Wikipedia

Tokugawa shogunate

TheTokugawa shogunate(/ˌtɒkuːˈɡɑːwə/TOK-oo-GAH-wə;[17]Japanese:Đức xuyên mạc phủ,romanized:Tokugawa bakufu,IPA:[tokɯgawa,tokɯŋawabaꜜkɯ̥ɸɯ]), also known as theEdo shogunate(Giang hộ mạc phủ,Edo bakufu),was themilitary governmentofJapanduring theEdo periodfrom 1603 to 1868.[18][19][20]

Tokugawa shogunate
  • Đức xuyên mạc phủ
  • Tokugawa bakufu
1603–1868
National seal
Kinh văn vĩ võ

(from 1857)
Location of Tokugawa Shogunate
CapitalEdo
(Shōgun's residence)
Heian-kyō
(Emperor's palace)
Largest cityOsaka(1600–1613)
Heian-kyō (1613–1638)
Edo (1638–1868)
Common languagesEarly Modern Japanese[1]
Modern Japanese[1]
Religion
State religions:
Japanese Buddhism[2]
Confucianism[3]
Others:
Shinto[3]
Shinbutsu-shūgō[4]
Japanese Buddhism[5]
Christianity[6](banned, until 1853)[3]
GovernmentFeudal[7]dynastic[8]hereditary
military dictatorship[9][10]
Emperor
• 1600–1611(first)
Go-Yōzei[11]
• 1867–1868(last)
Meiji[12]
Shōgun
• 1603–1605(first)[13]
Tokugawa Ieyasu
• 1866–1868(last)
Tokugawa Yoshinobu
Historical eraEdo period
21 October 1600[14]
8 November 1614
1635
31 March 1854
29 July 1858
3 January 1868[15]
CurrencyThe tri-metallicTokugawa coinagesystem based on copperMon,silver Bu and Shu, as well as goldRyō.
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Azuchi–Momoyama period
Tokugawa clan
Empire of Japan
Republic of Ezo
Today part ofJapan

The Tokugawashogunatewas established byTokugawa Ieyasuafter victory at theBattle of Sekigahara,ending the civil wars of theSengoku periodfollowing the collapse of theAshikaga shogunate.Ieyasu became theshōgun,and theTokugawa clangoverned Japan fromEdo Castlein the eastern city ofEdo(Tokyo) along with thedaimyōlords of thesamuraiclass.[21][22][19]The Tokugawa shogunate organized Japanese society under the strictTokugawa class systemand banned most foreigners under the isolationist policies ofSakokuto promote political stability. The Tokugawa shoguns governed Japan in a feudal system, with eachdaimyōadministering ahan(feudal domain), although the country was still nominally organized asimperial provinces.Under the Tokugawa shogunate, Japan experienced rapid economic growth and urbanization, which led to the rise of the merchant class andUkiyoculture.

The Tokugawa shogunate declined during theBakumatsuperiod from 1853 and was overthrown by supporters of theImperial Courtin theMeiji Restorationin 1868. TheEmpire of Japanwas established under theMeiji government,and Tokugawa loyalists continued to fight in theBoshin Waruntil the defeat of theRepublic of Ezoat theBattle of Hakodatein June 1869.

History

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See also:Sengoku period,Tokugawa Ieyasu,andBakumatsu
Further information:Edo period

Following the Sengoku period ( "Warring States period" ), the central government had been largely re-established byOda Nobunagaduring theAzuchi–Momoyama period.After the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, central authority fell to Tokugawa Ieyasu.[18]While manydaimyoswho fought against him were extinguished or had their holdings reduced, Ieyasu was committed to retaining thedaimyosand thehan(domains) as components under his new shogunate.[23]Daimyoswho sided with Ieyasu were rewarded, and some of Ieyasu's former vassals were madedaimyosand were located strategically throughout the country.[23]Thesankin-kotaipolicy, in an effort to constrain rebellions by the daimyos, mandated the housing of wives and children of thedaimyosin the capital as hostages.[24]

