Tunisian Arabic,or simplyTunisian(Arabic:تونسي,romanized:Tūnsi), is avariety of Arabicspoken inTunisia.[7]It is known among its 12 million speakers asTūnsi,[ˈtuːnsi]ⓘ"Tunisian"[8]orDerja(Arabic:الدارجة;meaning "common or everyday dialect"[9]) to distinguish it fromModern Standard Arabic,the official language of Tunisia. Tunisian Arabic is mostly similar to easternAlgerian Arabicand westernLibyan Arabic.
| Tunisian Arabic | |
|---|---|
| تونسيTūnsi | |
 | |
| Pronunciation | [ˈtuːnsi]ⓘ |
| Native to | Tunisia[1] |
| Ethnicity | Tunisian Arabs |
| Speakers | 12 million (2021)[1] |
| Arabic script | |
| Tunisian Sign Language | |
| Official status | |
Recognised minority language in | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | aeb |
| Glottolog | tuni1259 |
 | |
As part of theMaghrebi Arabicdialect continuum,Tunisian merges intoAlgerian ArabicandLibyan Arabicat the borders of the country. Like other Maghrebi dialects, it has a vocabulary that is predominantlySemiticand Arabic[10]with aBerber,Latin[11][12]and possiblyNeo-Punic[13][14]substratum.Tunisian Arabic contains Berber loanwords which represent 8% to 9% of its vocabulary.[15]However, Tunisian has also loanwords fromFrench,[16]Turkish,[16]Italian[16]and thelanguages of Spain[16]and a little bit ofPersian.[16]
Multilingualismwithin Tunisia and in theTunisian diasporamakes it common for Tunisians tocode-switch,mixing Tunisian with French, English, Italian, Standard Arabic or other languages in daily speech.[17]Within some circles, Tunisian Arabic has thereby integrated new French and English words, notably in technical fields, or has replaced old French and Italian loans with standard Arabic words.[17][18]Moreover, code-switching between Tunisian Arabic and modern standard Arabic is mainly done by more educated and upper-class people and has not negatively affected the use of more recent French and English loanwords in Tunisian.[17]
Tunisian Arabic is also closely related toMaltese,[19]which is a separate language that descended from Tunisian andSiculo-Arabic.[19][20]Maltese and Tunisian Arabic have about 30 to 40 per cent spokenmutual intelligibility.[21]
Classification
editTunisian Arabic is one of theArabic languageswithin theSemiticbranch[22]of theAfroasiatic language family.[22]It is a variety ofMaghrebi ArabiclikeMoroccanandAlgerian Arabic,which are mostly unintelligible to Modern Standard orMashriqi Arabicspeakers.[8]It has a considerable number ofpre-hilalian dialects[23][24]but is usually considered in itskoinéform to be a mostlyHilalian variety of Maghrebi Arabicbecause it was affected by the immigration ofBanu Hilalin the 11th century, as were the other Maghrebi varieties.[25][26]
As a part of the Arabicdialect continuum,it is reported that Tunisian Arabic is partlymutually intelligiblewith Algerian Arabic,[8]Libyan Arabic,[8]Moroccan,[8]andMaltese.[19]However, it is only slightly intelligible, if at all, withEgyptian,[27]Levantine,[27]Mesopotamian,[27]orGulf Arabic.[27]
History
editBeginnings of the dialect
editLinguistic situation of Ancient Tunisia
editDuringclassical antiquity,Tunisia's population spokeBerber languagesrelated to theNumidian language.[28]However, the languages progressively lost their function as main languages of Tunisia since the 12th century BC, and their usage became restricted mainly to the western regions of the country until their disappearance or evolution into other languages.[28]
Indeed, migrants fromPhoeniciasettled Tunisia during the 12th to the 2nd century BC, foundedancient Carthageand progressively mixed with the local population.[29]The migrants brought with them their culture and language that progressively spread from Tunisia's coastal areas to the rest of the coastal areas ofNorthwest Africa,theIberian Peninsulaand the Mediterranean islands.[30]From the eighth century BC, most of Tunisia's inhabitants spoke thePunic language,a variant of thePhoenician languageinfluenced by the local Numidian language.[31]Also, already at that time, in the regions near to Punic settlements, the Berber that was used evolved considerably. In the urban centers such asDougga,Bulla Regia,ThuburnicaorChemtou,Berber lost its Maghrebi phonology but kept the essential of its vocabulary. The word "Africa",which gave its name to thecontinent,possibly is derived from the name of the Berber tribe of theAfrithat was one of the first to enter in contact with Carthage.[32]Also during this period and up to the third century BC, theTifinaghalphabet developed from thePhoenician alphabet.[33][34]
