Terracotta

"Terra Cotta" redirects here. For the architectural material, seeArchitectural terracotta.For the Chinese sculptures, seeTerracotta Army.For other usages, seeTerra Cotta (disambiguation).

Terracotta,also known asterra cottaorterra-cotta(Italian:[ˌtɛrraˈkɔtta];lit. 'baked earth';fromLatinterra cocta'cooked earth'),is aclay-basednon-vitreousceramicfired at relatively low temperatures. It is therefore a term used forearthenwareobjects of certain types, as set out below.

International GothicBohemian bust of theVirgin Mary;c. 1390–1395; terracotta with polychromy;32.5 x 22.4 x 13.8 cm

Contemporaryglazedterracotta casserole dish

Usage and definitions of the term vary, such as:

• In art,pottery,applied art,craft,constructionandarchitecture,"terracotta" is a term often used for red-coloured earthenwaresculpturesor functional articles such asflower pots,water and waste water pipes,tableware,roofing tilesand surface embellishment onbuildings.In such applications, the material is also called terracotta.
• Inarchaeologyandart history,"terracotta" is often used to describe objects such as figurines andloom weightsnot made on apotter's wheel,with vessels and other objects made on a wheel from the same material referred to as earthenware; the choice of term depends on the type of object rather than the material or shaping technique.
• Terracotta is also used to refer to the naturalbrownish-orange colorof most terracotta.

Glazed architectural terracottaand itsunglazed versionas exterior surfaces for buildings were used in East Asia for centuries before becoming popular in the West in the 19th century. Architectural terracotta can also refer to decorated ceramic elements such asantefixesandrevetments,which had a large impact on the appearance of temples and other buildings in theclassical architectureof Europe, as well as in theAncient Near East.

Bust ofÉlisabeth Vigée-Lebrun;byAugustin Pajou;1783; terracotta; height: 55cm, width: 44cm, thickness: 21cm

This article covers the senses of terracotta as a medium in sculpture, as in theTerracotta ArmyandGreek terracotta figurines,and architectural decoration. East Asian and European sculpture inporcelainis not covered.

Production

Main article:Pottery § Production

Prior to firing, terracotta clays are easy to shape. Shaping techniques includethrowing,slip castingas well asothers.

After drying, it is placed in akilnor, more traditionally, in apitcovered with combustible material, thenfired.The typical firing temperature is around 1,000 °C (1,830 °F), though it may be as low as 600 °C (1,112 °F) in historic and archaeological examples.During this process, the iron oxides in the body reacts with oxygen, often resulting in the reddish colour known asterracotta.However, color can vary widely, including shades of yellow, orange, buff, red, pink, grey or brown.

A final method is to carve fired bricks or other terracotta shapes. This technique is less common, but examples can be found in thearchitecture of BengalonHindu templesand mosques.

One of the warriors of theTerracotta Army,mould-madeAncient Chineseterracotta sculptures of the armies ofQin Shi Huang,the firstEmperor of China

Properties

See also:Clay: Properties

Terracotta is notwatertight,but its porousness decreases when the body issurface-burnishedbefore firing.Glazescan used to decrease permeability and hence increase watertightness.

Unglazed terracotta is suitable for use below ground to carry pressurized water (an archaic use), for garden pots andirrigationor building decoration in many environments, and for oil containers, oil lamps, or ovens. Most other uses require the material to be glazed, such as tableware, sanitary piping, or building decorations built for freezing environments.

Terracotta will also ring if lightly struck, as long as it is not cracked.

Painted (polychrome) terracotta is typically first covered with a thin coat ofgesso,then painted. It is widely used, but only suitable for indoor positions and much less durable than fired colors in or under a ceramic glaze. Terracotta sculptures in the West were rarely left in their "raw" fired state until the 18th century.

In art history

Terracotta female figurines were uncovered by archaeologists in excavations ofMohenjo-daro,Pakistan(3000–1500 BC). Along with phallus-shaped stones, these suggest some sort of fertility cult.TheBurney Reliefis an outstanding terracotta plaque fromAncient Mesopotamiaof about 1950 BC. InMesoamerica,the great majority ofOlmec figurineswere in terracotta. Manyushabtimortuary statuettes were also made of terracotta inAncient Egypt.