A long period of peace occurred between theSiege of Osakain 1615 and theKeian Uprisingin 1651. This period saw the bakufu prioritise civil administration, while civil society witnessed a surge in trade and industrial activities. Trade under the reign of Ieyasu saw much new wealth created by mining and goods manufacturing, which resulted in a rural population flow to urban areas.[25]By theGenroku period(1688–1704) Japan saw a period of material prosperity and the blossoming of the arts, such as the early development ofukiyo-ebyMoronobu.The reign ofTokugawa Yoshimune(1716–1745) saw poor harvests and a fall in tax revenue in the early 1720s, as a result he pushed for theKyoho reformsto repair the finances of the bakufu as he believed the military aristocracy was losing its power against the rich merchants and landowners.[25]

Society in the Tokugawa period,unlike in previous shogunates, was supposedly based on the strict class hierarchy originally established byToyotomi Hideyoshi.Thedaimyō(lords) were at the top, followed by the warrior-caste of samurai, with the farmers, artisans, and traders ranking below. In some parts of the country, particularly smaller regions,daimyō,and samurai were more or less identical, sincedaimyōmight be trained as samurai, and samurai might act as local rulers.[citation needed]

The largely inflexible nature of this social stratification system unleashed disruptive forces over time. Taxes on the peasantry were set at fixed amounts that did not account for inflation or other changes in monetary value. As a result, the tax revenues collected by the samurai landowners increasingly declined over time. A 2017 study found that peasant rebellions and desertion lowered tax rates and inhibited state growth in the Tokugawa shogunate.[24]By the mid-18th century, both theshogunanddaimyoswere hampered by financial difficulties, whereas more wealth flowed to the merchant class. Peasant uprisings and samurai discontent became increasingly prevalent. Some reforms were enacted to attend to these issues such as theKansei reform(1787–1793) byMatsudaira Sadanobu.[26]He bolstered the bakufu's rice stockpiles and mandateddaimyosto follow suit. He cut down urban spending, allocated reserves for potential famines, and urged city-dwelling peasants to return to rural areas.[27]

By 1800, Japan included five cities with over 100,000 residents, and three among the world's twenty cities that had more than 300,000 inhabitants. Edo likely claimed the title of the world's most populous city, housing over one million people.[28]

Late Tokugawa shogunate (1853–1867)

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Main article:Bakumatsu
Samuraiof theShimazu clan

The late Tokugawa shogunate (Japanese:Mạc mạtBakumatsu) was the period between 1853 and 1867, during which Japan ended itsisolationist foreign policycalledsakokuand modernized from afeudalshogunate to theMeiji government.The 1850s saw growing resentment by thetozama daimyōsandanti-Western sentimentfollowing the arrival of aU.S. Navyfleet under the command ofMatthew C. Perry(which led to the forced opening of Japan). The major ideological and political factions during this period were divided into the pro-imperialistIshin Shishi(nationalistpatriots) and the shogunate forces; aside from the dominant two groups, other factions attempted to use the chaos of the Bakumatsu era to seize personal power.[29]

An alliance ofdaimyosand the emperor, succeeded in overthrowing the shogunate, which came to an official end in 1868 with the resignation of the 15th Tokugawa shogun,Tokugawa Yoshinobu,leading to the "restoration" (Vương chính phục cổ,Ōsei fukko) of imperial rule. Some loyal retainers of the shogun continued to fight during theBoshin warthat followed but were eventually defeated in the notableBattle of Toba–Fushimi.[30]

Government

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Shogunate and domains

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Thebakuhansystem (bakuhan taiseiMạc phiên thể chế) was thefeudalpolitical system in the Edo period of Japan.[7]Bakuis an abbreviation ofbakufu,meaning "military government"—that is, the shogunate. Thehanwere the domains headed bydaimyō.[7]Beginning from Ieyasu's appointment as shogun in 1603, but especially after the Tokugawavictory in Osakain 1615, various policies were implemented to assert the shogunate's control, which severely curtailed thedaimyos'independence.[23]The number ofdaimyosvaried but stabilized at around 270.[23]

Thebakuhansystem split feudal power between the shogunate in Edo and thedaimyōswith domains throughout Japan.[31]Theshōgunand lords were alldaimyōs:feudal lords with their own bureaucracies, policies, and territories.[31]Provinces had a degree of sovereignty and were allowed an independent administration of thehanin exchange for loyalty to theshōgun,who was responsible for foreign relations, national security,[31]coinage, weights, measures, and transportation.[23]

