Wikipedia

Göktürks

(Redirected fromTujue)
For empires established by the Gökturks, seeFirst Turkic Khaganate,Western Turkic Khaganate,Eastern Turkic Khaganate,andSecond Turkic Khaganate.
For other uses, seeGöktürk (disambiguation).

TheGöktürks,Celestial TurksorBlue Turks(Old Turkic:𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰜:𐰉𐰆𐰑𐰣,romanized:Türük Bodun;Chinese:Đột quyết;pinyin:Tūjué;Wade–Giles:T'u-chüeh) were aTurkic peoplein medievalInner Asia.The Göktürks, under the leadership ofBumin Qaghan(d. 552) and his sons, succeeded theRouran Khaganateas the main power in the region and established theFirst Turkic Khaganate,one of several nomadic dynasties that would shape the future geolocation, culture, and dominant beliefs ofTurkic peoples.

Göktureks
𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰜:𐰉𐰆𐰑𐰣
Türük Bodun
Gökturek petroglyphs from modern Mongolia (6th to 8th century).[1]
Total population
Ancestral to some Turkic populations
Regions with significant populations
CentralandEastern Asia
Languages
Orkhon Turkic[2]
Religion
Tengrism,Buddhism
Related ethnic groups
Türgesh,Toquz Oghuz,Yenisei Kyrgyz,Xueyantuo,Shatuo[3]

Etymology

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Origin

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A funerary depiction of long haired Türks in the Kazakh steppe.Miho funerary couch,circa 570.[4]

The common name "Göktürk" emerged from the misreading of the word "Kök" meaningAshina,the endonym of the ruling clan of the historical ethnic group which was attested asOld Turkic:𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰜,romanized:Türük[5][6]Old Turkic:𐰚𐰇𐰜:𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰜,romanized:Kök Türük,[5][6]orOld Turkic:𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰚,romanized:Türk.[7]It is generally accepted that the nameTürkis ultimately derived from theOld-Turkicmigration-term[8]𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰜Türük/Törük,which means 'created, born'.[9]

They were known inMiddle Chinesehistorical sources as theTūjué(Chinese:ĐộtQuyết;reconstructed inMiddle Chineseas romanized: *dwət-kuɑt>tɦut-kyat).[10]

The ethnonym was also recorded in various other Middle Asian languages, such asSogdian*Türkit ~ Türküt,tr'wkt,trwkt,turkt>trwkc,trukč;Khotanese SakaTtūrka/Ttrūka,Rouranto̤ro̤x/türǖgandOld TibetanDrugu.[10][11]

Definition

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According to Chinese sources, Tūjué meant "combat helmet"(Chinese:ĐâuMâu;pinyin:Dōumóu;Wade–Giles:Tou1-mou2), reportedly because the shape of theAltai Mountains,where they lived, was similar to a combat helmet.[12][13][14]Róna-Tas(1991) pointed to aKhotanese-Sakaword,tturakä"lid", semantically stretchable to "helmet", as a possible source for this folk etymology, yet Golden thinks this connection requires more data.[15]

Göktürk is sometimes interpreted as either "Celestial Turk" or "Blue Turk" (i.e. becausesky blueis associated withcelestial realms).[16]This is consistent with "the cult of heavenly ordained rule" which was a recurrent element of Altaic political culture and as such may have been imbibed by the Göktürks from their predecessors in Mongolia.[17]"Blue" is traditionally associated with the East as it used in thecardinal systemof central Asia, thus meaning "Turks of the East".[18]The name of the rulingAshina clanmay derive from theKhotanese Sakaterm for "deep blue",āššɪna.[19]

According to theAmerican Heritage Dictionary,the word Türk meant "strong" in Old Turkic;[20]thoughGerhard Doerfersupports this theory,Gerard Clausonpoints out that "the wordTürkis never used in the generalized sense of 'strong' "and that the nounTürkoriginally meant "'the culminating point of maturity' (of a fruit, human being, etc.), but more often used as an [adjective] meaning (of a fruit) 'just fully ripe'; (of a human being) 'in the prime of life, young, and vigorous'".[21]Hakan Aydemir (2022) also contends thatTürkoriginally did not mean "strong, powerful" but "gathered; united, allied, confederated" and was derived from Pre-Proto-Turkicverb *türü"heap up, collect, gather, assemble".[22]