After the arrival of Romans, following the fall of Carthage in 146 BC,[35][36]the coastal population spoke mainly Punic, but that influence decreased away from the coast.[31]FromRoman perioduntil the Arab conquest,Latin,Greekand Numidian further influenced the language, called Neo-Punic to differentiate it from its older version.[37][38]This also progressively gave birth toAfrican Romance,aLatin dialect,influenced by Tunisia's other languages and used along with them.[39][40]Also, as it was the case for the other dialects,[38][39][41]Punic probably survived the Arabic conquest of theMaghreb:the geographeral-Bakridescribed in the 11th century people speaking a language that was not Berber, Latin orCopticin ruralIfriqiya,a region where spoken Punic survived well past its written use.[42]However, it may be that the existence of Punic facilitated the spread of Arabic in the region,[43]as Punic and Arabic are both Semitic languages and share many common roots.[44][45]
Middle Ages
editClassical Arabicbegan to be installed as a governmental and administrative language in Tunisia that was called thenIfriqiyafrom its older nameAfricaduring theMuslim conquest of the Maghrebin 673.[46][47]The people of several urban cities were progressively influenced by Arabic.[47][48]By the 11th century, through contact of local languages such as African Romance or Berber with Classical Arabic, some urban dialects appeared in the main coastal cities of Tunisia.[41][49][50]The dialects were slightly and characteristically influenced by several common Berber structures and vocabulary like negation because Tamazight was the language of contact for citizens of that period.[51][52]The new dialects were also significantly influenced by other historical languages.[25][52][53]
Many Tunisian and Maghrebi words, likeqarnīṭ( "octopus" ), have a Latin etymology.[12][54]The dialects were later calledPre-Hilalian Arabic dialectsand were used along Classical Arabic for communication in Tunisia.[55][56]Also,Siculo-Arabicwas spoken in several islands near Tunisia likeSicily,Pantelleria,andMaltaand entered into contact with the Tunisian pre-hilalian dialects.[55][57]Consequently, it ameliorated the divergence in grammar and structures of all the concerned dialects from Classical Arabic.[38][50]
By the mid-11th century, the Banu Hilal immigrated to rural northern and central Tunisia andBanu Sulaymimmigrated to southern Tunisia.[26][38][53]The immigrants played a major role in spreading the use of Tunisian Arabic in an important part of the country.[38][53][58]However, they brought some of the characteristics of their local Arabic dialects as well.[26][53]In fact, central and western Tunisian Arabic speakers began using thevoiced velar stop[ɡ] instead of thevoiceless uvular stop[q] in words such asqāl"he said".[26][58]Main linguists working about Hilalian dialects like Veronika Ritt-Benmimoum and Martine Vanhove supposed that even the replacement of the diphthongs /aw/ and /aj/ respectively by /uː/ and /iː/ vowels was a Hilalian influence.[25][26][58]Furthermore, the phonologies brought to the new towns speaking Tunisian Arabic are those of the immigrants and not Tunisian phonology.[26]The Sulaym even spread a new dialect in southern Tunisia, Libyan Arabic.[26][58][59]
However, some dialects avoided the Hilalian influence:Judeo-Tunisian Arabic,a vernacular spoken byTunisian Jewsand known for the conservation of foreign phonemes in loanwords and slightly influenced byHebrew phonology,[60][61][62]Sfax dialect[63]and Tunisian urban woman dialect.[64]