Fragments of female terracotta figurines. Handmade, with appliquéd ornaments, especially elaborate coiffures and fan-shaped headdresses. FromMohenjo-daro(Pakistan),Mature Harappan Period(c. 2600–1900 BC). British Museum.

Greek terracotta figurineorTanagra figurine,2nd century BC; height: 29.2 cm

TheAncient Greeks'Tanagra figurineswere mass-produced mold-cast and fired terracotta figurines, that seem to have been widely affordable in theHellenistic period,and often purely decorative in function. They were part of a wide range ofGreek terracotta figurines,which included larger and higher-quality works such as theAphrodite Heyl;the Romans too made great numbers of small figurines, which were often used in a religious context as cult statues or temple decorations.Etruscan artoften used terracotta in preference to stone even for larger statues, such as the near life-sizeApollo of Veiiand theSarcophagus of the Spouses.Campana reliefsare Ancient Roman terracottareliefs,originally mostly used to makefriezesfor the outside of buildings, as a cheaper substitute for stone.

Indian sculpturemade heavy use of terracotta from as early as theIndus Valley civilization(with stone and metal sculpture being rather rare), and in more sophisticated areas had largely abandoned modeling for using molds by the 1st century BC. This allows relatively large figures, nearly up to life-size, to be made, especially in theGupta periodand the centuries immediately following it. Several vigorous local popular traditions of terracotta folk sculpture remain active today, such as theBankura horses.

Precolonial West African sculpture also made extensive use of terracotta.The regions most recognized for producing terracotta art in that part of the world include theNok cultureof central and north-centralNigeria,theIfe-Benincultural axis in western and southern Nigeria (also noted for its exceptionally naturalistic sculpture), and theIgboculture area of eastern Nigeria, which excelled in terracotta pottery. These related, but separate, traditions also gave birth to elaborate schools of bronze and brass sculpture in the area.

Chinese sculpture made great use of terracotta, with and without glazing and color, from a very early date. The famousTerracotta Armyof EmperorQin Shi Huang,209–210 BC, was somewhat untypical, and two thousand years agoreliefswere more common, in tombs and elsewhere. Later Buddhist figures were often made in painted and glazed terracotta, with theYixian glazed pottery luohans,probably of 1150–1250, now in various Western museums, among the most prominent examples.Brick-built tombs from theHan dynastywere often finished on the interior wall with bricks decorated on one face; the techniques included molded reliefs. Later tombs contained many figures of protective spirits and animals and servants for the afterlife, including the famous horses of theTang dynasty;as an arbitrary matter of terminology these tend not to be referred to as terracottas.

Europeanmedieval artmade little use of terracotta sculpture, until the late 14th century, when it became used in advancedInternational Gothicworkshops in parts of Germany.The Virgin illustrated at the start of the article fromBohemiais the unique example known from there.A few decades later, there was a revival in theItalian Renaissance,inspired byexcavatedclassical terracottas as well as the German examples, which gradually spread to the rest of Europe. InFlorence,Luca della Robbia(1399/1400–1482) was a sculptor who founded a family dynasty specializing in glazed and painted terracotta, especially large roundels which were used to decorate the exterior of churches and other buildings. These used the same techniques as contemporarymaiolicaand othertin-glazed pottery.Other sculptors includedPietro Torrigiano(1472–1528), who produced statues, and in England busts of the Tudor royal family. The unglazed busts of the Roman Emperors adorningHampton Court Palace,byGiovanni da Maiano,1521, were another example of Italian work in England.They were originally painted but this has now been lost from weathering.

The River Rhine Separating the Waters;byClaude Michel;1765; terracotta; 27.9 × 45.7 × 30.5 cm;Kimbell Art Museum(Fort Worth,Texas,US)

In the 18th-century unglazed terracotta, which had long been used for preliminary clay models ormaquettesthat were then fired, became fashionable as a material for small sculptures including portrait busts. It was much easier to work than carved materials, and allowed a more spontaneous approach by the artist.Claude Michel(1738–1814), known as Clodion, was an influential pioneer in France.John Michael Rysbrack(1694–1770), a Flemish portrait sculptor working in England, sold his terracottamodellifor larger works in stone, and produced busts only in terracotta.In the next century the French sculptorAlbert-Ernest Carrier-Belleusemade many terracotta pieces,but possibly the most famous isThe Abduction of Hippodameiadepicting the Greek mythological scene of a centaur kidnapping Hippodameia on her wedding day.