The name as used by the Göktürks only applied to themselves, the Göktürk khanates, and their subjects. The Göktürks did not consider other Turkic speaking groups such as theUyghurs,Tiele,andKyrgyzto be Türks. In theOrkhon inscriptions,theToquz Oghuzand theYenisei Kyrgyzare not referred to as Türks. Similarly, the Uyghurs called themselves Uyghurs and usedTürkexclusively for the Göktürks, whom they portrayed as enemy aliens in their royal inscriptions. TheKhazarsmay have kept the Göktürk tradition alive by claiming descent from the Ashina. When tribal leaders built their khanates, ruling over assorted tribes and tribal unions, the collected people identified themselves politically with the leadership. Turk became the designation for all subjects of the Turk empires. Nonetheless, subordinate tribes and tribal unions retained their original names, identities, and social structures. Memory of the Göktürks and the Ashina had faded by the turn of the millennium. TheKarakhanids,QochoUyghurs, andSeljuksdid not claim descent from the Göktürks.[23][24][25]

History

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Origins

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See also:Timeline of the Göktürks
Hunting scene from the Göktürk period, from Chaganka,Altairegion, 5th-6th century AD[26]
Turkic horseman (Tomb of An Jia,579 CE).[27][28]

The Göktürk rulers originated from theAshina clan,who were first attested to in 439. TheBook of Suireports that in that year, on 18 October, theTuobarulerEmperor Taiwu of Northern WeioverthrewJuqu Mujianof theNorthern Liangin easternGansu,[29][30][31]whence 500 Ashina families fled northwest to theRouran Khaganatein the vicinity ofGaochang.[13][32]

According to theBook of ZhouandHistory of the Northern Dynasties,the Ashina clan was a component of theXiongnuconfederation,[12][14]specifically, the Northern Xiongnu tribes[33][34]or southern Xiongnu "who settled along the northern Chinese frontier", according toEdwin G. Pulleyblank.[35]However, this view is contested.[32]Göktürks were also posited as having originated from an obscure Suo state ( tác quốc ) (MC:*sâk) which was situated north of theXiongnuand had been founded by theSakas[36]orXianbei.[37][12][14][38]According to theBook of Suiand theTongdian,they were "mixed Hu (barbarians)" (Tạp hồ) fromPingliang( bình lương ), now inGansu,Northwest China.[13][39]Pointing to the Ashina's association with the Northern tribes of theXiongnu,some researchers (e.g. Duan, Lung, etc.) proposed that Göktürks belonged in particular to theTiele confederation,likewise Xiongnu-associated,[13]by ancestral lineage.[40][41]However, Lee and Kuang (2017) state that Chinese sources do not describe the Ashina-led Göktürks s descending from the Dingling or belonging to the Tiele confederation.[42]

Chinese sources linked theHuon their northern borders to the Xiongnu just as Graeco-Roman historiographers called thePannonian Avars,HunsandHungarians“Scythians".Such archaizing was a common literary topos, implying similar geographic origins and nomadic lifestyle but not direct filiation.[43][page needed]

As part of the heterogeneousRouran Khaganate,the Turks lived for generations north of theAltai Mountains,where they 'engaged in metal working for the Rouran'.[13][44]According toDenis Sinor,the rise to power of the Ashina clan represented an 'internal revolution' in the Rouran Khaganate rather than an external conquest.[45]

According to Charles Holcombe, the early Turk population was rather heterogeneous and many of the names of Turk rulers, including the two founding members, are not even Turkic.[46]This is supported by evidence from theOrkhon inscriptions,which include several non-Turkic lexemes, possibly representingUralicorYeniseianwords.[47][48]Peter Benjamin Goldenpoints out that the khaghans of the Turkic Khaganate, the Ashina, who were of an undetermined ethnic origin, adoptedIranianand Tokharian (or non-Altaic) titles.[49]German Turkologist W.-E. Scharlipp points out that many common terms in Turkic areIranianin origin.[50]Whatever language the Ashina may have spoken originally, they and those they ruled would all speak Turkic, in a variety of dialects, and create, in a broadly defined sense, a common culture.[49][51]

Expansion

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Main article:First Turkic Khaganate
class=notpageimage|
The First Turkic Khaganate and contemporary polities, circa 576

