Tin miningbegan early in theBronze Age,asbronzeis a copper-tin alloy.Tinis a relatively rare element in the Earth's crust, with approximately 2 ppm (parts per million), compared to iron with 50,000 ppm.
History
editTin extraction and use can be dated to the beginnings of theBronze Agearound 3000 BC, when it was observed that copper objects formed ofpolymetallicores with different metal contents had different physical properties.[1]The earliest bronze objects had tin orarseniccontent of less than 2% and are therefore believed to be the result of unintentional alloying due to trace metal content in the copper ore[2]It was soon discovered that the addition of tin or arsenic to copper increased its hardness and madecastingmuch easier, which revolutionized metal working techniques and brought humanity from theCopper AgeorChalcolithicto theBronze Agearound 3000 BC.[2]Early tin exploitation appears to have been centered onplacer depositsofcassiterite.[3]
The first evidence of tin use for making bronze appears in theNear Eastand theBalkansaround 3000 BC.[2]It is still unclear where the earliest tin was mined, as tin deposits are very rare and evidence of early mining is scarce. Europe's earliestmining districtappears to be located in theOre Mountains,on the border betweenGermanyandCzech Republicand is dated to 2500 BC. From there tin was traded north to theBaltic Seaand south to theMediterraneanfollowing theAmber Roadtrading route. Tin mining knowledge spread to otherEuropeantin mining districts from the Ore Mountains and evidence of tin mining begins to appear inBrittany,DevonandCornwall,and in theIberian Peninsulaaround 2000 BC.[2]These deposits saw greater exploitation when they fell underRomancontrol between the third century BC and the first century AD.[4]Demand for tin created a large and thriving network among Mediterranean cultures ofclassical times.[5][6]By themedievalperiod, Iberia's and Germany's deposits lost importance and were largely forgotten while Devon and Cornwall began dominating the European tin market.[4]
In theFar East,the tin belt stretching fromYunnaninChinato theMalay Peninsulabegan being exploited sometime between the third and second millennium BC. The deposits in Yunnan were not mined until around 700 BC, but by theHan dynastyhad become the main source of tin in China according to historical texts of the Han,Jin,Tang,andSongdynasties.[7]
Other regions of the world developed tin mining industries at a much later date. InAfrica,theBantu cultureextracted, smelted and exported tin between the 11th and 15th centuries AD,[2]in theAmericastin exploitation began around 1000 AD, and inAustraliait began with the arrival of Europeans in the 18th century.
Modern times
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During the Middle Ages, and again in the early 19th century,Cornwallwas the major tin producer. This changed after large amounts of tin were found in theBolivian tin beltand the east Asian tin belt, stretching from China throughThailandandLaostoMalayaandIndonesia.Tasmaniaalso hosts deposits of historical importance, most notablyMount BischoffandRenison Bell.
In 1931 the tin producers founded theInternational Tin Committee,followed in 1956 by theInternational Tin Council,an institution to control the tin market. After the collapse of the market in October 1985 the price for tin nearly halved.[8]
Tin foil was once a common wrapping material for foods and drugs; replaced in the early 20th century by the use ofaluminium foil,which is now commonly referred to astin foil,hence one use of the slang term "tinnie"or" tinny "for a small aluminium open boat, a small pipe for use of a drug such ascannabis,or for a can of beer. Today, the word "tin" is often improperly used as a generic term for any silvery metal that comes in sheets. Most everyday materials that are commonly called "tin", such asaluminium foil,beverage cans,corrugated building sheathing and tin cans, are actually made ofsteeloraluminium,although tin cans (tinned cans) do contain a thin coating of tin to inhibit rust. Likewise, so-called "tintoys"are usually made of steel, and may have a coating of tin to inhibit rust. The originalFord Model Twas known colloquially as the "Tin Lizzy".
