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Atriumvirate(Latin:triumvirātus) or atriarchyis a political institution ruled or dominated by three individuals, known astriumvirs(Latin:triumviri). The arrangement can be formal or informal. Though the three leaders in a triumvirate are notionally equal, the actual distribution of power may vary.
The term can also be used to describe a state with three different military leaders who all claim to be the sole leader.[citation needed]
Informally, the term "triumvirate" may be used for any association of three.[1]
Under the influence of theSoviet Union[failed verification],the termtroika(Russian: for "group of three" ) may be used for "triumvirate".[2]
Pre-modern triumvirates
editBiblical
editIn theBible,triumvirates occurred at some notable events in both theHebrew Bible(Old Testament) andNew Testament.In theBook of Exodus,Moses,his brotherAaronand their nephew or brother-in-law,Hur,[3]acted this way during theBattle of Refidimagainst theAmalekites.[4][5]Later inExodus 24,when Moses was away onMount Sinai,Aaron and Hur were left in charge of all theIsraelites.[6]
In theGospels,Peter,James,and his brotherJohnwere a leading trio among theTwelve Apostleson three specific occasions during the public ministry of Jesus: at theresurrection of the daughter of Jairus,[7]thetransfiguration of Jesus,[8]and hisagony in the GardeninGethsemane.[9]Later, in the time of theearly Church,the triumvirate of the leading apostles changed slightly after the former James's death: it became composed of Peter, John, andJames, brother of Jesus,known collectively also as the threePillars of the Church.[10][11]
-
Peter(sitting in the centre) along withJohnand his brotherJames, son of Zebedee(sitting L-R) at theTransfiguration of Jesus.
Ancient China
editDuring theHan dynasty(202 BCE – 220 CE), statesmenHuo Guang(d. 68 BCE),Jin Midi(d. 86 BCE), andShangguan JieThượng quan kiệt (d. 80 BCE) formed a triumvirate following the death ofEmperor Wu of Han(r. 141–87 BCE) and the installation of thechild emperor Zhao.
Despite theThree Excellencies—including theGrand chancellor,Grand Secretariat,and irregularly, theGrand Commandant—representing the most senior ministerial positions of state, this triumvirate was supported by the economictechnocratand imperial secretarySang Hongyang(d. 80 BCE), their political lackey. The acting chancellor,Tian Qianqiu,was also easily swayed by the decisions of the triumvirate.[12]
The Three Excellencies existed inWestern Han(202 BCE – 9 CE) as the Grand Chancellor, Grand Secretariat, and Grand Commandant, but the Grand Chancellor was viewed as senior to the Grand Secretariat while the post of Grand Commandant was vacant for most of the dynasty. AfterEmperor Guangwuestablished theEastern Han(25–220 CE), the Grand Commandant was made a permanent official while theMinister over the Massesreplaced the Grand Chancellor and theMinister of Worksreplaced the Grand Secretariat. Unlike the three high officials in Western Han when the Grand Chancellor was senior to all, these new three senior officials had equal censorial and advisory powers. When a young or weak-mindedemperorascended to the throne, these Three Excellencies could dominate state affairs. There were also other types of triumvirates during the Eastern Han; for example, at the onset of the reign ofEmperor Ling of Han(r. 168–189), theGeneral-in-chiefDou Wu(d. 168), theGrand TutorChen Fan(d. 168), and another prominent statesman Hu Guang (91–172) formed a triumvirate nominally in charge of thePrivy Secretariat,when in fact it was a regent triumvirate that was overseeing the affairs of state and Emperor Ling.[13]
Hinduism
editInHinduism,thegodsBrahma,Vishnu,andShivaform the theological triumvirate of theTrimurti,representing the balanced forces of creation, preservation, and destruction, respectively.[14]Their female counterparts and consorts, the goddessesSaraswati,LakshmiandParvati,make up the parallelTridevi.
Pagaruyuang
editTriumvirates during thePagaruyungera in theMinangkabau Highlandswere known asRajo Tigo Selo,or "the three reigning kings." TheRajo Tigo Selowas descended from the same line in the same dynasty and ruled at the same reigning time. It consisted of three kings, theRajo Alamwho ruled the government and diplomatic affairs, theRajo Adaikwho ruled the customs and theRajo Ibadaikwho acted as aGrand Mufti.[15]
Ancient Rome
editDuring theRoman Republic,triumviri(ortresviri) were special commissions of three men appointed for specific administrative tasks apart from the regular duties ofRoman magistrates.