The Göktürks reached their peak in the late 6th century and began to invade theSui dynasty of China.However, the war ended due to the division of Turkic nobles and their civil war for the throne of Khagan. With the support ofEmperor Wen of Sui,Yami Qaghanwon the competition. However, the Göktürk empire was divided to Eastern and Western empires. Weakened by the civil war, Yami Qaghan declared allegiance to the Sui dynasty.[52]When Sui began to decline,Shibi Khaganbegan to assault its territory and even surroundedEmperor Yang of Suiin Siege of Yanmen (615 AD) with 100,000 cavalry troops. After the collapse of the Sui dynasty, the Göktürks intervened in the ensuing Chinese civil wars, providing support to the northeastern rebelLiu Heitaagainst the risingTangin 622 and 623. Liu enjoyed a long string of success but was finally routed byLi Shiminand other Tang generals and executed. TheTang dynastywas then established.[citation needed]

Conquest by the Tang

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Main article:Tang dynasty in Inner Asia

Although the Göktürk Khaganate once provided support to the Tang dynasty in the early period of the civil war during the collapse of theSui dynasty,the conflicts between the Göktürks and Tang finally broke out when Tang was gradually reunifyingChina proper.The Göktürks began to attack and raid the northern border of the Tang Empire and once marched their main force of 100,000 soldiers toChang'an,the capital of Tang. The emperor Taizong of the Tang, in spite of the limited resources at his disposal, managed to turn them back. Later, Taizong sent his troops to Mongolia and defeated the main force of Göktürk army inBattle of Yinshanfour years later and capturedIllig Qaghanin 630 AD.[53]With the submission of the Turkic tribes, the Tang conquered theMongolian Plateau.From then on, the Eastern Turks were subjugated to China.[53]

After a vigorous court debate,Emperor Taizongdecided to pardon the Göktürk nobles and offered them positions as imperial guards.[54]However, the proposition was ended by a plan for the assassination of the emperor. On 19 May 639[55]Ashina Jiesheshuaiand his tribesmen directly assaulted Emperor Taizong of Tang at Jiucheng Palace (CửuThànhCung,in present-dayLinyou County,Baoji,Shaanxi). However, they did not succeed and fled to the north, but were caught by pursuers near theWei Riverand were killed. Ashina Hexiangu was exiled toLingbiao.[56]After the unsuccessful raid ofAshina Jiesheshuai,on 13 August 639[57]Taizong installedQilibi Khanand ordered the settled Turkic people to follow him north of theYellow Riverto settle between theGreat Wall of Chinaand theGobi Desert.[58]However, many Göktürk generals still remained loyal in service to the Tang Empire.

Bust ofKul Tigin(684–731) found inKhashaat,Arkhangai Province,Orkhon Rivervalley. Located in theNational Museum of Mongolia.

Revival

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Main article:Second Turkic Khaganate

In 679,AshideWenfu and Ashide Fengzhi, who were Turkic leaders of the Chanyu Protectorate (Đan vu đại đô hộ phủ), declaredAshina Nishufuas qaghan and revolted against the Tang dynasty.[59]In 680,Pei Xingjiandefeated Ashina Nishufu and his army. Ashina Nishufu was killed by his men.[59]Ashide Wenfu madeAshina Funiana qaghan and again revolted against the Tang dynasty.[59]Ashide Wenfu and Ashina Funian surrendered to Pei Xingjian. On 5 December 681,[60]54 Göktürks, including Ashide Wenfu and Ashina Funian, were publicly executed in the Eastern Market ofChang'an.[59]In 682,Ilterish QaghanandTonyukukrevolted and occupied Heisha Castle (northwest of present-dayHohhot,Inner Mongolia) with the remnants of Ashina Funian's men.[61]The restored Göktürk Khaganate intervened in the war between Tang and Khitan tribes.[62]However, after the death of Bilge Qaghan, the Göktürks could no longer subjugate other Turk tribes in the grasslands. In 744, allied with the Tang dynasty, theUyghur Khaganatedefeated the last Göktürk Khaganate and controlled the Mongolian Plateau.[63]

Rulers

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Main article:List of Khagans of the Göktürks

TheAshina tribeof the Göktürks ruled theFirst Turkic Khaganate,which then split into theEastern Turkic Khaganateand theWestern Turkic Khaganate,and later theSecond Turkic Khaganate,controlling much of Central Asia and the Mongolian Plateau between 552 and 745. The rulers were named "Khagan"(Qaghan).

