Wikipedia

Treaty of San Francisco

Not to be confused withSecurity Treaty between the United States and JapanorUnited Nations charter.

TheTreaty of San Francisco(サンフランシスコ giảng hòa điều ước,San-Furanshisuko kōwa-Jōyaku),also called theTreaty of Peace with Japan(Nhật bổn quốc との bình hòa điều ước,Nihon-koku to no Heiwa-Jōyaku),re-established peaceful relations betweenJapanand theAllied Powerson behalf of theUnited Nationsby ending the legal state of war, military occupation and providing forredressfor hostile actions up to and includingWorld War II.It was signed by 49 nations on 8 September 1951, inSan Francisco,California,at theWar Memorial Opera House.[2]Italyand China were not invited, the latter due to disagreements on whether theRepublic of Chinaor thePeople's Republic of Chinarepresented the Chinese people. Korea was also not invited due to a similar disagreement on whetherSouth KoreaorNorth Korearepresented the Korean people.[3]

Treaty of San Francisco
Treaty of Peace with Japan
Shigeru Yoshida,Prime Minister of Japansigning the San Francisco Peace Treaty on September 8, 1951 at theWar Memorial Opera HouseinSan Francisco, California
SignedSeptember 8, 1951;73 years ago(1951-09-08)
LocationSan Francisco, California, U.S.
EffectiveApril 28, 1952;72 years ago(1952-04-28)
Negotiators
PartiesJapanand 48 of theAllies of World War II
DepositaryGovernment of the United States of America
Languages
Full text
Treaty of San FranciscoatWikisource

The treaty came into force on April 28, 1952. It ended Japan's role as an imperial power, allocated compensation to Allied nations and formerprisoners of warwho had sufferedJapanese war crimesduring World War II, ended the Allied post-waroccupation of Japan,and returned full sovereignty to it. This treaty relied heavily on theCharter of the United Nations[4]and theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights[5]to enunciate the Allies' goals. In Article 11, Japan accepted the judgments of theInternational Military Tribunal for the Far Eastand of other Allied War Crimes Courts imposed on Japan both within and outside Japan.[6]

The 1951 treaty, along with theSecurity Treatysigned that same day, marks the beginning of theSan Francisco System,which definesJapan's relationship with the United Statesand its role in the international arena and characterizes Japan's post-war history.[7][better source needed]

Attendance

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Present

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Argentina,Australia,Belgium,Bolivia,Brazil,Cambodia,Canada,Ceylon(currentlySri Lanka),Chile,Colombia,Costa Rica,Cuba,Czechoslovakia,theDominican Republic,Ecuador,Egypt,El Salvador,Ethiopia,France,Greece,Guatemala,Haiti,Honduras,India,Indonesia,Iran,Iraq,Japan,Laos,Lebanon,Liberia,Luxembourg,Mexico,theNetherlands,New Zealand,Nicaragua,Norway,Pakistan,Panama,Paraguay,Peru,thePhilippines,Poland,Saudi Arabia,South Africa,State of Vietnam,theSoviet Union,Syria,Turkey,theUnited Kingdom,theUnited States,Uruguay,andVenezuelaattended the Conference.[8]

Absent

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See also:Treaty of San Francisco § Unresolved issues

China was not invited due to disagreements between the United States and the United Kingdom on whether the established but defeatedRepublic of China(in Taiwan) or the newly-formedPeople's Republic of China(inmainland China) represented the Chinese people.[9]The United States recognized the ROC government while Britain had recognized the PRC in 1950.[9]Additionally, an internal US political debate had seen theRepublican PartyandUS militarysupporting theKuomintangand accusingPresident Trumanof having abandoned theanti-communistcause.[10]