The termtriumvirateis most commonly used by historians of ancient Rome to refer to two political alliances during thecrisis of the Roman Republic:
- The informalFirst TriumvirateofJulius Caesar,Pompey the Great,andMarcus Licinius Crassus,formed in 60 BCE or 59 BCE as an alliance among three prominent politicians and lasting until the death of Crassus in theBattle of Carrhaein 53 BCE, who were nottriumviriin the usual Roman sense.
- TheSecond Triumvirate(theTresviri reipublicae constituendae) ofOctavian(later Caesar Augustus),Mark Antony,andLepidus,formed in 43 BCE as an official, legally established institution, formally recognized by theRoman Senatein theLex Titiaand lasted de facto until the fall of Lepidus in 36 BCE, de jure until 32 BCE.
Tamil
editTamil Triumviraterefers to the triumvirate ofChola,Chera,andPandyawho dominated the politics of the ancient Tamil country.Sivaperuman,Murugan,andAgatiyarare considered the triumvirate of the Tamil language andSangam literature.
Rum Seljuks
editIn 1246,Rum SeljuksultanKaykaus IIwas invited toGüyük Khan's coronation. Instead, he sentKilij Arslan IV,who went toKarakorumwith a delegation. Two years later, he was accompanied by a Mongolian military unit of 2000 soldiers and returned toAnatoliawith ajarliggiven by Guyuk declaring him sultan. He was recognized as sultan inSivas,Erzincan,Diyarbakır,Malatya,Harput.Later, a meeting was held, resulting in an accord where the three brothers (Kaykaus, Kilij, and Kayqubad) would share the throne. Akhutbahwas read on their behalf, and coins were struck in their names. However, influenced by some emirs, Kilij Arslan did not accept this and went into conflict with Kaykaus but suffered an unexpected defeat. On 14 June 1249, he was caught and brought to his brother. However, he was well received and returned together toKonya.Both were enthroned alongsideKayqubad II.Thus a period of joint rule began from 1249 until 1254.[16]Kaykaus controlled the capital, Konya, and everything further west, and the coast atAntalya,up toAnkara.Kilij Arslan was allocated everything to the east of Konya up toErzurum.Kayqubad was granted minor estates on a scale sufficient for his personal expenses.[17][page needed]
Modern triumvirates
editThe title was revived a few times for (short-lived) three-headed political 'magistratures' in post-feudal times.
Ottoman Empire
editTheThree Pashasalso known asOttoman Triumvirateeffectively ruled theOttoman EmpireduringWorld War I:Mehmed Talaat Pasha(1874–1921), theGrand Vizier(prime minister) andMinister of the Interior;Ismail Enver Pasha(1881–1922), the Minister of War; andAhmed Djemal Pasha(1872–1922), the Minister of theNavy.
Modern Bosnia and Herzegovina
editPost-warBosnia and Herzegovinais ruled by a three-memberPresidency.
Early modern and modern France
editWhile FrenchHuguenotshad derisively bestowed the name Triumvirate on the alliance formed in 1561 between CatholicFrancis, Duke of Guise,Anne de Montmorency,andJacques d'Albonduring theFrench Wars of Religion,in later years the term would be used to describe other arrangements within France.
At the end of the 1700s, when theFrench revolutionariesturned to severalRoman magistrature namesfor their newly created institutions, the three-headedcollective head of statewas named theConsulat(1799–1804), a term in use for two-headed magistratures since Antiquity; furthermore it included an office ofFirst Consulwho was not an equal, but the de facto solo head of state and government – a positionNapoleon Bonapartechose to convert openly into theFirst French Empirein 1804.
Prior to Napoleon and duringthe Terrorfrom 1793 to 1794Maximilien Robespierre,Louis Antoine de Saint-Just,andGeorges Couthon,as members of the governingCommittee of Public Safety,were accused by their political opponents of forming an unofficial triumvirate, pointing out thefirst triumvirateofJulius Caesar,Pompey,andCrassuswhich led to the end of theRoman Republic.Although officially all members of the committee shared equal power the three men's friendship and close ideological base led their detractors to declaim them astriumvirswhich was used against them in the coup of9 Thermidor(27 July 1794).[18]
Pre-Independent India
editIn the early days of the national struggle and before Gandhi, the Indian National Congress was known to be under Lal-Bal-Pal i.e.Lala Lajpat Rai,Bipin Chandra PalandBal Gangadhar Tilak,often dubbed Lokmanya Tilak.