Religion

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Their religion was polytheistic. The great god was the sky god,Tengri,who dispensed the viaticum for the journey of life (qut) and fortune (ulug) and watched over the cosmic order and the political and social order. People prayed to him and sacrificed to him a white horse as the offering. The khagan, who came from him and derived his authority from him, was raised on a felt saddle to meet him. Tengri issued decrees, brought pressure to bear on human beings, and enforced capital punishment, often by striking the offender with lightning. The many secondary powers – sometimes named deities, sometimes spirits or simply said to be sacred, and almost always associated with Tengri – were the Earth, the Mountain, Water, the Springs, and the Rivers; the possessors of all objects, particularly of the land and the waters of the nation; trees, cosmic axes, and sources of life; fire, the symbol of the family and alterego of the shaman; the stars, particularly the sun and the moon, the Pleiades, and Venus, whose image changes over time;Umay,the great goddess who is none other than the goddess of the earth and placenta; the threshold and the doorjamb; personifications of Time, the Road, Desire, etc.; heroes and ancestors embodied in the banner, in tablets with inscriptions, and in idols; and spirits wandering or fixed in Penates or in all kinds of holy objects. These and other powers have an uneven force which increases as objects accumulate, as trees form a forest, stones form a cairn, arrows form a quiver, and drops of water form a lake.[64]

Genetics

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See also:Karluks § Genetics,Kara-Khanid Khanate § Genetics,Kimek tribe § Genetics,Kipchaks § Genetics,andGolden Horde § Genetics
A Turk (center) mourning theBuddha,surrounded byTocharians.Kizil Caves,Mingoi, Maya cave, 550–600 CE.[65][66]

A genetic study published inNaturein May 2018 examined the remains of four elite Türk soldiers buried between ca. 300 AD and 700 AD.[67]50% of the samples ofY-DNAbelonged to the West Eurasianhaplogroup R1,while the other 50% belonged to East Eurasian haplogroupsQandO.[68]The extracted samples ofmtDNAbelonged mainly to East Eurasian haplogroupsC4b1,A14andA15c,while one specimen carried the West Eurasian haplogroupH2a.[69]The authors suggested that central Asian nomadic populations may have been Turkicized by an East Asian minority elite, resulting in a small but detectable increase in East Asian ancestry. However, these authors also found that Türkic period individuals were extremely genetically diverse, with some individuals being of complete West Eurasian descent. To explain this diversity of ancestry, they propose that there were also incoming West Eurasians moving eastward on the Eurasian steppe during the Türkic period, resulting in admixture.[70][71]

A 2020 study analyzed genetic data from 7 early medieval Türk skeletal remains fromTurkic Khaganateburial sites in Mongolia.[72][73]The authors described the Türk samples as highly diverse, carrying on average 40% West Eurasian, and 60% East Eurasian ancestry. West Eurasian ancestry in the Türks combinedSarmatian-related andBMACancestry, while the East Eurasian ancestry was related toAncient Northeast Asians.The authors also observed that theWestern Steppe Herderancestry in the Türks was largely inherited from male ancestors, which also corresponds with the marked increase of paternal haplogroups such asRandJduring the Türkic period in Mongolia.[74]Admixture between East and West Eurasian ancestors of the Türkic samples was dated to 500 AD, which is 8 generations prior.[75]Three of the Türkic-affiliated males carried thepaternal haplogroupsJ2a andJ1a,two carried haplogroupC-F3830,and one carriedR1a-Z93.The analyzedmaternal haplogroupswere identified asD4,D2,B4,C4,H1andU7.[76]

Empress Ashina(551–582), a royal Göktürk and immediate descendant of the Göktürk khagans, belonged genetically to theAncient Northeast Asians(ANA, yellow area), supporting the Northeast Asian origin of the Ashina tribe and the Gökturks.[77][78]