Electronics
editBecause tin is used insolder,it is crucial tocomputers,smartphones,and all other electronic equipment. (For example, the AppleiPaduses 1–3 grams of tin in its 7000 solder points.) According toApple Inc.,tin is the most common metal used by that company's suppliers.[9]
Economics
editIn 2006, total worldwide tin mine production was 321,000 tons, and smelter production was 340,000 tons. From its production level of 186,300 tons in 1991, around where it had hovered for the previous decades, production of tin increased 89% to 351,800 tons in 2005. Most of the increase came from China and Indonesia, with the largest spike in 2004–2005, when it increased 23%. While in the 1970s Malaysia was the largest producer, with around a third of world production, it has steadily fallen, and now remains a major smelter and market center. In 2007, thePeople's Republic of Chinawas the largest producer of tin, where the tin deposits are concentrated in the southeast Yunnan tin belt,[10]with 43% of the world's share, followed byIndonesia,with an almost equal share, andPeruat a distant third, reports theUSGS.[11]
Future supply of tin
editNew deposits to support future production are somewhat limited. A significant new source of tin supply may come from the very high grade (>4% Sn) Alphamin Resources Bisie project in DRC,[12]new discoveries in Myanmar[13]and from Russia,[14]primarily from the Komsomolsk Tin District in Khabarovsk Region.[15]The Sobolinoye[16](Sable) Deposit,licensed toSable Tin Resourcesis one of the main potential suppliers of tin in the near future. The deposit holds over 10 million tonnes at 0.88% tin (93000 tonnes) and 0.53% Copper. The resources were registered in 1987[17]and a feasibility study prepared in 1993 by a subsidiary of Norilsk Nickel but despite its vicinity to infrastructure a mine was never constructed due to economic and political reasons. The private Rusolovo holding company is also another potential major supplier as it ramps up production from its high grade (1.5% Sn) Pravoumirskoye mine, which is overcoming infrastructure obstacles. Another is the historical lower grade (0.6% Sn) Festivalnoye deposit which has recently re-commenced production; ore from this is being processed at the Gorniy processing plant; a third Russian source would be the Khinganskoye tailings project in the Jewish Autonomous Republic.[18][19]
The table below shows the countries with the largest mine production and the largest smelter output.[note 1]Further supplies may possibly come from the DRC, Nigeria and Rwanda.[20]
| Country | Mine production | Smelter production |
|---|---|---|
| Indonesia | 117,500 | 80,933 |
| China | 114,300 | 129,400 |
| Peru | 38,470 | 40,495 |
| Bolivia | 17,669 | 13,500 |
| Australia* | 7072 | 0 |
| Thailand | 225 | 27,540 |
| Malaysia | 2,398 | 23,000 |
| Belgium | 0 | 8,000 |
| Russia | 5,000 | 5,500 |
| Congo-Kinshasa ('08) | 15,000 | 0 |
[*Results from 2014 Australian F.Y]
After the discovery of tin in what is nowBisie,North Kivuin theDemocratic Republic of the Congoin 2002, illegal production has increased there to around 15,000 tons.[22]This is largely fuelling the ongoing and recent conflicts there, as well as affecting international markets. Tin is aconflict mineral,as defined by the US legislation to stop tin mining for causing conflicts.
Social and environmental impact
editIn August 2012 cover story in BloombergBusinessweekstated that tin mining on theIndonesianisland ofBangkawas becoming more dangerous and destructive as cassiterite ore deposits became harder to get to. About one-third of all the tin mined in the world has come from Bangka and its sister islandBelitungto the east.[9]
As tin ore pits become deeper, the number of lethal cave-ins has risen. Approximately one tin miner a week was killed in Indonesia in 2011 — double the number of the year before. The low income of the miners and the mining operations—pickaxes and buckets are often the equipment used to gather the ore, and $5 US equivalent is a successful day's work—have meant safety measures such as terracing of pits have been ignored.[9]
In addition, attacks bysaltwater crocodilesare frequent in many of the pools around tin mines on both Bangka and Belitung. The islands have some of the highest rates of crocodile attack in the world, many occurring around tin mines and on mine workers.[23]
Dredging for ore off the islands shores has churned up sediment which has buried coral reefs where fish live and harmed the local fishing industry. This is despite a prohibition on mining in waters within four miles of Bangka's shore.[9]
Tin mining by country
editSee also
editNotes
edit- ^Estimates vary between USGS and The British Geological Survey. The latter was chosen because it indicates that the most recent statistics are not estimates, and estimates match more closely with other estimates found for Congo-Kinshasa.