Architecture

Main article:Architectural terracotta

Imperial roof decorationin theForbidden City

One of two terracotta relief sculptures, "Events in the Life of John Wesley", in the porch of Methodist Central Hall, Birmingham, England

Terracottatileshave a long history in many parts of the world. Many ancient and traditional roofing styles included more elaborate sculptural elements than the plainroof tiles,such as ChineseImperial roof decorationand theantefixof westernclassical architecture.In IndiaWest Bengalmade a speciality of terracotta temples, with the sculpted decoration from the same material as the main brick construction.

Terracotta tiles have also been used extensively for floors since ancient times. The quality of terracotta floor tiles depends on the suitability of the clay, the manufacturing methods (kiln-fired being more durable than sun baked), and whether the terracotta tiles are sealed or not.

In the 19th century, the possibilities of terracotta decoration for buildings were again appreciated by architects, often using thicker pieces of terracotta and styled surfaces.The American architectLouis Sullivanis well known for his elaborateglazed terracottaornamentation, designs that would have been impossible to execute in any other medium. Terracotta and tile were used extensively in the town buildings of VictorianBirmingham,England. Terracotta was marketed as a miracle material, largely impervious to the elements. Terracotta, however, can be damaged by water penetration, exposure, or failure through faulty design or installation. An excessive faith in the durability of the material led to shortcuts in design and execution, coupled with a belief that the material did not require maintenance, tainted the reputation of the material. By about 1930, the widespread use of concrete andModernist architecturelargely ended the use of terracotta in architecture.

Advantages in sculpture

As compared tobronze sculpture,terracotta uses a far simpler and quicker process for creating the finished work with much lower material costs. The easier task of modelling, typically with a limited range of knives and wooden shaping tools, but mainly using the fingers,allows the artist to take a more free and flexible approach. Small details that might be impractical to carve in stone, of hair or costume for example, can easily be accomplished in terracotta, and drapery can sometimes be made up of thin sheets of clay that make it much easier to achieve a realistic effect.

Reusable mold-making techniques may be used for production of many identical pieces. Compared tomarble sculptureand other stonework, the finished product is far lighter and may be further painted and glazed to produce objects with color or durable simulations of metal patina. Robust durable works for outdoor use require greater thickness and so will be heavier, with more care needed in the drying of the unfinished piece to prevent cracking as the material shrinks. Structural considerations are similar to those required for stone sculpture; there is a limit on the stress that can be imposed on terracotta, and terracotta statues of unsupported standing figures are limited to well under life-size unless extra structural support is added. This is also because large figures are extremely difficult to fire, and surviving examples often show sagging or cracks.TheYixian figureswere fired in several pieces, and have iron rods inside to hold the structure together.

India

Animal Figurines. In Terracotta,c. 2500–2000 BCE. From Harappan Sites including Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, and Lothal. Presently kept at the National Museum in Delhi, India.

History

Terracotta has been a medium for art since theHarappancivilization, although techniques used differed in each time period. In the Mauryan times, they were mainly figures of mother goddesses, indicating a fertility cult. Moulds were used for the face, whereas the body was hand-modelled. In the Shungan times, a single mould was used to make the entire figure and depending upon the baking time, the colour differed from red to light orange. The Satavahanas used two different moulds- one for the front and the other for the back and kept a piece of clay in each mould and joined them together, making some artefacts hollow from within. SomeSatavahanaterracotta artefacts also seem to have a thin strip of clay joining the two moulds. This technique may have been imported from the Romans and is seen nowhere else in the country.

Terracotta horses fromBishnupur,Bankura.

Present

Terracotta Bird Figurines fromIndus Valley Civilisation.