By the 15th century, after theReconquistaand subsequent decline of the formerly Arabic-speakingal-Andalus,many Andalusians immigrated to the Tunisian main coastal cities. These migrants brought some of the characteristics ofAndalusian Arabicto thesedentaryurban dialects spoken in Tunisia. Among others, it led to the reuse of the voiceless uvular stop [q] instead of thenomadicHilalian voiced velar stop [ɡ] and to speech simplification in Tunisian,[59][65][66]which further differentiated the language from Classical Arabic.[59]Furthermore, the changes were recognized by theHafsidscholaribn Khaldunin hisMuqaddimahin 1377. He said that language contact between classical Arabic and local languages caused the creation of many Arabic varieties very distinct from formal Arabic.[67][68][69]
Ottoman period
editDuring the 17th to the 19th centuries, Tunisia came underSpanish,thenOttomanrule and hostedMoriscothenItalianimmigrants from 1609.[53][68]That made Tunisian,Spanish,Italian,Mediterranean Lingua Franca,andTurkishlanguages connected.[68][70]Tunisian acquired several new loanwords fromItalian,Spanish,andTurkish[53][68]and even some structures like theOttoman Turkish:-jīsuffix added to several nouns to mean professions likekawwāṛjī,qahwājī...[48][65][68]During the mid-19th century, Tunisian Arabic was studied by several European scientists.[71]In 1893, a first linguistic study was completed by the German linguistHans Stumme.That began a still ongoing research trend on Tunisian Arabic.[72][73]
Modern history
editDuring theFrench protectorate of Tunisia,the country encountered theStandardFrench language.[52][65][74]That affected Tunisian considerably, as new loanwords, meanings and structures were drawn from French.[75]The unintelligibility of Tunisian to Middle Eastern Arabic speakers was worsened.[27][52][74]
However, the same period was characterized by the rise of interest toward Tunisian Arabic. Indeed, this period was the beginning of the spread of the formal use of Tunisian Arabic as byTaht Essour.[78]Also, more research about Tunisian was produced, mainly by French and German linguists.[60]Tunisian Arabic became even taught in French high schools, as an optional language.[79]
By theTunisian independencein 1956, Tunisian Arabic was spoken only in coastal Tunisia while the other regions spokeAlgerian Arabic,Libyan Arabicor severalBerber dialects.[80][81]The profusion is from many factors including the length of time the country was inhabited, its long history as a migration land and the profusion of cultures that have inhabited it,[82][83]and the geographical length and diversification of the country, divided between mountain, forest, plain, coastal, island and desert areas.[84]
That is why Tunisian leaderHabib Bourguibabegan a trial of Arabization and Tunisification of Tunisia and spread free basic education for all Tunisians.[52][85][86]That contributed to the progressive and partial minimisation of code-switching from European languages in Tunisian and the use ofcode-switchingfrom Standard Arabic.[52][69]Furthermore, the creation of theÉtablissement de la radiodiffusion-télévision tunisiennein 1966 and the nationwide spread of television with the contact of dialects led to a dialect leveling by the 1980s.[87][88]
By then, Tunisian Arabic reached nationwide usage and became composed of six slightly different but fully mutually intelligible dialects: Tunis dialect, considered the reference Tunisian dialect; Sahil dialect; Sfax dialect; southwestern dialect; southeastern dialect and northwestern dialect.[89]Older dialects became less commonly used and began disappearing.[87][90]Consequently, Tunisian became the main prestigious language of communication and interaction within the Tunisian community[89][91]and Tunisia became the most linguistically homogeneous state of theMaghreb.[92]However, Berber dialects, Libyan and Algerian Arabic as well as several Tunisian dialects like the traditional urban woman dialect,Judeo-Tunisian Arabicor even several Tunisian structures likelānoun+š[definition needed],also practically disappeared from Tunisia.[87][90][93]