Burma,India,andYugoslaviawere invited, but did not participate;[11]India considered certain provisions of the treaty to constitute limitations on Japanese sovereignty and national independence.[12]India signed a separate peace treaty, theTreaty of Peace Between Japan and India,for the purpose of giving Japan a proper position of honor and equality among the community of free nations, on June 9, 1952.[13]Italywas not invited, despite its government having issued a formal declaration of war on Japan on July 14, 1945, just a few weeks before the end of the war.[14]Nor wasPortugalinvited, even though, despite its status as aneutral countryduring the war, its colony ofEast Timorhad beeninvadedby Japan (the colony ofMacauwas not occupied but rather assigned Japanese 'advisors' to its government). Pakistan, although it had not existed as a state at the time of the war, was invited because it was seen as a successor state toBritish India,a major combatant against Japan.[15]

Stances

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Soviet Union's opposition to the treaty

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The Soviet Union took part in the San Francisco conference, and the Soviet delegation was led by the Soviet Deputy Foreign MinisterAndrei Gromyko.From the start of the conference the Soviet Union expressed vigorous and vocal opposition to the draft treaty text prepared by the United States and the United Kingdom. The Soviet delegation made several unsuccessful procedural attempts to stall the proceedings.[16]The Soviet Union's objections were detailed in a lengthy 8 September 1951, statement by Gromyko.[17]The statement contained a number of the Soviet Union's claims and assertions: that the treaty did not provide any guarantees against the rise ofJapanese militarism;that China was not invited to participate despite being one of the main victims of the Japanese aggression; that the Soviet Union was not properly consulted when the treaty was being prepared; that the treaty sets up Japan as an American military base and draws Japan into amilitary coalitiondirected against the Soviet Union; that the treaty was in effect a separate peace treaty; that the draft treaty violated the rights of China to Taiwan and several other islands; that the draft treaty, in violation of theYalta agreement,did not recognize the Soviet Union's sovereignty overSouth Sakhalinand theKuril Islands;and other objections. It was not until 19 October 1956, that Japan and the Soviet Union signed aJoint Declarationending the war and reestablishing diplomatic relations.[18]

People's Republic of China's objections to the treaty

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The ongoingChinese Civil Warand thus the question of which Chinese government was legitimate presented a dilemma to conference organizers. The United States wanted to invite theRepublic of China(ROC) onTaiwanto represent China, while the United Kingdom wished to invite thePeople's Republic of China(PRC) onmainland Chinaas China's representative.[9]As a compromise, neither government was invited.

Sri Lanka's defense of Japan

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A major player in providing support for a post-war free Japan was the delegation fromCeylon(now known asSri Lanka).[19]While many were reluctant to allow a free Japan capable of aggressive action and insisted that the terms of surrender should be rigidly enforced in an attempt to break the spirit of the Japanese nation, the Ceylonese Finance MinisterJ.R. Jayawardenespoke in defense of a free Japan and informed the conference of Ceylon's refusal to accept the payment of reparations that would harm Japan's economy. His reason was "We in Ceylon were fortunate that we were not invaded, but the damage caused by air raids, by the stationing of enormous armies under the South-East Asia Command, and by theslaughter-tappingof one of our main commodities, rubber, when we were the only producer of natural rubber for the Allies, entitles us to ask that the damage so caused should be repaired. We do not intend to do so for we believe in the words of the Great Teacher [Buddha] whose message has ennobled the lives of countless millions in Asia, that'hatred ceases not by hatred but by love'."He ended the same speech by saying:

This treaty is as magnanimous as it is just to a defeated foe. We extend to Japan the hand of friendship and trust that with the closing of this chapter in the history of man, the last page of which we write today, and with the beginning of the new one, the first page of which we dictate tomorrow, her people and ours may march together to enjoy the full dignity of human life in peace and prosperity.[20][21]

Minister Jayewardene's speech was received with resounding applause.[22]Afterwards, theNew York Timesstated, "The voice of free Asia, eloquent, melancholy and still strong with the lilt of an Oxford accent, dominated the Japanese peace treaty conference today."[23]

Signatories and ratification

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U.S. Secretary of StateDean Achesonsigning the Treaty.