Theshōgunalso administered the most powerfulhan,the hereditary fief of the House of Tokugawa, which also included many gold and silver mines.[31]Towards the end of the shogunate, the Tokugawa clan held around 7 millionkokuof land ( thiên lĩnh tenryō), including 2.6–2.7 millionkokuheld by direct vassals, out of 30 million in the country.[32]The other 23 millionkokuwere held by other daimyos.[32]

The number ofhan(roughly 270) fluctuated throughout the Edo period.[33]They were ranked by size, which was measured as the number ofkokuof rice that the domain produced each year.[32]Onekokuwas the amount of rice necessary to feed one adult male for one year. The minimum number for adaimyōwas ten thousandkoku;[33]the largest, apart from theshōgun,was more than a millionkoku.[32]

Policies to control the daimyos

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The main policies of the shogunate on thedaimyosincluded:

  • The principle was that eachdaimyo(including those who were previously independent of the Tokugawa family) submitted to the shogunate, and eachhanrequired the shogunate's recognition and was subject to its land redistributions.[23]: 192–93 Daimyosswore allegiance to each shogun and acknowledged the Laws for Warrior Houses orbuke shohatto.[32]
  • Thesankin-kōtai( tham cần giao đại "alternate attendance" ) system, requireddaimyosto travel to and reside in Edo every other year, and for their families to remain in Edo during their absence.
  • Theikkoku ichijyō rei( nhất quốc nhất thành lệnh ), allowed each daimyo'shanto retain only one fortification, at thedaimyo'sresidence.[23]: 194 
  • TheLaws for the Military Houses( võ gia chư pháp độ,buke shohatto), the first of which is 1615 forbade the building of new fortifications or repairing existing ones withoutbakufuapproval, admitting fugitives of the shogunate, and arranging marriages of the daimyos' families without official permission.[23]Additional rules on the samurai were issued over the years.[23][32]

Although the shogun issued certain laws, such as thebuke shohattoon thedaimyōsand the rest of the samurai class, eachhanadministered its autonomous system of laws andtaxation.[31]Theshōgundid not interfere in ahan's governance unless major incompetence (such as large rebellions) was shown, nor were central taxes issued.[31]Instead, eachhanprovided feudal duties, such as maintaining roads and official courier stations, building canals and harbors, providing troops, and relieving famines.[31]Daimyōswere strategically placed to check each other, and thesankin-kōtaisystem ensured thatdaimyōsor their family were always in Edo, observed by the shogun.[31]

Edo Castle,17th century

The shogunate had the power to discard, annex, and transform domains, although they were rarely and carefully exercised after the early years of the shogunate, to preventdaimyōsfrom banding together.[31]Thesankin-kōtaisystem of alternative residence required eachdaimyōto reside in alternate years between thehanand the court in Edo.[31]During their absences from Edo, it was also required that they leave their family as hostages until their return. The hostages and the huge expendituresankin-kōtaiimposed on eachhanhelped to ensure loyalty to theshōgun.[31]By the 1690s, the vast majority of daimyos would be born in Edo, and most would consider it their homes.[23]Some daimyos had little interest in their domains and needed to be begged to return "home".[23]

In return for the centralization, peace among the daimyos was maintained; unlike in theSengoku period,daimyos no longer worried about conflicts with one another.[23]In addition, hereditary succession was guaranteed as internal usurpations within domains were not recognized by the shogunate.[23]

Classification of daimyos

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The Tokugawa clan further ensured loyalty by maintaining a dogmatic insistence on loyalty to theshōgun.Daimyos were classified into three main categories:[32]

  • Shinpan( "relatives" thân phiên ) were six clans established by sons of Ieyasu, as well as certain sons of the 8th and 9th shoguns, who were made daimyos.[32]They would provide an heir to the shogunate if the shogun did not have an heir.[32]
  • Fudai( "hereditary" phổ đại ) were mostly vassals of Ieyasu and the Tokugawa clan before theBattle of Sekigahara.[32]They ruled theirhan(estate) and served as high officials in the shogunate, although theirhantended to be smaller compared to thetozamadomains.[32]
  • Tozama( "outsiders" ngoại dạng ) were around 100 daimyos, most of whom became vassals of the Tokugawa clan after the Battle of Sekigahara. Some fought against Tokugawa forces, although some were neutral or even fought on the side of the Tokugawa clan, as allies rather than vassals.[32]Thetozama daimyostend to have the largesthan,with 11 of the 16 largest daimyos in this category.[32]