References
edit- ^Cierny, J.; Weisgerber, G. (2003). "The" Bronze Age tin mines in Central Asia ". In Giumlia-Mair, A.; Lo Schiavo, F. (eds.).The Problem of Early Tin.Oxford:Archaeopress.pp. 23–31.ISBN1-84171-564-6.
- ^abcdePenhallurick, R.D. (1986).Tin in Antiquity: its Mining and Trade Throughout the Ancient World with Particular Reference to Cornwall.London: The Institute of Metals.ISBN0-904357-81-3.
- ^Charles, J.A. (1979). "The development of the usage of tin and tin-bronze: some problems". In Franklin, A.D.; Olin, J.S.;Wertime, T.A.(eds.).The Search for Ancient Tin.Washington D.C.: A seminar organized by Theodore A. Wertime and held at the Smithsonian Institution and the National Bureau of Standards, Washington D.C. 14–15 March 1977. pp. 25–32.
- ^abGerrard, S. (2000).The Early British Tin Industry.Stroud: Tempus Publishing.ISBN0-7524-1452-6.
- ^Lo Schiavo, F. (2003). "The problem of early tin from the point of view of Nuragic Sardinia". In Giumlia-Mair, A.; Lo Schiavo, F. (eds.).The Problem of Early Tin.Oxford: Archaeopress. pp. 121–132.ISBN1-84171-564-6.
- ^Pulak, C. (2001). "The cargo of the Uluburun ship and evidence for trade with the Aegean and beyond". In Bonfante, L.; Karageogrhis, V. (eds.).Italy and Cyprus in Antiquity: 1500–450 BC.Nicosia: The Costakis and Leto Severis Foundation. pp. 12–61.ISBN9963-8102-3-3.
- ^Murowchick, R.E. (1991).The Ancient Bronze Metallurgy of Yunnan and its Environs: Development and Implications.Michigan: Ann Arbour.
- ^Thoburn, John T. (1994).Tin in the World Economy.Edinburgh University Press.ISBN0-7486-0516-9.
- ^abcdCam, Simpson (23 August 2012)."The Deadly Tin Inside Your Smartphone".Bloomberg Businessweek.Archived fromthe originalon 24 September 2015.Retrieved10 June2022.
- ^Shiyu, Yang (1991). "Classification and type association of tin deposits in Southeast Yunnan Tin Belt".Chinese Journal of Geochemistry.10(1): 21–35.doi:10.1007/BF02843295.S2CID128809165.
- ^Carlin Jr., James F."Mineral Commodity Summary 2008: Tin"(PDF).United States Geological Survey.
- ^Alphamin Resourceshttp://alphaminresources.com/
- ^ITRI Tin Report 2016
- ^ZRPRESS: 2012-11-29 Article on Chinese interests in Russian Tin:
- ^Sdelano u nas: 2012 Россия восстанавливает добычу олова
- ^Dalnedra:Announcement of Public Auction in 2012
- ^MK Logistik Rus:Соболиное месторождение
- ^EMJ Russian Tin Mines Ripe for Restoration Published: Wednesday, 11 March 2015 10:24
- ^Промышленные ведомости - Восстановится ли в России добыча олова? / Луняшин П. Д
- ^ITRI: 2016 Tin report
- ^World Mineral Production 2002–06(PDF).British Geological Survey. p. 89.Retrieved7 July2009.
- ^Polgreen, Lydia (15 November 2008)."The Spoils: Congo's Riches, Looted by Renegade Troops".New York Times.Retrieved25 May2010.
- ^http://www.crocodile-attack.info[bare URL]
- ^"nigeria mining sector - Bing images".www.bing.com.Retrieved22 May2018.
- ^"nigeria mining sector - Bing images".www.bing.com.Retrieved22 May2018.
External links
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