Of the 51 participating countries, 48 signed the treaty;[24]Czechoslovakia,Polandand theSoviet Unionrefused.[25]

The signatories to the treaty were: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Cambodia, Canada, Ceylon (currently Sri Lanka), Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Ethiopia, France, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Laos, Lebanon, Liberia, Luxembourg, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Norway, Pakistan, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, the Philippines, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, South Vietnam, Syria, Turkey, the United Kingdom, the United States, Uruguay, Venezuela and Japan.[8]

The Philippines ratified the San Francisco Treaty on July 16, 1956, after the signing of a reparations agreement between both countries in May of that year.[26]Indonesia did not ratify the San Francisco Peace Treaty. Instead, it signed with Japan a bilateral reparations agreement and peace treaty on January 20, 1958.[27]A separate treaty, theTreaty of Taipei,formally known as the Sino-Japanese Peace Treaty, was signed in Taipei on April 28, 1952, between Japan and the ROC, just hours before the Treaty of San Francisco also went into effect on April 28.[28][29]The apparent illogical order of the two treaties is due to the difference between time zones.

Fate of Taiwan and other Japanese overseas territories

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According to the treaty'stravaux préparatoires,a consensus existed among the states present at the San Francisco Peace Conference that, while the legal status of theisland of Taiwanis temporarily undetermined, it would be resolved at a later time in accordance with the principles of peaceful settlement of disputes andself-determination,ideas that had been enshrined in theUN Charter.[30]

The document officially renounces Japan's treaty rights derived from theBoxer Protocolof 1901 and its rights toKorea,Formosaand thePescadores,Hong Kong(then a British colony), theKuril Islands,theSpratly Islands,AntarcticaandSouth Sakhalin.

Article 3 of the treaty left theBonin Islands,Volcano Islands(includingIwo Jima), and theRyukyu Islands,which includedOkinawaand theAmami,MiyakoandYaeyama Islandsgroups, under a potentialU.N.trusteeship. While the treaty provision implied that these territories would become a United Nations trusteeship, in the end that option was not pursued. The Amami Islands were eventually restored to Japan on 25 December 1953, with the Bonin and Volcano Islands restored on 5 April 1968.[31]In 1969 U.S.-Japan negotiations authorized the transfer of authority over the Ryūkyūs to Japan to be implemented in 1972. In 1972, the United States' "reversion" of the Ryūkyūs occurred along with the ceding of control over the nearbySenkaku Islands.[32]Both thePeople's Republic of China(PRC) and theRepublic of China(ROC) argue that this agreement did not determine the ultimate sovereignty of the Senkaku Islands.

TheTreaty of Taipeibetween Japan and the ROC stated that all residents of Taiwan and the Pescadores weredeemedas nationals of the ROC. Additionally, in Article 2 it specified that – It is recognised that under Article 2 of the Treaty of Peace which Japan signed at the city of San Francisco on 8 September 1951 (hereinafter referred to as the San Francisco Treaty), Japan has renounced all right, title, and claim to Taiwan (Formosa) and Penghu (the Pescadores) as well as the Spratley Islands and the Paracel Islands.[33]However, this treaty does not include any wording saying that Japan recognizes that the territorial sovereignty of Taiwan was transferred to the Republic of China.[34]

Some supporters ofTaiwan independencerefer to the San Francisco Peace Treaty to argue that Taiwan is not a part of the Republic of China, for it does not explicitly state the sovereignty status of Taiwan after Japan's renunciation.[35]In 1955,U.S. Secretary of StateJohn Foster Dulles,co-author of the San Francisco Peace Treaty, affirmed that the treaty ceded Taiwan to no one; that Japan "merely renounced sovereignty over Taiwan".[36]Dulles said that America "cannot, therefore, admit that the disposition of Taiwan is merely an internal problem of China."[36]However, the ROC Ministry of Foreign Affairs rejected this justification, arguing that theInstrument of Surrender of Japanaccepts thePotsdam Declarationand theCairo Declaration,which intends Taiwan and Penghu to be restored to the ROC. Supporters of Taiwan independence point out that the Potsdam Declaration and the Cairo Declaration were not treaties, but President Ma expressed that the Treaty of Taipei has voided theTreaty of Shimonosekiand recognizes that people of Taiwan and Penghu as Chinese nationality.[35]In more recent years supporters of Taiwan independence have more often relied on arguments based onself-determinationas implied[failed verification]in the San Francisco Peace Treaty andpopular sovereignty,but the United Nations has consistently rejected such arguments.[37]