Thetozama daimyoswho fought against the Tokugawa clan in the Battle of Sekigahara had their estate reduced substantially.[32]They were often placed in mountainous or far away areas, or placed between most trusted daimyos.[32]Early in the Edo period, the shogunate viewed thetozamaas the least likely to be loyal; over time, strategic marriages and the entrenchment of the system made thetozamaless likely to rebel. In the end, however, it was still the greattozamaofSatsuma,ChōshūandTosa,and to a lesser extentSaga,that brought down the shogunate. These four states are called the Four Western Clans, orSatchotohifor short.[33]

Relations with the Emperor

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Anukiyo-ebyYoshitoshidepicting the scene when Ieyasu had an audience withEmperor Go-Yōzei

Regardless of the political title of the Emperor, theshōgunsof the Tokugawa family controlled Japan.[34]The shogunate secured a nominal grant of administration(Thể chế,taisei)by theImperial Court in Kyototo the Tokugawa family.[33]While the Emperor officially had the prerogative of appointing theshōgunand received generous subsidies, he had virtually no say in state affairs.[31]The shogunate issued theLaws for the Imperial and Court Officials(kinchu narabini kuge shohattoCấm trung tịnh công gia chư pháp độ ) to set out its relationship with theImperial familyand thekuge(imperial court officials), and specified that the Emperor should dedicate to scholarship and poetry.[35]The shogunate also appointed a liaison, theKyoto Shoshidai(Shogun's Representative in Kyoto), to deal with the Emperor, court and nobility.

Towards the end of the shogunate, however, after centuries of the Emperor having very little say in state affairs and being secluded in hisKyoto palace,and in the wake of the reigningshōgun,Tokugawa Iemochi,marrying the sister ofEmperor Kōmei(r. 1846–1867), in 1862, the Imperial Court in Kyoto began to enjoy increased political influence.[36]The Emperor would occasionally be consulted on various policies and the shogun even made a visit to Kyoto to visit the Emperor.[citation needed]Government administration would be formally returned from theshogunto the Emperor during theMeiji Restorationin 1868.

Shogun and foreign trade

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Dutch trading post inDejima,c. 1805

Foreign affairs and trade were monopolized by the shogunate, yielding a huge profit. Foreign trade was also permitted to theSatsumaand theTsushima domains.Ricewas the main trading product of Japan during this time.Isolationismwas the foreign policy of Japan and trade was strictly controlled. Merchants were outsiders to thesocial hierarchyof Japan and were thought to be greedy.

The visits of theNanbanships from Portugal were at first the main vector of trade exchanges, followed by the addition of Dutch, English, and sometimes Spanish ships.

From 1603 onward, Japan started to participate actively in foreign trade. In 1615, an embassy and trade mission underHasekura Tsunenagawas sent across the Pacific toNueva España(New Spain) on the Japanese-built galleonSan Juan Bautista.Until 1635, the Shogun issued numerous permits for the so-called "red seal ships"destined for the Asian trade.

After 1635 and the introduction ofseclusion laws(sakoku), inbound ships were only allowed fromChina,Korea,and theNetherlands.

Shogun and Christianity

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Main article:Kirishitan

Followers ofChristianityfirst began appearing in Japan during the 16th century.Oda Nobunagaembraced Christianity and the Western technology that was imported with it, such as the musket. He also saw it as a tool he could use to suppress Buddhist forces.[37]

Though Christianity was allowed to grow until the 1610s,Tokugawa Ieyasusoon began to see it as a growing threat to the stability of the shogunate. AsŌgosho( "CloisteredShōgun"),[38]he influenced the implementation of laws that banned the practice of Christianity. His successors followed suit, compounding upon Ieyasu's laws. The ban of Christianity is often linked with the creation of the Seclusion laws, orSakoku,in the 1630s.[39]

