrive at a rendezvous.

Fourth invasion

The fourth and largest invasion got bogged down at the frontier. With the Qing forces completely encircled, a truce was reached between the field commanders of the two sides in December 1769.

Aftermath

The Qing forces maintained a heavy military presence in the border areas of Yunnan for about a decade in an attempt to wage another war while imposing a ban on inter-border trade for two decades. The Burmese were also preoccupied with another impending invasion by the Qing dynasty, and kept a series of garrisons along the border. After twenty years, Burma and the Qing dynasty resumed a diplomatic relationship in 1790. To the Burmese, the resumption was on equal terms. However, the Qianlong Emperor unilaterally interpreted the act as Burmese submission, and claimed victory.Ironically, the main beneficiaries of this war were the Siamese. After having lost their capitalAyutthayato the Burmese in 1767, they regrouped in the absence of large Burmese armies, and reclaimed their territories over the next two years.

Taiwan rebellion (1786–1788)

Main article:Lin Shuangwen rebellion

In 1786, the Qing-appointed Governor of Taiwan,Sun Jingsui,discovered and suppressed the anti-QingTiandihui(Heaven and Earth Society). The Tiandihui members gatheredMingloyalists, and their leaderLin Shuangwenproclaimed himself king. Many important people took part in this revolt and the insurgents quickly rose to 50,000 people. In less than a year, the rebels occupied almost all of southern Taiwan. Hearing that the rebels had occupied most of Taiwan, Qing troops were sent to suppress them in a hurry. The east insurgents defeated the poorly organised troops and had to resist falling to the enemy.Finally, the Qing imperial court sentFuk'angganwhileHailancha,Counsellor of the Police, deployed nearly 3,000 people to fight the insurgents. These new troops were well equipped, disciplined and had combat experience which proved enough to rout the insurgents. The Ming loyalists had lost the war and their leaders and remaining rebels hid among the locals.

Lin Shuangwen,Zhuang Datianand other Tiandihui leaders had started a rebellion. The Qing general Fuk'anggan quelled the rebellion with a force of 20,000 soldiers and executed Lin Shuangwen.

Two campaigns against the Gurkhas (1788–1793)

Main article:Sino-Nepalese War

The campaigns against theGurkhasdisplayed the Qing imperial court's continuing sensitivity to conditions inTibet.

First campaign

The late 1760s saw the creation of a strong centralised state in Nepal. The Gurkha rulers of Nepal decided to invade southern Tibet in 1788.

The two Manchu resident agents (ambans) inLhasamade no attempt at defence or resistance. Instead, they took the childPanchen Lamato safety when the Nepalese troops came through and plundered the rich monastery atShigatseon their way to Lhasa. Upon hearing of the first Nepalese incursions, the Qianlong Emperor ordered troops from Sichuan to proceed to Lhasa and restore order. By the time they reached southern Tibet, the Gurkhas had already withdrawn. This counted as the first of two wars with the Gurkhas.

Second campaign

In 1791, the Gurkhas returned in force. Qianlong urgently dispatched an army of 10,000. It was made up of around 6,000 Manchu and Mongol forces supplemented by tribal soldiers under the general Fuk'anggan, withHailanchaas his deputy. They entered Tibet fromXiningin the north, shortening the march but making it in the dead of winter 1791–92, crossing high mountain passes in deep snow and cold. They reached central Tibet in the summer of 1792 and within two or three months could report that they had won a decisive series of encounters that pushed the Gurkha armies. The Nepalese then successfully used stretching tactics against the Chinese army, which was 3–4 times larger. The Nepalese began pull back, making the Chinese uncomfortably overstretched. At Nuwakot, the Chinese faced a strong counterattack withKhukuri.Since Nepal was expanding to the west and Fuk'anggan was keen to protect his army, both sides signed a peace treaty atBetrawati.The peace treaty was more favourable to the Qing, as the terms forced Nepal to pay tribute to the Qing dynasty every five years.

Campaign in Đại Việt (1788–1789)

Main article:Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa

Qing invasion of Đại Việt
A depiction of the Battle at the Thọ Xương river, 1788.
Date 1788–1789 Location northernVietnam Result Tây Sơn victory Lê dynasty ended Qing China recognised the legitimacy of the Tây Sơn dynasty Solidified tripartite division of Mainland Southeast Asia between Burma, Siam, and Vietnam
Belligerents
Qing dynasty Lê dynasty	Tây Sơn dynasty
Commanders and leaders
Sun Shiyi Xu Shiheng† Shang Weisheng† Zhang Chaolong† Li Hualong† Qingcheng Wu Dajing Cen Yidong† Tang Hongye Lê Chiêu Thống Hoàng Phùng Nghĩa	Nguyễn Huệ Phan Văn Lân Ngô Văn Sở Nguyễn Tăng Long Đặng Xuân Bảo Nguyễn Văn Lộc Nguyễn Văn Tuyết Đặng Tiến Đông Phan Khải Đức Nguyễn Văn Diễm Nguyễn Văn Hòa
Strength
20,000–200,000 Chinese troops 20,000 Lê dynasty supporters	100,000 (50,000 regulars, 20,000 newly recruited militia)
Casualties and losses
20,000+ killed 3,400 captured	8,000+ killed