Contemporary centres for terracotta figurines includeWest Bengal,Bihar,Jharkhand,RajasthanandTamil Nadu.InBishnupur,West Bengal, the terracotta pattern–panels on the temples are known for their intricate details. The Bankura Horse is also very famous and belongs to the Bengal school of terracotta.Madhya Pradeshis one of the most prominent production centres of terracotta art today. The tribes of theBastarhave a rich tradition. They make intricate designs and statues of animals and birds. Hand-painted clay and terracotta products are produced inGujarat.The Aiyanar cult in Tamil Nadu is associated with life-size terracotta statues.

Traditional terracotta sculptures, mainly religious, also continue to be made. The demand for this craft is seasonal, reaching its peak during the harvest festival, when new pottery and votive idols are required. During the rest of the year, the makers rely on agriculture or some other means of income. The designs are often redundant as crafters apply similar reliefs and techniques for different subjects. Customers suggest subjects and uses for each piece.

Commemorative stamps released by the India Post

To sustain the legacy, the Indian Government has established the Sanskriti Museum of Indian Terracotta inNew Delhi.The initiative encourages ongoing work in this medium through displays terracotta from different sub-continent regions and periods. In 2010, the India Post Service issued a stamp commemorating the craft which shows a terracotta doll from the craft museum.

Gallery

• 
  Terracotta image ofIsislamenting the loss ofOsiris(Eighteenth Dynasty,Egypt)Musée du Louvre,Paris
• 
  Etruscan "Sarcophagus of the Spouses",at theNational Etruscan Museum,c 520 BCE
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  Tanagra figurine,ancient Greece,325–150 BCE,Altes Museum
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  Indian terracotta figure,Gupta dynasty,at theNational Museum, New Delhi
• 
  Terracotta flowerpots inCharles Darwin's laboratory atDown House
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  Terraacotta planter in Italy, decorated withfestoons
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  Han dynastytomb brick relief
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  Bust of an unidentified man by Pierre Merard, 1786, France
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  British Museum,Seated Luohan from Yixian,from theYixian glazed pottery luohans,probably of 1150–1250
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  Maximilien Robespierre,unglazed bust byClaude-André Deseine,1791
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  Glazed building decoration at theForbidden City,Beijing
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  Terracotta temple,Bishnupur,India, a famous centre for terracotta temples
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  Hindu temple, 1739,Kalna, India
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  Terracotta designs outside theKantajew Temple,Dinajpur, Bangladesh
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  TheBell Edison Telephone Building,Birmingham, England
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  TheNatural History Museumin London has an ornate terracotta facade typical of highVictorian architecture.The carvings represent the contents of the Museum.
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  Bankura horsesfor sale in Bankura,West Bengal,India
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  Glazed terracotta casserole bowl
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  Salt-glazed terracotta jar
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  Terracotta vase.Crown Lynn,1950s

See also

• Architectural terracotta
• Cittacotte
• John Marriott Blashfield,terracotta manufacturer
• Kulhar– traditional terracotta cups
• Majapahit Terracotta
• Redware
• Structural clay tile
• Tile Heritage Foundation
• Saltillo Terracotta Tile
• Bishnupur, Bankura
• Panchmura
• Bankura horse

References

• Draper, James David and Scherf, Guilhem (eds.),Playing with Fire: European Terracotta Models, 1740-1840,2003, Metropolitan Museum of Art,ISBN1588390993,9781588390998,fully available on Google books
• C. A. Galvin; et al. (2003). "Terracotta [It.: 'cooked earth']".Terracotta.Grove Art Online.Oxford University Press.doi:10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.T083896.ISBN9781884446054.
• Rainer Kahnitz (1986)."Sculpture in Stone, Terracotta, and Wood".In Schultz, Ellen (ed.).Gothic and Renaissance Art in Nuremberg.New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 67.ISBN9780870994661.

External links

• Article on terracotta inVictorian and Edwardian Terracotta Buildings
• Bibliography,Smithsonian Institution,Ceramic Tiles and Architectural Terracotta
• Friends of Terra Cotta,non-profit foundation to promote education and preservation of architectural Terracotta
• Tiles and Architectural Ceramics Society(UK)
• Guidance on Matching TerracottaPractical guidance on the repair and replacement of historic terracotta focusing on the difficulties associated with trying to match new to old
• Throwing a terracotta pot on a wheel
• Slipcasting terracotta