The period afterTunisian independencewas also marked by the spread of Tunisian Arabic usage in literature and education. In fact, Tunisian Arabic was taught by the Peace Corps from 1966 until 1993[94][95]and more studies were carried out. Some which used new methods like computing operations and the automated creation of severalspeech recognition-based andInternet-basedcorpora,[96][97][98][99]including the publicly available Tunisian Arabic Corpus[100]Others, more traditional, were also made about the phonology, the morphology, the pragmatic and the semantics of Tunisian.[72][65]The language has also been used to write several novels since the 1990s[78]and even aSwadesh listin 2012.[101]Now, it is taught by many institutions like theInstitut national des langues et civilisations orientales(inPariswith Tunisian Arabic courses since 1916)[102]and the Institut Bourguiba des Langues Vivantes (inTuniswith Tunisian Arabic courses since 1990).[3][103][104]or in French high schools as an optional language.[105]In fact, 1878 students sat for the Tunisian Arabic examination in the 1999 FrenchBaccalauréat.[105]Nowadays, the tendency inFranceis to implementMaghrebi Arabic,mainly Tunisian Arabic, in basic education.[3]
But, those were not the only trials of Tunisian Arabic in education. A project to teach basic education for the elderly people using Tunisian Arabic was proposed in 1977 by Tunisian linguist Mohamed Maamouri. It aimed to ameliorate the quality and intelligibility of basic courses for elderly people who could not understand Standard Arabic as they did not learn it. However, the project was not implemented.[106][107]
Nowadays, the linguistic classification of Tunisian Arabic causes controversies between interested people.[78][108]The problem is caused because of the Arabic dialect continuum.[109][110]Some linguists, such as Michel Quitout and Keith Walters, consider it an independent language,[53][78][89]and some others, such as Enam El-Wer, consider it a divergent dialect of Arabic that is still dependent of Arabic morphology and structures.[58]
Moreover, its political recognition is still limited as it is only recognized in France as a minority language part of Maghrebi Arabic according to theEuropean Charter for Regional or Minority Languagesof May 1999. However, even the charter was not agreed on by theConstitutional Council of Francebecause its conflicts with the Article 2 of theFrench Constitution of 1958.[2][3]Also, no official recognition or standardization inTunisiawas provided for Tunisian Arabic until 2011 despite the efforts of Tunisian professors Salah Guermadi and Hedi Balegh to prove that Tunisian is a language.[78][89]
After theTunisian revolution of 2011when Tunisian Arabic was the mainly used language of communication, efforts to have the Tunisian language recognised were reinvigorated.[78]
In 2011, the Tunisian Ministry of Youth and Sports has launched a version of its official website in Tunisian Arabic.[111]However, this version was closed after a week of work because of an internet poll that has concluded that 53% of the users of the website were against using Tunisian Arabic in the website.[112]
In 2013, Kélemti initiative was founded by Hager Ben Ammar, Scolibris, Arabesques Publishing House, and Valérie Vacchiani to promote and encourage the creation and publication of written resources about and in Tunisian Arabic.[113]
In 2014, a version of theTunisian Constitution of 2014was published in Tunisian Arabic by the Tunisian Association of Constitutional Law.[114]
In 2016 and after two years of work, theDerja Associationhas been launched by Ramzi Cherif and Mourad Ghachem in order to standardize and regulate Tunisian, to define a standard set of orthographic rules and vocabularies for it, to promote its use in daily life, literature and science, and to get an official recognition for it as a language in Tunisia and abroad.[115][116]The Derja Association also offers an annual prize, theAbdelaziz Aroui Prize,for the best work written in Tunisian Arabic.
Since the 2011 revolution, there have been many novels published in Tunisian Arabic.[117]The first such novel wasTaoufik Ben Brik'sKelb ben Kelb(2013); several prominent novels have been written byAnis EzzineandFaten Fazaâ(the first woman to publish a novel in Tunisian Arabic).[118]Although often criticized by literary critics,[117]the Tunisian Arabic novels have been commercially successful: the first printing ofFaten Fazaâ's third novel sold out in less than a month.[119]
Distinctive features
editTunisian Arabic is a variety of Arabic and as such shares many features with othermodern varieties,especially theMaghrebi varietiesof Arabic. Some of its distinctive features (compared to other Arabic dialects) are listed here.