Government income

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The primary source of the shogunate's income was the tax (around 40%) levied on harvests in the Tokugawa clan's personal domains (tenryō).[32]No taxes were levied on domains of daimyos, who instead provided military duty, public works andcorvee.[32]The shogunate obtained loans from merchants, which were sometimes seen as forced donations, although commerce was often not taxed.[32]Special levies were also imposed for infrastructure-building.[32]

Institutions of the shogunate

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The earliest structure of Tokugawa Shogunate organization hasBuke Shitsuyakuas the highest rank. the earliest members of this office wereIi Naomasa,Sakakibara Yasumasa,andHonda Tadakatsu.[40][41]

The personal vassals of the Tokugawa shoguns were classified into two groups:

  • thebannermen(hatamotoKỳ bổn ) had the privilege to directly approach the shogun;[32]
  • thehousemen(gokeninNgự gia nhân ) did not have the privilege of the shogun's audience.[32]

By the early 18th century, out of around 22,000 personal vassals, most would have received stipends rather than domains.[32]

Rōjū and wakadoshiyori

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Therōjū(Lão trung) were normally the most senior members of the shogunate.[32]Normally, four or five men held the office, and one was on duty for a month at a time on a rotating basis.[32]They supervised theōmetsuke(who checked on the daimyos),machi-bugyō(commissioners of administrative and judicial functions in major cities, especially Edo),ongoku bugyō[ja]( viễn quốc phụng hành, the commissioners of other major cities and shogunate domains) and other officials, oversaw relations with theImperial Court in Kyoto,kuge(members of the nobility), daimyō,Buddhist templesandShinto shrines,and attended to matters like divisions offiefs.Otherbugyō(commissioners) in charge of finances, monasteries and shrines also reported to the rōjū.[32]The roju conferred on especially important matters. In the administrative reforms of 1867 (Keiō Reforms), the office was eliminated in favor of a bureaucratic system with ministers for the interior, finance, foreign relations, army, and navy.

Sakuradamon Gate ofEdo CastlewhereIi Naosukewas assassinated in 1860

In principle, the requirements for appointment to the office of rōjū were to be afudai daimyōand to have a fief assessed at50000kokuor more.[32]However, there were exceptions to both criteria. Many appointees came from the offices close to theshōgun,such assoba yōnin[ja]( trắc dụng nhân ),Kyoto Shoshidai,andOsaka jōdai.

Irregularly, theshōgunsappointed arōjūto the position oftairō(great elder).[32]The office was limited to members of theIi,Sakai,Doi,andHotta clans,butYanagisawa Yoshiyasuwas given the status of tairō as well. Among the most famous wasIi Naosuke,who was assassinated in 1860 outside the Sakuradamon Gate ofEdo Castle(Sakuradamon incident).

Three to five men titled thewakadoshiyori( nhược niên ký ) were next in status below the rōjū.[32]An outgrowth of the early six-manrokuninshū( lục nhân chúng, 1633–1649), the office took its name and final form in 1662. Their primary responsibility was management of the affairs of thehatamotoandgokenin,the direct vassals of theshōgun.[32]Under thewakadoshiyoriwere themetsuke.

Someshōgunsappointed asoba yōnin.This person acted as a liaison between theshōgunand therōjū.Thesoba yōninincreased in importance during the time of the fifthshōgunTokugawa Tsunayoshi,when a wakadoshiyori,Inaba Masayasu,assassinatedHotta Masatoshi,thetairō.Fearing for his personal safety, Tsunayoshi moved therōjūto a more distant part of the castle. Some of the most famoussoba yōninwereYanagisawa YoshiyasuandTanuma Okitsugu.

Ōmetsuke and metsuke

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Theōmetsukeandmetsukewere officials who reported to therōjūandwakadoshiyori.[32]The fiveōmetsukewere in charge of monitoring the affairs of thedaimyōs,kugeand imperial court. They were in charge of discovering any threat of rebellion. Early in the Edo period,daimyōssuch asYagyū Munefuyuheld the office. Soon, however, it fell tohatamotowith rankings of 5,000kokuor more. To give them authority in their dealings withdaimyōs,they were often ranked at 10,000kokuand given the title ofkami(an ancient title, typically signifying the governor of aprovince) such asBizen-no-kami.