A 2023 study published in theJournal of Systematics and Evolutionanalyzed the DNA ofEmpress Ashina(551–582), a royal Göktürk and immediate descendant of the first Khagans, whose remains were recovered from a mausoleum inXianyang,China.[79]The authors determined that Empress Ashina belonged to the North-East AsianmtDNAhaplogroupF1d.Approximately 96-98% of her autosomal ancestry was ofAncient Northeast Asianorigin, while roughly 2-4% was of West Eurasian origin, indicating ancient admixture, and no Chinese ( "Yellow River" ) admixture.[77]The results are consistent with aNorth-East Asian originof the royal Ashina family and theGöktürk Khaganate.[79]However, the Ashina did not show close genetic affinity with central-steppe Türks and early medieval Türks, who exhibit a high (but variable) degree of West Eurasian ancestry, which indicates that there was genetic sub-structure within the Türkic empire. For example, the ancestry of early medieval Turks was derived from Ancient Northeast Asians for about 62% of their genome, while the remaining 38% was derived from West Eurasians (BMACandAfanasievo), with the admixture occurring around the year 500 CE.[80][81]

The Ashina was found to share genetic affinities to post-Iron Age Tungusic and Mongolic pastoralists, and was genetically closer to East Asians, while having heterogeneous relationships towards various Turkic-speaking groups in central Asia, suggesting genetic heterogeneity and multiple sources of origin for the population of the Turkic empire. This shows that the Ashina lineage had a dominating contribution on Mongolic and Tungusic speakers but limited contribution on Turkic-speaking populations. According to the authors, these findings "once again validates a cultural diffusion model over a demic diffusion model for the spread of Turkic languages" and refutes "the western Eurasian origin and multiple origin hypotheses" in favor of an East Asian origin for the royal Ashina family.[82]

Two Türk remains (GD1-1 and GD2-4) analysed in a 2024 paper, were found to display only little to no West Eurasian ancestry. One of the Türk remains (GD1-1) was derived entirely from an Ancient Northeast Asian source (represented bySlabGrave1or Khovsgol_LBA and Xianbei_Mogushan_IA), while the other Türk remain (GD2-4) displayed an "admixed profile" deriving c. 48−50% ancestry from Ancient Northeast Asians, c. 47% ancestry from an ancestry maximised inHan Chinese(represented by Han_2000BP), and 3−5% ancestry from a West Eurasian source (represented bySarmatians). The GD2-4 belonged to the paternalhaplogroup D-M174.The authors argue that these findings are "providing a new piece of information on this understudied period".[83]