Czechoslovakia
editTheCzechoslovak National Council,an organization founded in Paris in 1916 byCzechandSlovakémigrés duringWorld War Ito liberate their homeland fromAustria-Hungary,consisted of the triumvirate[19]ofTomáš Garrigue Masarykas a chairman,Edvard Beneš,who joined Masaryk in exile in 1915, as the organization's general secretary, andMilan Rastislav Štefánik,a Slovak who was an aviator in the French Army, designating to represent Slovak interests in the national council. During the closing weeks of the war, the Czechoslovak National Council was formally upgraded to a provisional government and its members were designated to hold top offices in theFirst Czechoslovak Republic.
Indonesia
editAccording to the Article 8 paragraph (3) from theConstitution of Indonesia,there are three head of government institutions that can act as a "temporary" triumvirate only if there are vacancies in the position of president and vice president at the same time (e.g. both president and vice president were assassinated, sick, not doing their duties, died, or resigned). They areMinister of Foreign Affairs,Minister of Home Affairs,andMinister of Defense.Those three ministers can act for president and vice president together for maximum 30 days.
After that, during the term of the triumvirate, thePeople's Consultative Assemblymust elect a new president and vice president from the two pairs of candidates nominated by the political party or coalition of political parties whose candidates were the winner and the runner-up in the previous presidential election. The newly elected president and vice president will continue the remaining term of former president and vice president that were elected from previous general election, not five years.
Modern Israel
edit- 2008–2009: Then Prime MinisterEhud Olmert,Defense MinisterEhud Barak,and Minister of Foreign AffairsTzipi Livniwere sometimes referred to as a triumvirate.[20][21][22]
- 2012: The leadership ofShas,the ultra-orthodox Sepharadi political party of Israel, was given by its spiritual leader, RabbiOvadia Yosefand the Council of Torah Sages, to a triumvirate formed by the convictedAryeh Deri,who decided to return to politics after a thirteen-year hiatus, the former party leaderEli YishaiandAriel Atias.
Benin
edit- 13 April 1970 until 26 October 1972: After the contentious1970 presidential elections,the country ofBenin(then known as theRepublic of Dahomey) adopted a Presidential Council which included the three main political figures in the country:Hubert Maga,Justin Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin,andSourou-Migan Apithy.In addition, the formal office of President would rotate between the three of them beginning with Hubert Maga. After one successful change of leadership, military leaderMathieu Kérékoustaged a coup and overthrew the Presidential Council becoming the leader of the country until 1991.[23]
Soviet Union
editIn the context of theSoviet Union,the termtroika(Russian:for "group of three" ) is used for "triumvirate".[2]
- May 1922 – April 1925: WhenVladimir Leninsuffered his firststrokein May 1922, a Troika was established to govern the country in his place, although Lenin briefly returned to the leadership from 2 October 1922 until a severe stroke on 9 March 1923 ended his political career. The Troika consisted ofJoseph Stalin,Lev Kamenev,andGrigory Zinoviev.The Troika broke up in April 1925, when Kamenev and Zinoviev found themselves in a minority over their belief that socialism could only be achieved internationally. Zinoviev and Kamenev joined forces withLeon Trotsky'sLeft Oppositionin early 1926.[24]Later, Kamenev, Zinoviev and Trotsky would all be murdered on Stalin's orders.
- 13 March – 26 June 1953: After the death ofJoseph Stalinin March 1953, power was shared betweenGeorgy Malenkov,Lavrenty Beria,andVyacheslav Molotov.
- 14 October 1964 – 16 June 1977: After the removal ofNikita Khrushchevin October 1964, theSoviet Unionwent through a period ofcollective leadership.Power was initially shared betweenGeneral Secretary(until 1966 First Secretary)Leonid Brezhnev,PremierAlexei Kosygin,and Chairman of thePresidiumof theSupreme Soviet(nominalde jurehead of state)Anastas Mikoyan.Mikoyan was replaced byNikolai Podgornyin 1965.