By Article 11 Japan accepted the judgments of theInternational Military Tribunal for the Far Eastand of other Allied War Crimes Courts both within and outside Japan and agreed to carry out the sentences imposed thereby upon Japanese nationals imprisoned in Japan.

The document further set guidelines for repatriation of Allied prisoners of war and renounces future military aggression under the guidelines set by theUnited Nations Charter.The document nullifies prior treaties and lays down the framework for Japan's current status of retaining a military that is purely defensive in nature.

There is also some ambiguity as to over which islands Japan has renounced sovereignty. This has led to both theKuril Islands disputeand theSenkaku Islands dispute.

Compensation to Allied countries and POWs

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Transfer of Japanese overseas assets

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In accordance with Article 14 of the Treaty, Allied forces confiscated all assets owned by the Japanese government, firms, organization and private citizens, in all colonized or occupied countries except China, which was dealt with under Article 21. China repossessed all Japanese assets inManchuriaandInner Mongolia,which included mineworks and railway infrastructure. Moreover, Article 4 of the treaty stated that "the disposition of property of Japan and of its nationals...and their claims...against the authorities presently administering such areas and the residents...shall be the subject of special arrangements between Japan and such authorities." Although Korea was not a signatory state of the treaty, it was also entitled to the benefits of Article 4 by the provisions of Article 21.

Japanese overseas assets in 1945 (¥15=1US$)
Country/region Value (Yen) Value (US dollars)
Korea 70,256,000,000 4,683,700,000
TaiwanandPenghu 42,542,000,000 2,846,100,000
North East China 146,532,000,000 9,768,800,000
North China 55,437,000,000 3,695,800,000
Central South China 36,718,000,000 2,447,900,000
Others 28,014,000,000 1,867,600,000
Total ¥379,499,000,000 $25,300,000,000

Total amount of Japanese overseas assets in China was US$18,758,600,000 in 1945.[citation needed]

Compensation to Allied POWs

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Article 16 of the San Francisco Treaty states:

As an expression of its desire to indemnify those members of the armed forces of the Allied Powers who suffered undue hardships while prisoners of war of Japan, Japan will transfer its assets and those of its nationals in countries which were neutral during the war, or which were at war with any of the Allied Powers, or, at its option, the equivalent of such assets, to theInternational Committee of the Red Crosswhich shall liquidate such assets and distribute the resultant fund to appropriate national agencies, for the benefit of former prisoners of war and their families on such basis as it may determine to be equitable. The categories of assets described in Article 14(a)2(II)(ii) through (v) of the present Treaty shall be excepted from transfer, as well as assets of Japanese natural persons not residents of Japan on the first coming into force of the Treaty. It is equally understood that the transfer provision of this Article has no application to the 19,770 shares in theBank for International Settlementspresently owned by Japanese financial institutions.

Accordingly, Japan paid£4,500,000 to the Red Cross.

Article 16 has served as a bar against subsequent lawsuits filed by former Allied prisoners of war against Japan. In 1998, a Tokyo court ruled against a suit brought by former Allied POWs, citing the San Francisco Treaty.[38]

Allied territories occupied by Japan

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Memorial for Treaty of San Francisco in Shimomaruko, Ōta ward, Tokyo

Article 14 of the treaty stated that

It is recognized that Japan should pay reparations to the Allied Powers for the damage and suffering caused by it during the war. Nevertheless it is also recognized that the resources of Japan are not presently sufficient, if it is to maintain a viable economy, to make complete reparation for all such damage and suffering and at the same time meet its other obligations.