As time progressed, the function of theōmetsukeevolved into one of passing orders from the shogunate to thedaimyōs,and of administering to ceremonies within Edo Castle. They also took on additional responsibilities such as supervising religious affairs and controlling firearms. Themetsuke,reporting to thewakadoshiyori,oversaw the affairs of the vassals of theshōgun.[32]They were the police force for the thousands of hatamoto andgokeninwho were concentrated in Edo. Individualhanhad their ownmetsukewho similarly policed their samurai.

San-bugyō

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Thesan-bugyō( tam phụng hành "three administrators" ) were thejisha,kanjō,andmachi-bugyō,which respectively oversawtemplesandshrines,accounting, and the cities. Thejisha-bugyōhad the highest status of the three. They oversaw the administration of Buddhist temples (ji) and Shinto shrines (sha), many of which held fiefs. Also, they heard lawsuits from several land holdings outside the eightKantōprovinces. The appointments normally went todaimyōs;Ōoka Tadasukewas an exception, though he later became adaimyō.[citation needed]

Thekanjō-bugyōwere next in status. The four holders of this office reported to therōjū.They were responsible for the finances of the shogunate.[42]

Themachi-bugyōwere the chief city administrators of Edo and other cities. Their roles included mayor, chief of the police (and, later, also of the fire department), and judge in criminal and civil matters not involving samurai. Two (briefly, three) men, normally hatamoto, held the office, and alternated by month.[43]

Three Edomachi bugyōhave become famous throughjidaigeki(period films):Ōoka TadasukeandTōyama Kagemoto(Kinshirō) as heroes, andTorii Yōzō(ja: Điểu cư diệu tàng) as a villain.[citation needed]

Tenryō, gundai and daikan

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Thesan-bugyōtogether sat on a council called thehyōjōsho( bình định sở ). In this capacity, they were responsible for administering thetenryō(the shogun's estates), supervising thegundai(Quận đại), thedaikan(Đại quan) and thekura bugyō(Tàng phụng hành), as well as hearing cases involving samurai. Thegundaimanaged Tokugawa domains with incomes greater than 10,000 koku while thedaikanmanaged areas with incomes between 5,000 and 10,000 koku.

The shogun directly held lands in various parts of Japan. These were known asshihaisho( chi phối sở ); since the Meiji period, the termtenryō(Thiên lĩnh,literally "Emperor's land" ) has become synonymous, because the shogun's lands were returned to the emperor.[44]In addition to the territory that Ieyasu held prior to the Battle of Sekigahara, this included lands he gained in that battle and lands gained as a result of theSummer and Winter Sieges of Osaka.Major cities as Nagasaki and Osaka, andmines,including theSadogold mine,also fell into this category.

Gaikoku bugyō

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Thegaikoku bugyōwere administrators appointed between 1858 and 1868. They were charged with overseeing trade and diplomatic relations with foreign countries, and were based in thetreaty portsof Nagasaki and Kanagawa (Yokohama).[citation needed]

List of Tokugawashōguns

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# Picture Name
(Born-Died) 		ShōgunFrom ShōgunUntil
1 Tokugawa Ieyasu
(1543–1616)		 1603 1605
2 Tokugawa Hidetada
(1579–1632)		 1605 1623
3 Tokugawa Iemitsu
(1604–1651)		 1623 1651
4 Tokugawa Ietsuna
(1641–1680)		 1651 1680
5 Tokugawa Tsunayoshi
(1646–1709)		 1680 1709
6 Tokugawa Ienobu
(1662–1712)		 1709 1712
7 Tokugawa Ietsugu
(1709–1716)		 1713 1716
8 Tokugawa Yoshimune
(1684–1751)		 1716 1745
9 Tokugawa Ieshige
(1712–1761)		 1745 1760
10 Tokugawa Ieharu
(1737–1786)		 1760 1786
11 Tokugawa Ienari
(1773–1841)		 1787 1837
12 Tokugawa Ieyoshi
(1793–1853)		 1837 1853
13 Tokugawa Iesada
(1824–1858)		 1853 1858
14 Tokugawa Iemochi
(1846–1866)		 1858 1866
15 Tokugawa Yoshinobu
(1837–1913)		 1866 1867

Source:[45]

Family Tree

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Over the course of the Edo period, influential relatives of the shogun included:

Appendix

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Footnotes

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References

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Bibliography

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This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.Japan: A Country Study.Federal Research Division.


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