Modern Italy
editIn theRoman Republic(1849), the title of two sets of three joint chiefs of state in the year 1849:
- 29 March – 1 July 1849:Carlo Armellini(1777–1863),Giuseppe Mazzini(1805–1872), andConteAurelio Saffi(1819–1890)
- 1–4 July 1849:Aurelio Saffi(again),Alessandro Calandrelli(1805–1888), andLivio Mariani(1793–1855)
Almost immediately following the Roman Republic, theRed Triumvirategoverned the restoredPapal Statesfrom 1849 to 1850:[25][26]
- 1 August 1849 – 12 April 1850: CardinalsGabriele della Genga Sermattei(1801–1861),Lodovico Altieri(1805–1867), andLuigi Vannicelli Casoni (1801–1877)
Modern Greece
edit- After the downfall of the first King of Greece, the BavarianOtto,on 23 October 1862, andDimitrios Voulgaris' unsuccessful term (23 October 1862 – 30 January 1863) as president of the Provisional Government, a Triumvirate (30 January – 30 October 1863) was established consisting of the sameDimitrios Voulgaris,the renowned AdmiralKonstantinos KanarisandBenizelos Roufos,which acted as a regency until the arrival of the new monarch, the first "King of the Hellenes",George I.
- A triumvirate was established to head theTheriso revoltof 1905 inautonomous Crete,consisting ofEleftherios Venizelos(later Prime Minister of Greece) in charge of organisational matters, Konstantinos Foumis in charge of finances and Konstantinos Manos, the former mayor ofChania,in charge of military affairs.
- A triumvirate was set up during theFirst World Warin September 1916, to head the "Provisional Government of National Defence"inThessaloniki.It consisted of the popular liberal statesmanEleftherios Venizelos,GeneralPanagiotis Danglisand AdmiralPavlos Koundouriotis.This "Triumvirate of National Defence" functioned as a collective head of government, although effective control was in Venizelos' hands. With the abdication of KingConstantine Iin June 1917 and the reunification of the country under Venizelos, the triumvirate was dissolved. TheTriandriamunicipality in Thessaloniki is named after this triumvirate.
- A triumvirate was set up on 13 September 1922 to lead the military revolt against the royalist government in Athens in the aftermath of theAsia Minor Disaster.It was composed of ColonelsNikolaos PlastirasandStylianos Gonatas,and CommanderDimitrios Fokas.The triumvirate assumed the government of Greece on 15 September, and would control the country until it laid down its powers on 2 January 1924. Plastiras however quickly became the dominant figure among the triumvirate, and was eventually labelled as the "Chief of the Revolution".
- Ade factotriumvirate existed during the early years of theGreek military junta of 1967–1974,when the junta's three main leaders were ColonelGeorgios Papadopoulos,BrigadierStylianos Pattakosand ColonelNikolaos Makarezos.With the increasing predominance of Papadopoulos from 1970 on, this triumvirate ceased to function.
- TheGreek People's Liberation Army,active during theAxis Occupation of Greece,had a triadic leadership structure, consisting of thekapetánios( "captain", the unit's leader), thestratiotikós(the military specialist, usually a formerArmyofficer) and thepolitikós(the political representative of theNational Liberation Front).
The Netherlands
edit- TheTriumvirate of 1813(20 November 1813 – 6 December 1813) governed theNetherlandsbriefly at the end of the Napoleonic era, beforeWilliam I of the Netherlandscame to the throne:
Argentina
edit- First Triumvirate(23 September 1811 – 8 October 1812):
- Feliciano Chiclana.
- Manuel de Sarratea.
- Juan José Paso,replaced byJuan Martín de Pueyrredónon 23 March 1812.
- Second Triumvirate(8 October 1812 – 31 January 1814):
- Nicolás Rodríguez Peña.
- Antonio Álvarez Jonte,replaced byGervasio Antonio de Posadason 19 August 1813.
- Juan José Paso,replaced byJosé Julián Pérezon 20 February 1813, and replaced byJuan Larreaon 5 November 1813.
- Third Triumvirate(18–20 April 1815):
- Military Junta(28–29 June 1966):
- Junta of Commanders of the Armed Forces(8–18 June 1970):
- Pedro Alberto José Gnavi,President.
- Carlos Alberto Rey.
- Alejandro Lanusse.
- Junta of Commanders of the Armed Forces(23–26 March 1971):
- Alejandro Lanusse,President.
- Pedro Alberto José Gnavi.
- Carlos Alberto Rey.