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See also

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References

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  63. ^Liu lưu, Xu hu (945).Old Book of Tang cựu đường thư Vol.103, Vol.194 & Vol.195.
  64. ^Asian Mythologies by Yves Bonnefoy, Page 315
  65. ^Yatsenko, Sergey A. (2009)."Early Turks: Male Costume in the Chinese Art Second half of the 6th – first half of the 8th cc. (Images of 'Others')".Transoxiana.14:Fig.16.
  66. ^Grünwedel, Albert (1912).Altbuddhistische Kultstätten Chinesisch Turkistan.p. 180.
  67. ^Damgaard et al. 2018,Supplementary Table 2, Rows 60, 62, 127, 130.
  68. ^Damgaard et al. 2018,Supplementary Table 9, Rows 44, 87, 88.
  69. ^Damgaard et al. 2018,Supplementary Table 8, Rows 128, 130, 70, 73.
  70. ^Damgaard, Peter de Barros; Marchi, Nina (2018). "137 ancient human genomes from across the Eurasian steppes".Nature.557(7705). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 369–374.Bibcode:2018Natur.557..369D.doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0094-2.hdl:1887/3202709.ISSN0028-0836.PMID29743675.S2CID256769352.
  71. ^Damgaard & Marchi 2018,p. 372: "These results suggest that Turk cultural customs were imposed by an East Asian minority elite onto central steppe nomad populations, resulting in a small detectable increase in East Asian ancestry. However, we also find that steppe nomad ancestry in this period was extremely heterogeneous with several individuals being genetically distributed at the extremes of the first principal component (Figure 2) separating Eastern and Western descent. Based on this notable heterogeneity, we interpret that during Medieval times, the steppe populations were exposed to gradual admixture from the East, while interacting with incoming west Eurasians. The strong variation is a direct window into ongoing admixture processes and to the multi-ethnic cultural organization of this period."
  72. ^Jeong, Choongwon (12 November 2020)."A Dynamic 6,000-Year Genetic History of Eurasia's Eastern Steppe".Cell.183(4): 890–904.e29.doi:10.1016/j.cell.2020.10.015.hdl:21.11116/0000-0007-77BF-D.ISSN0092-8674.PMC7664836.PMID33157037.
  73. ^Jeong 2020:"Türk (550-750 CE). Göktürkic tribes of the Altai Mountains established a political structure across Eurasia beginning in 552 CE, with an empire that ruled over Mongolia from 581-742 CE (Golden, 1992). A brief period of disunion occurred between 659-682 CE, during which the Chinese Tang dynasty laid claim over Mongolia...We analyzed individuals from 5 Türk sites in this study: Nomgonii Khundii (NOM), Shoroon Bumbagar (Türkic mausoleum; TUM), Zaan-Khoshuu (ZAA), Uliastai River Lower Terrace (ULI), and Umuumur uul (UGU)."
  74. ^Jeong 2020:"We observe a clear signal of male-biased WSH admixture among the EIA Sagly/Uyuk and during the Türkic period (i.e., more positive Z scores; Figure 5B), which also corresponds to the decline in the Y chromosome lineage Q1a and the concomitant rise of the western Eurasian lineages such as R and J (Figure S2A)."
  75. ^Jeong 2020:"The admixture dates estimated for the ancient Türkic and Uyghur individuals in this study correspond to ca. 500 CE: 8 ± 2 generations before the Türkic individuals and 12 ± 2 generations before the Uyghur individuals (represented by ZAA001 and Olon Dov individuals)."
  76. ^Jeong 2020:"Table S2, S2C_SexHaplogroups, Supplementary Materials GUID: E914F9CE-9ED4-4E0F-9172-5A54A08E9F6B
  77. ^abYang, Meng & Zhang 2023,pp. 3–4
  78. ^Jeong 2020,Figure S4A.
  79. ^abYang, Xiao-Min; Meng, Hai-Liang; Zhang, Jian-Lin (17 January 2023)."Ancient genome of Empress Ashina reveals the Northeast Asian origin of Göktürk Khanate".Journal of Systematics and Evolution.61(6): 1056–1064.doi:10.1111/jse.12938.ISSN1674-4918.S2CID255690237.
  80. ^Jeong 2020,p. 897: See figure 4, B for admixture proportions in earlyMed_Turk. "...it is clear that these individuals have genetic profiles that differ from the preceding Xiongnu period, suggesting new sources of gene flow into Mongolia at this time that displace them along PC3 (Figure 2)...The admixture dates estimated for the ancient Türkic and Uyghur individuals in this study correspond to ca. 500 CE: 8 ± 2 generations before the Türkic individuals and 12 ± 2 generations before the Uyghur individuals (represented by ZAA001 and Olon Dov individuals)."
  81. ^Yang, Meng & Zhang 2023,p. 4: "The early Medieval Türk (earlyMed_Turk) derived the major ancestry from ANA at a proportion of 62.2%, the remainder from BMAC (10.7%) and Western Steppe Afanasievo nomad (27.1%) (Figs. 1C, 1D; Table S2E)."
  82. ^Meng, Hailiang."Ancient Genome of Empress Ashina reveals the Northeast Asian origin of Göktürk Khanate".Journal of Systematics and Evolution.Ashina individual clustered with ancient populations from Northeast Asia and eastern Mongolia Plateau, and especially with the Northeast Asian hunter‐gatherers.
  83. ^Lee, Juhyeon; Sato, Takehiro; Tajima, Atsushi; Amgalantugs, Tsend; Tsogtbaatar, Batmunkh; Nakagome, Shigeki; Miyake, Toshihiko; Shiraishi, Noriyuki; Jeong, Choongwon; Gakuhari, Takashi (1 March 2024)."Medieval genomes from eastern Mongolia share a stable genetic profile over a millennium".Human Population Genetics and Genomics.4(1): 1–11.doi:10.47248/hpgg2404010004.ISSN2770-5005.
  84. ^Narantsatsral, D."THE SILK ROAD CULTURE AND ANCIENT TURKISH WALL PAINTED TOMB"(PDF).The Journal of International Civilization Studies.Archived(PDF)from the original on 26 October 2020.
  85. ^Baumer, Christoph (18 April 2018).History of Central Asia, The: 4-volume set.Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 228.ISBN978-1-83860-868-2.

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