Therefore,

Japan will promptly enter into negotiations with Allied Powers so desiring, whose present territories were occupied by Japanese forces and damaged by Japan, with a view to assisting to compensate those countries for the cost of repairing the damage done, by making available the services of the Japanese people in production, salvaging and other work for the Allied Powers in question.

Accordingly, the Philippines and South Vietnam received compensation in 1956 and 1959, respectively. Burma and Indonesia were not original signatories, but they later signed bilateral treaties in accordance with Article 14 of the San Francisco Treaty.

Japanese military yenissued by force in Hong Kong, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Taiwan, and other places for the economic advantage of Japan were not honored by them after the war. This caused much suffering, but the claims of theHong Kong Reparation Associationin 1993, in a Tokyo district court, failed in 1999. The court acknowledged the suffering of the Hong Kong people, but reasoned that theGovernment of Japandid not have specific laws concerning military yen compensation and that the United Kingdom was a signatory to the Treaty of San Francisco.[39][40]

Regarding China, on September 29, 1972, the Government of the People's Republic of China declared "that in the interest of the friendship between the Chinese and the Japanese peoples, it renounces its demand for war reparation from Japan" in article 5 of theJoint Communique of the Government of Japan and the Government of the People's Republic of China.[41]

Japanese compensation to countries occupied during 1941–45
Country Amount inYen Amount inUS$ Date of treaty
Burma 72,000,000,000 200,000,000 November 5, 1955
Philippines 198,000,000,000 550,000,000 May 9, 1956
Indonesia 80,388,000,000 223,080,000 January 20, 1958
South Vietnam 14,400,000,000 38,000,000 May 13, 1959
Total ¥364,348,800,000 US$1,012,080,000 N/A

The last payment was made to the Philippines on July 22, 1976.

Unresolved issues

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The absence of China at the table would later play a significant role in theSouth China Sea dispute,specifically regarding the overall diplomatic relationship (or lack thereof) between the United States and China.[9]According to historianRana Mitter,"The absence of contact between the United States and China made the establishment of shared norms, or even areas of mutually acknowledged difference, impossible."[9]

Status of Taiwan

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Through the Treaty of San Francisco, Japan renounced all rights, privileges, and demands regarding Taiwan.[42]However, ambiguous wording in the treaty about thepolitical status of Taiwan(i.e. whether theterritory of Taiwanwaslegally retrocededto theRepublic of Chinain 1945) after Japan renounced all right, title, and claim concerning the island ofTaiwan,thePescadores,theSpratly Islands,and theParacel Islandsin 1952 (with theratificationof this treaty in theROC) has given rise to theTheory of the Undetermined Status of Taiwan,which is one of the major theories within this debate. This particular theory is generallyTaiwan independence-leaning since it offers evidence supporting the notion thatChinese sovereignty over Taiwan(whether ROC orPRC) is eitherillegitimateortemporaryand must be resolved via thepostcolonialprinciple ofself-determination.Proponents of this theory generally do not claim that Japan still has or should have sovereignty over Taiwan, though there are exceptions.

Compensation for (South) Koreans

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Because South Korea did not sign the treaty, it was not entitled to the benefits provided to by Article 14, so South Koreans directly affected by Japanese atrocities were not compensated upon the ratification. When relations between the two countries were normalized in the1965 Treaty on Basic Relations,Japan agreed to pay settlements, including all claims under Article 4 of the Treaty of San Francisco, directly to the South Korean government. The South Korean government would then compensate individual victims on a case-by-case basis; however, the government at the time used the funds to develop Korea's economy, and passed few reparations to individuals. Amid recent rising tensions, many victims of Japanese crimes maintain that Japan has not been held sufficiently to account, and have demanded reparations for those who have not been compensated. South Korea claims that the 1965 treaty was not intended to settle individual claims for Japanese war crimes and crimes against humanity; Japan claims that under the 1965 treaty, it is no longer legally responsible for compensating all victims.