- Military Junta(24–29 March 1976):
Brazil
edit- TheEmpire of Brazilhad two triumvirates during a period known as theRegency period:
- Provisional Triumviral Regency (7 April – 3 May 1831)
- Permanent Triumviral Regency (17 June 1831 – 12 October 1835)
- Francisco de Lima e Silva
- TheMarquis of Monte Alegre(from 18 June)
- João Bráulio Muniz(from 18 June)
- Republican Brazil had twomilitary juntas:
- TheMilitary Junta of 1930,after thefallof theFirst Brazilian Republic(24 October – 3 November 1930)
- GeneralAugusto Tasso Fragoso(Army)
- AdmiralIsaías de Noronha(Navy)
- GeneralJoão de Deus Mena Barreto(Army)
- TheMilitary Junta of 1969,during themilitary dictatorship(31 August – 30 October 1969)
- GeneralAurélio de Lira Tavares(Army)
- GeneralMárcio Melo(Air Force)
- AdmiralAugusto Rademaker(Navy)
- TheMilitary Junta of 1930,after thefallof theFirst Brazilian Republic(24 October – 3 November 1930)
The Americas
edit- Venezuela:by decree of the Caracas Junta and ratified in theFederal Constitution of 1811the executive power was vested in "three individuals" (1810–12)
- TheEastern State of Uruguayhad one triumvirate in 1853.
- TheUnited Provinces of New Granada,nowColombia,andPanama,were headed by two triumvirates in the period known as the "Patria Boba" orFoolish Fatherland
- Interim Triumvirate, 5 October – 23 November 1814
- Triumvirate of the United Provinces of New Granada, 23 November 1814 – October 1815
- Custodio García Rovira
- Antonio Villavicencio,replaced Rovira during his second term as he could not preside over
- José Manuel Restrepo,was never sworn in.
- José Miguel Pey de Andrade,replaced Restrepo as he declined. 28 July 1815
- Manuel Rodríguez Torices
- Custodio García Rovira
- TheDominican Republichad two triumvirates, which were essentially three-memberjuntas:
- 29 May – 22 August 1866 –1st Triumvirate(in rebellion againstBuenaventura Báezfrom 1 May 1866):
- Pedro Antonio Pimentel(1830–1874; formerly one of three "Generals-in-Chief" 23–24 January 1865)
- Gregorio Luperón(1839–1897) PA
- Federico de Jesús García
- 26 September 1963 – 25 April 1965 –2nd Triumvirate:
- Emilio de los Santos(b. 1903 – 22 December 1963) (chairman from 29 December 1963, succeeded byDonald Reid Cabral,b. 1923, UCN, new chairman)
- Manuel Enrique Tavares Espaillat(1924–1984)
- Ramón Tapia Espinal(1926–2002)
- 29 May – 22 August 1866 –1st Triumvirate(in rebellion againstBuenaventura Báezfrom 1 May 1866):
- New York:the political arrangement of "three men in a room", consisting of theGovernor,Speaker of the New York State Assembly,and theMajority Leader of the New York State Senate[27]
- Nicaragua(1972–74)Liberal-Conservative Juntaof Roberto Martínez,Alfonso Lovo Cordero(liberals) andFernando Agüero(conservative). Agüero resigned in 1973 andEdmundo Paguadawas successor.
- Mexico(1823–24)Guadalupe Victoria,Nicolás BravoandCelestino Negrete.
- Paraguayhad four brief triumvirates after theParaguay campaign,with only the penultimate lasting more than a year.
- Shared Governorate, 16 May – 17 June 1811
- Liberal Triumvirate, 21 January – 9 February 1841
- Postwar Triumvirate, 15 August 1869 – 31 August 1870
- Triumvirate of the 1911 Civil War, 14 January 1912 – 17 January 1912
Other triumvirates
editThe word has been used as a term of convenience, though not an official title, for other groups of three in a similar position:
- Great Triumvirate(19th-century American politics –Henry Clay,Daniel Webster,andJohn C. Calhoun)
- Mao Zedong,Zhou Enlai,andZhu Deas the three principal founders of the People's Republic of China in 1949 and leading members of thefirst generationof the Chinese communist leaders. They all died in 1976 while holding the highest party and state officesChairman of the Chinese Communist Party(Mao),Premier of the State Council(Zhou) andChairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress,the nominalhead of state(Zhu).[28][29]
- Bourbon Triumvirate(19th-century American politics –Joseph E. Brown,Alfred H. Colquitt,andJohn Brown Gordon)
- After theLisbon Treatycame into force from 1 December 2009:
- Great Triumvirate(early 20th-century golf –Harry Vardon,James Braid,andJ.H. Taylor)
- Eric Schmidt,former CEO ofGooglehas referred to himself, along with foundersLarry PageandSergey Brinas part of a triumvirate, stating, "This triumvirate has made an informal deal to stick together for at least 20 years".[30][needs update]
- Weimar Triangle,regional alliance of France, Germany, and Poland created in 1991
See also
editNotes
edit- ^"Definition of" triumvirate "".www.merriam-webster.com.Retrieved17 July2022.
