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Treaty of Tientsin

(Redirected fromTreaty of Tianjin)
For the later treaty that ended the Sino-French War, seeTreaty of Tientsin (1885).

TheTreaty of Tientsin,also known as theTreaty of Tianjin,is a collective name for severalunequal treatiessigned atTianjin(thenromanizedas Tientsin) in June 1858. TheQing dynasty,Russian Empire,Second French Empire,United Kingdom,and theUnited Stateswere the parties involved. These treaties, counted by the Chinese among theunequal treaties,opened moreChinese ports to foreign trade,permittedforeign legationsin the Chinese capitalBeijing,allowedChristian missionaryactivity, and effectively legalized the import ofopium.They ended the first phase of theSecond Opium War,which had begun in 1856 and were ratified by theEmperor of Chinain theConvention of Pekingin 1860, after the end of the war.

Treaty of Tientsin
Signing of the Anglo-Chinese treaty of Tianjin
TypeUnequal treaty
SignedJune 1858
LocationHaiguang Temple,Tientsin,China
Signatories
Parties
DepositaryNational Palace Museum,Taipei City
Treaty of Tientsin
Traditional ChineseThiên tânĐiều ước
Simplified ChineseThiên tânĐiều ước
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinTiānjīn Tiáoyuē
Wade–GilesT‘ien-chin T‘iao-yüeh
Hakka
RomanizationTien1-zin1Tiau2-yok5

Dates

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TheXianfeng Emperorauthorized negotiations for the treaty on May 29, 1858.[1]His chief representatives were theManchuGuiliang[zh]and theMongolHuashana[zh].The Russian treaty was negotiated byYevfimiy Putyatinand finalized on June 13;[2]the American treaty was negotiated byWilliam Bradford Reedand finalized on June 18;[3]the British treaty was negotiated byJames Bruce, 8th Earl of Elgin,and finalized on June 26;[4]and the French treaty was negotiated byJean-Baptiste-Louis Grosand finalized on June 27.[5]

American involvement

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Following the pattern set by the great powers of Europe, theUnited Statestook on a protectionist stance, built up its navy, and tried to create a mercantile empire. The United States was one of the leading "treaty powers" in China, forcing open a total of 23 foreign concessions from the Chinese government. While it is often noted that the United States did not control any settlements in China, it shared British land grants and was actually invited to take land inShanghaibut refused because the land was thought to be disadvantageous.[6]

Terms

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Major points

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  1. Russia, which had previously been limited to trading at designated border posts, received the right to trade with thetreaty portsby sea.[7]Most-favored nationclauses in each treaty[8][9][10][11]further ensured that all concessions were shared by the four powers.
  2. Guangzhou[a]and the four treaty ports opened to foreign trade and residence by theTreaty of Nanjingwere joined byTainan,[b][7]Haikou,[c][7]Shantou,[d][12]Haicheng,[e][13]Penglai,[f][13]Tamsui,[g][14]and (notionally)Nanjing.[h][14]The ports at Haicheng and Penglai being found inadequate for European vessels, their status was later extended to nearbyYantaiandYingkou,effectively opening another two ports.
  3. China was forbidden from consideringRussian Orthodox,[15]Protestant,[16]andRoman Catholic Christianity,[16]whether practiced by foreigners orChineseconverts,[16]to be a harmful superstition. All laws, regulations, and practices limiting its observance became null and void everywhere in the country.[17]
  4. Theextraterritorialityof American citizens[18]and Russian,[19]British,[20]and French subjects[21]was reaffirmed. They further received the right totravelthroughout the Qing Empire for pleasure or business so long as they possessed a valid passport,[22][23]but the Qing Empire was able to prevent them from lawfullyresidingin the interior with extraterritoriality.[24]
  5. The Qing Empire permitted foreign vessels to navigate on theYangtze River[25]but established that no legal trade would be permitted with areas held by theTaiping Rebellionuntil their reconquest.[22][14]Foreign trade was to be limited toZhenjiang,[i]pledged to be opened within the year, and a further three ports to be opened after the suppression of the Taipings. This clause was later used to establish treaty ports atWuhan[j]andJiujiang.[k]
  6. The four nations gained the right to station permanent diplomaticlegationsinBeijing,[l][26]which had previously been aclosed city.The Russians'ecclesiastical missionin Beijing was also exempted from its previous restrictions.[29]
  7. China was forbidden from using the characterDi(understood to mean "barbarian")[30]in official documents to refer to officials, subjects, or citizens of the four nations.[30]
  8. China was forbidden from establishing or permitting any further monopolies or cartels over its domestic trade.[31]
  9. Addenda to the treaties settled China's duties and tariffs on terms advantageous to the victors and pledged the Qing Empire would pay an indemnity of 6,000,000taelsof silver: 2 million to France, 2 million to Britain for military expenses, and 2 million as compensation to British merchants.