See also

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Germany:

References

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  1. ^Article 27
  2. ^"Document 735 Editorial Note".Foreign Relations of the United States, 1951, Asia and the Pacific.Vol. VI, PART 1.
  3. ^"San Francisco Peace Conference".
  4. ^Preamble and Article 5
  5. ^Preamble
  6. ^"Treaty of Peace with Japan (with two declarations). Signed at San Francisco, on 8 September 1951"(PDF).
  7. ^John W. Dower
  8. ^ab"Treaty of Peace with Japan (including transcript with signatories: Source attributed:United Nations Treaty Series1952 (reg. no. 1832), vol. 136, pp. 45–164.) ".Taiwan Documents Project. Archived fromthe originalon February 21, 2001.RetrievedNovember 13,2008.
  9. ^abcdeMitter, Rana (2020).China's good war: how World War II is shaping a new nationalism.Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap ofHarvard University Press.p. 60.ISBN978-0-674-98426-4.OCLC1141442704.
  10. ^Price, John (June 2001)."A Just Peace? The 1951 San Francisco Peace Treaty in Historical Perspective".www.jpri.org.Archived fromthe originalon December 7, 2020.RetrievedApril 18,2020.
  11. ^Social Studies: History for Middle School. 7–2. Japan's Path and World Eventsp. 2, Teikoku Shoin[1]Archived2005-12-24 at theWayback Machine
  12. ^"Nehru and Non-alignment".P.V. Narasimha Rao.Mainstream Weekly. June 2, 2009.RetrievedOctober 31,2009.
  13. ^Singh, Manmohan(April 29, 2005).Dr. Manmohan Singh's banquet speech in honour of Japanese Prime Minister(Speech). New Delhi:Prime Minister's Office.Archived fromthe originalon December 12, 2005.RetrievedMarch 28,2014. [2][permanent dead link‍]
  14. ^"The World at War – Diplomatic Timeline 1939–1945".worldatwar.net.RetrievedNovember 23,2018.
  15. ^"The Prime Minister of Japan extends congratulations on the day of 70th anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic relations between Japan and Pakistan. JICA also celebrates with anniversary video" A story of Friendship and Assistance "".Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan.RetrievedMay 6,2022.
  16. ^GROMYKO BIDS FAIL; A DRAMATIC MOMENT AT CONFERENCE SOVIET BLOC LOSES ALL PARLEY VOTES.New York Times,page 1, September 6, 1951
  17. ^Text of Gromyko's Statement on the Peace Treaty.Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs website
  18. ^"Japan Ministry of Foreign Affairs Compendium of Documents".Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan(in Japanese).RetrievedNovember 23,2018.
  19. ^"A visionary strategist".RetrievedJanuary 20,2014.
  20. ^"ADDRESS BY HIS EXCELLENCY J.R. JAYEWARDENE".Archived fromthe originalon March 4, 2016.RetrievedApril 21,2013.
  21. ^"Japan-Sri Lanka BilateralRelations".Embassy of Japan in Sri Lanka.RetrievedApril 21,2013.
  22. ^Kotelawala, Himal (January 6, 2017)."Forgotten Histories Of Lankan Leaders".Roar Reports.RetrievedDecember 1,2017.
  23. ^"FOUR ASIAN NATIONS SUPPORT DRAFT OF JAPANESE TREATY, CHALLENGE SOVIET CHARGES; U.S. POLICY BACKED Ceylon, Pakistan, Laos and Cambodia Stress Need of Just Peace INDIAN STAND IS OPPOSED 14 Criticisms of Document Offered Despite General Indication of Approval".The New York Times.September 7, 1951.RetrievedOctober 6,2014.
  24. ^Peace Treaties after World War II: Peace treaty signed in San Francisco, September 8, 1951.The History Channel[3]Archived2006-03-14 at theWayback Machine
  25. ^Foreign Office Files for Japan and the Far East1951: September, Adam Matthew Publications[4]Archived2007-10-12 at theWayback Machine