- ^ab"Definition of TROIKA".www.merriam-webster.com.Retrieved17 July2022.
- ^"Antiquities of the Jews - Book III".sacred-texts.com.
- ^Exodus 17:10
- ^Magill, Frank Northen (2003).Dictionary of World Biography.Taylor & Francis.ISBN978-1579580407.Retrieved18 August2015.
- ^Exodus 24:14
- ^Mark 5:37
- ^Matthew 17:1
- ^Matthew 26:37
- ^Galatians 2:9
- ^"Galatians 2:9 And recognizing the grace that I had been given, James, Cephas, and John – those reputed to be pillars – gave me and Barnabas the right hand of fellowship, so that we should go to the Gentiles and they to the Jews".biblehub.com.
- ^Loewe (1986), 178.
- ^Beck (1986), 319.
- ^For a definition of the Trimurti, see Matchett, Freda. "ThePurāṇas",in: Flood (2003), p. 139.
- ^"BAB III. Rajo Tigo Selo".11 March 2008.
- ^"Kilicarslan IV (ö. 664/1266) Anadolu Selçuklu sultanı (1249–1254, 1257–1266).".TDV Encyclopedia of Islam(44+2 vols.)(in Turkish). Istanbul:Turkiye Diyanet Foundation,Centre for Islamic Studies. 1988–2016.
- ^Thomas Sinclair (2019).Eastern Trade and the Mediterranean in the Middle Ages.Routledge.ISBN978-1000752670.
- ^Colin Jones (2021).The Fall of Robespierre: 24 Hours in Revolutionary Paris.Oxford University Press. p. 223.ISBN978-0-19-871595-5.
- ^Rob Humphreys, Susie Lunt (2002).Czech and Slovak Republics.Rough Guides. p. 453.ISBN1-85828-904-1.
- ^Ladies and gentlemen, your next government,By Amir Oren, Published: 13 January 2009,HaaretzDaily Newspaper. Archived fromthe original25 January 2009
- ^Diplomacy: Endgame politics,By Herb Keinon, 8 January 2009,Jerusalem Post
- ^Israel launches PR blitz ahead of Gaza operation,Roni Sofer, Published: 21 December 2008, Ynetnews
- ^Decalo, Samuel (1973). "Regionalism, Politics, and the Military in Dahomey".The Journal of Developing Areas.7(3):449–478.
- ^Rappaport, Helen(1999).Joseph Stalin: A Biographical Companion.ABC-CLIO.pp.141,326.ISBN978-1576070840.
- ^Coppa, Frank J. (1990).Cardinal Giacomo Antonelli and Papal Politics in European Affairs.Albany: State University of New York. p. 71.ISBN978-0-791-40185-9.
- ^Glueckert, Leopold G. (1989).Between Two Amnesties: Former Political Prisoners and Exiles in the Roman Revolution of 1848(PhD). Loyola University Chicago. p. 128.
- ^Lachman, Seymour & Polner, Robert (2006). Three Men in a Room: The Inside Story of Power and Betrayal in an American Statehouse. New York: New Press.
- ^Jinghan Zeng (22 October 2015).The_Chinese Communist Party´s Capacity To Rule.Springer.ISBN978-1-137-53368-5.Retrieved26 October2024.
- ^Angela P. Cheater, Department of Sociology, University of Zimbabwe (29 June 1989)."Managing Culture en Route to Socialism: The Problem of Culture 'Answering Back'"(PDF).msu.edu.Michigan State University.Retrieved4 December2016.
{{cite web}}
:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^Tim Weber (4 September 2008),A decade on: Google's internet economy,BBC News,retrieved10 February2013
References
edit- Beck, Mansvelt. (1986). "The Fall of Han," inThe Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220.Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN0-521-24327-0.
- Flood, Gavin, ed. (2003).The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism.Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.ISBN1-4051-3251-5.
- Loewe, Michael. (1986). "The Former Han Dynasty," inThe Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220,103–222. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN0-521-24327-0.
- Etymology on line
- World Statesmenhere Greece – see under each present country
External links
edit- Livius.org: TriumvirArchived2013-01-20 at theWayback Machine