Definitions

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The Treaties of Tientsin use several words that have somewhat ambiguous meanings. For example, the words "settlement" and "concession" can often be confused. The term "settlement" refers to a parcel of land, leased to a foreign power, which is composed of both foreign and national peoples, and governed by locally elected foreigners. The term "concession"refers to a long-term lease of land to a foreign power, under which the foreign nation has complete control of the land, which is governed by consular representatives.[32]

See also

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Wikisourcehas original text related to this article:

Notes

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  1. ^Then known as "Canton".[7][12][13][14]
  2. ^Then known as "Taiwan-fu",[7]"Tai-wan",[12]"Taiwan",[13]or "Taïwan".[14]
  3. ^Then known as "Tsion-chou",[7]"Kiungchow"[13]or "Kiung-Tchau".[14]
  4. ^Then known as "Chau-chau",[12]"Swatow",[12]"Chawchow",[13]and "Chaou-Chaou".[14]
  5. ^Then known as "Newchwang".[13]
  6. ^Then known as "Tǎngchow"[13]or "Tan-Tchau".[14]
  7. ^Then known as "Taashwi".[14]
  8. ^Then known as "Nanking"[13]or "Nankin".[14]
  9. ^Then known as "Chinkiang".[25]
  10. ^Specifically, the formerly separate city ofHankounorth and west of the confluence of theHanand Yangtze Rivers.
  11. ^The third port was Nanjing, which had been opened by the French treaty[14]and the most-favored nation clauses of the others.[8][9][10]
  12. ^Then known as "Peking"[26]or "Pekin".[27][28]

References

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Citations

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  1. ^Wang, Dong. China's Unequal Treaties: Narrating National History. Lexington Books, 2005, p. 16.
  2. ^Russian treaty (1858),Art. 12.
  3. ^American treaty (1858),Art. XXX.
  4. ^British treaty (1858),Art. LVI.
  5. ^French treaty (1858),Art. 42.
  6. ^Johnstone (1937),p. 945.
  7. ^abcdefRussian treaty (1858),Art. 3.
  8. ^abRussian treaty (1858),Art. 4 & 12.
  9. ^abAmerican treaty (1858),Art. XV & XXX.
  10. ^abBritish treaty (1858),Art. XXIV & LIV.
  11. ^French treaty (1858),Art. 2, 9, & 40.
  12. ^abcdeAmerican treaty (1858),Art. XIV.
  13. ^abcdefghiBritish treaty (1858),Art. XI.
  14. ^abcdefghijkFrench treaty (1858),Art. 6.
  15. ^Russian treaty (1858),Art. 8.
  16. ^abcAmerican treaty (1858),Art. XXIX.
  17. ^French treaty (1858),Art. 13.
  18. ^American treaty (1858),Art. XI.
  19. ^Russian treaty (1858),Art. 7.
  20. ^British treaty (1858),Art. XV & XVI.
  21. ^French treaty (1858),Art. 38 & 39.
  22. ^abBritish treaty (1858),Art. IX.
  23. ^French treaty (1858),Art. 7.
  24. ^Cassel (2012),p. 62.
  25. ^abBritish treaty (1858),Art. X.
  26. ^abBritish treaty (1858),Art. III.
  27. ^American treaty (1858),Art. II.
  28. ^French treaty (1858),Art. 2.
  29. ^Russian treaty (1858),Art. 10.
  30. ^abBritish treaty (1858),Art. LI.
  31. ^French treaty (1858),Art. 14.
  32. ^Johnstone (1937),p. 942.

Bibliography

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  • Chan, Mitchell. "Rule of Law and China's Unequal Treaties: Conceptions of the Rule of Law and Its Role in Chinese International Law and Diplomatic Relations in the Early Twentieth Century."Penn History Review25.2 (2018): 2.online
  • Bloch, Kurt (May 1939). "The Basic Conflict over Foreign Concessions in China".Far Eastern Survey.8(10): 111–116.doi:10.2307/3023092.JSTOR3023092.
  • Cassel, Pär (2012),Grounds of Judgment,Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Johnstone, William C. (October 1937). "International Relations: The Status of Foreign Concessions and Settlements in the Treaty Ports of China".The American Political Science Review.31(5): 942–8.doi:10.2307/1947920.JSTOR1947920.S2CID147155580.

Primary sources

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