  26. ^Indai Lourdes Sajor, "Military Sexual Slavery: Crimes against humanity", in Gurcharan Singh Bhatia (ed),Peace, justice and freedom: human rights challenges for the new millenniumAlberta University Press, 2000, p.177
  27. ^Ken'ichi Goto, Paul H. Kratoska,Tensions of empire: Japan and Southeast Asia in the colonial and postcolonial world,NUS Press, 2003, p.260
  28. ^Matsumura, Masahiro (October 13, 2013)."San Francisco Treaty and the South China Sea".The Japan Times.RetrievedDecember 1,2017.
  29. ^"Treaty of Peace between the Republic of China and Japan (Treaty of Taipei) 1952".USC U.S.-China.RetrievedDecember 1,2017.
  30. ^Chen, Lung-chu (2016).The U.S.-Taiwan-China Relationship in International Law and Policy.Oxford:Oxford University Press.p. 80.ISBN978-0190601126.
  31. ^Agreement between Japan and the United States of America Concerning Nanpo Shoto and Other Islands, 5 April 1968[5]
  32. ^Agreement between Japan and the United States of America Concerning the Ryukyu Islands and the Daito Islands, 17 June 1971[6]
  33. ^JP Alsford, Niki; Griffith, Ed (July 14, 2020)."China is Becoming Increasingly Assertive".www.indrastra.com.IndraStra Global.ISSN2381-3652.RetrievedJuly 19,2020.
  34. ^Lin Cheng-jung (September 10, 2001)."The San Francisco Peace Treaty and the lack of conclusions on Taiwan's international status".Taiwan Historical Association.Archived fromthe originalon March 13, 2015.RetrievedDecember 31,2019.
  35. ^abTrịnh dụ văn (September 5, 2011)."Cựu kim sơn hòa ước 60 niên đài loan chủ quyền hựu khởi tranh nghị".Washington, D.C.Voice of America.
  36. ^abUnited States Department of State / Foreign relations of the United States, 1955–1957. China, Volume II (1955–1957)[7]
  37. ^Taiwan News (September 3, 2019),Taiwan United Nations Alliance prepares for annual trip to US,retrievedJune 17,2020,For the 16th year in a row, the Taiwan United Nations Alliance (TAIUNA) will head to New York to lobby the international organization to recognize Taiwan, the group announced in a press conference on Tuesday.
  38. ^CNN – Anger as court rejects Allied POWs compensation suit – November 26, 1998
  39. ^"Court rejects H.K. residents' claims on military yen".Kyodo News.June 21, 1999.RetrievedMay 14,2012.
  40. ^Ng Yat Hing (January 3, 2006)."Letter to Prime Minister of Japan on 3 January 2006".Hong Kong Reparation Association. Archived fromthe originalon November 20, 2012.RetrievedMay 14,2012.
  41. ^"Joint Communique of the Government of Japan and the Government of the People's Republic of China".Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan.RetrievedJanuary 16,2016.
  42. ^Cheng, Wendy (2023).Island X: Taiwanese Student Migrants, Campus Spies, and Cold War Activism.Seattle, WA:University of Washington Press.p. 13.ISBN9780295752051.

Further reading

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  • Calder, Kent. "Securing security through prosperity: the San Francisco System in comparative perspective."The Pacific Review17.1 (2004): 135–157.online
  • Hara, Kimie. "50 years from San Francisco: Re-examining the peace treaty and Japan's territorial problems."Pacific Affairs(2001): 361–382.online
  • Lee, Seokwoo. "The 1951 San Francisco peace treaty with Japan and the territorial disputes in East Asia."Pacific Rim Law and Policy Journal11 (2002): 63+online.
  • Trefalt, Beatrice. "A peace worth having: delayed repatriations and domestic debate over the San Francisco Peace Treaty."Japanese Studies27.2 (2007): 173–187.
  • Zhang, Shengfa. "The Soviet-Sino boycott of the American-led peace settlement with Japan in the early 1950s."Russian History29.2/4 (2002): 401–414.
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