Since the 17th century, Vietnam was divided into two parts: the southern part wasĐàng Trongor Cochinchina, ruled by theNguyễn lordsand the northern part wasĐàng Ngoàior Tonkin, ruled by theTrịnh lordsunder the puppetLê emperors.In 1771, theTây Sơnrebellion broke out in southern Vietnam, led by the brothersNguyễn Nhạc,Nguyễn HuệandNguyễn Lữ,who removed the local Nguyễn lord from power.

After the capture ofPhú Xuân(modern Huế),Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh,a traitor of Trịnh's general, encouraged Nguyễn Huệ to overthrow the Trịnh lord. Huệ took his advice, marched north and captured Đông Kinh (modernHanoi). In 1788,Lê Chiêu Thốngwas installed the new Lê emperor by Huệ. Huệ then retreated to Phú Xuân.

Meanwhile, Lê Chiêu Thống never abandoned his attempt to regain the throne.Lê Quýnh,Empress Dowager Mẫn and the eldest son of Lê Chiêu Thống, fled toLongzhou,Guangxi,to seek support from Qing China. A large Qing army invaded Vietnam to restore Lê Chiêu Thống to the throne. However, the Chinese army was defeated by the Tây Sơn army and after subsequent reconciliation, Qianlong recognised Nguyễn Huệ (aka Quang Trung) as the ruler of Vietnam.

What motivated the Qing imperial government to interfere in Vietnam's domestic affairs has always been disputed. Chinese scholars claimed that the Qianlong Emperor simply wanted to restore the Lê emperor to the throne in order to end instability in Vietnam while not seeking any territorial gains. Vietnamese scholars on the other hand have argued, that Qianlong intended to make Vietnam a vassal. China would station troops in Vietnam and install Lê Chiêu Thống as its puppet king.

In perspective

In his later years, the Qianlong Emperor referred to himself with the grandiose style name of "Old Man of the Ten Completed [Great Campaigns]" ( thập toàn lão nhân ). He also wrote an essay enumerating the victories in 1792,Record of Ten Completions( thập toàn ký ).

However, the campaigns were a major financial drain on the Qing dynasty, costing more than 151 million silvertaels.Nearly 1.5 millionpiculs(1 picul = 100catties) of cargo were transported for the campaign inTaiwan.

The outcomes of the campaigns were also modest. Although the tribes at Jinchuan numbered less than 30,000 households, they took five years to pacify. The Qing campaigns in Burma, while nearly toppling the Ava regime at one point, failed to seriously destroy Burma and settled for continued tributary status from Burma and consolidated the political situation of a tripartite Mainland Southeast Asia (the three major states of Burma, Siam, and Vietnam). Instead of restoring Lê Chiêu Thống to the throne in Vietnam as the campaign had intended, the Qianlong Emperor ended up making peace with the new Tây Sơn dynasty and arranged for marriages between the imperial families of Qing and Tây Sơn.

• 
  Fuk'anggancaptures Camu from the Nepalese
• 
  The Qing fleet returning fromTaiwan
• 
  Chinese officials receiving EmperorLê Chiêu Thống

See also

• Qing dynasty in Inner Asia
• Dzungar–Qing Wars

Further reading

• Dai, Yingcong (February 2004). "A Disguised Defeat: The Myanmar Campaign of the Qing Dynasty".Modern Asian Studies.38(1): 145–189.doi:10.1017/s0026749x04001040.JSTOR3876499.S2CID145784397.
• Antonucci, Davor (2018)."In the Service of the Emperor: Félix da Rocha S.J. (1731–1781) and Qianlong's" Ten Great Campaigns "".Orientis Aura: Macau Perspectives in Religious Studies(3): 61–79.Retrieved1 August2022.
• Fairbank, John King(1992).China: A New History.pp. 152–153.
• Perdue, Peter C.(January 2001). "Empire and Nation in Comparative Perspective: Frontier Administration in Eighteenth-Century China".Journal of Early Modern History.5(4): 282–304.doi:10.1163/157006501X00122.S2CID159606843.
• Waley-Cohen, Joanna(October 1996)."Commemorating War in Eighteenth-Century China"(PDF).Modern Asian Studies.30(4): 869–899.doi:10.1017/S0026749X00016826.JSTOR312952.S2CID143484688.Retrieved1 August2022.
• Waley-Cohen, Joanna (June 1998)."Religion, War, and Empire-Building in Eighteenth-Century China".The International History Review.20(2): 336–352.doi:10.1080/07075332.1998.9640827.JSTOR40108225.S2CID154436889.Retrieved1 August2022.