- A conservativeconsonantalphonology(due toBerbersubstrates[11]), with the pre-hilalian/q/andinterdental fricativesgenerally maintained./q/is usually pronounced/ɡ/in Bedouin dialects.[120]The interdental fricatives are lost in the dialect of Mahdia, the Jewish dialect of Tunis, and the Jewish dialect of Soussa.[120]
- The use ofإنتِي[ˈʔɪnti]in urban varieties meaning "you" when addressing both men and women, and a concomitant loss of second persongenderdistinction in theverbalmorphology.Second person gender distinction is still maintained in rural varieties by usingإنتَا/ʔinta/for male andإنتِي/ʔinti/for female, with corresponding distinctions in verbal morphology.[121]
- The lack of anindicativeprefixin the verbal system, resulting in no distinction between indicative andsubjunctive moods.[121]
- The innovation of aprogressiveaspectby means of theparticipleقاعد[ˈqɑːʕɪd],originally meaning "sitting"; and theprepositionفي['fi]"in" intransitiveclauses.[72][122]
- The distinctive usage of future tense by using the prefixesماش[ˈmɛːʃ]orباش[ˈbɛːʃ]orْبِش[ˈbəʃ]+ verb that is nearly equivalent to "will" + verb.[121]
- Some vocabulary such asفيسع[ˈfiːsɑʕ]"fast",باهي[ˈbɛːhi]"good" andبرشة[ˈbærʃæ]"very much". (e.g.:[ˈbɛːhiˈbærʃæ]= "very good" )[121]
- Unlike most of the other Muslim countries, the greetingas-salamu alaykumis not used as the common greeting expression in Tunisia. Tunisians use the expressionعالسلامة[ʕæsˈlɛːmæ](formal) orأهلا[æhlæ](informal) for greeting. Also,بالسلامة[bɪsːˈlɛːmæ](formal) or the Italianciao(informal) or more rarely the Italianarrivederciare used as the Tunisian "goodbye" expression.[72]يعيشك[jʕæjʃɪk]is used as "thank you", in lieu ofشكرا[ˈʃʊkræn].[121]However, Tunisian people do use some expressions from standard Arabic such asبارك الله فيك[ˈbɑːrækɑlˤˈlˤɑːhuˈfiːk]andأحسنت[ʔɑħˈsænt]for thank you. But, these expressions are used only as loan structures from standard Arabic and are not used as they are used in standard Arabic.[72][85][121]
- The passive derivation of verbs is influenced byBerberand is different from the one of classical Arabic.[11][123]It is obtained by prefixing the verb with/t-/,/tt-/,/tn-/or/n-/and the choice of one of the four prefixes depends on the used verb (ex:شرب/ʃræb/"to drink" →تّشرب/ttæʃræb/"to be drunk" ).[72][121][123]
- Nearly all educated Tunisians can communicate in French, which is widely used in business and as the main language of communication with foreigners.Code switchinginto French is common in Tunisian.[40][124]
- Tunisian Arabic is anSVO languageand it is most of the time aNull-subject language.[121][125]In fact, the subject is only written in order to avoid meaning ambiguity.[121]
- Tunisian has moreagglutinative structuresthan Standard Arabic or the other varieties of Arabic,[126]a phenomenon that was further strengthened by the influence of Turkish on Tunisian in the 17th century.[68]
Dialects
editThis article shouldspecify the languageof its non-English content, using{{langx}},{{transliteration}}for transliterated languages, and{{IPA}}for phonetic transcriptions, with an appropriateISO 639 code.Wikipedia'smultilingual support templatesmay also be used.(May 2019) |
The Arabic dialects of Tunisia belong to eitherpre-HilalianorHilaliandialectal families.[49][134]
Before 1980, The pre-Hilalian group included old (Baldī) Urban dialects of Tunis, Kairouan, Sfax, Sousse, Nabeul and its region Cap Bon, Bizerte, old Village dialects (Sahel dialects), and theJudeo-Tunisian.The Hilalian set includes theSulaym dialectsin the south and the Eastern Hilal dialects in central Tunisia. The latter were also spoken in theConstantinois(eastern Algeria).[49][134]
Nowadays and due to dialect leveling, the main dialect varieties of Tunisian Arabic are Northwestern Tunisian, southwestern Tunisian, Tunis dialect, Sahel dialect, Sfax dialect and southeastern Tunisian.[72][87][90][128]All of these varieties are Hilalian excepting the Sfax one.[63][65][87][128]
Tunis,[72][65]Sahel[128]and Sfax[63]dialects (considered sedentary dialects) use the voiceless uvular stop[q]in words such as قال/qaːl/"he said" while southeastern,[131]northwestern[130]and southwestern[7]varieties (considerednomadicdialects) substitute it by the voiced velar stop[ɡ]as in/ɡaːl/.Moreover, only Tunis, Sfax and Sahel dialects use Tunisian phonology.[63][65]
Indeed, northwestern[130]and southwestern[131]Tunisians speak Tunisian with Algerian Arabic phonology, which tends to simplify short vowels as shortschwaswhile southeastern Tunisian speak Tunisian with the Libyan Arabic phonology.[7][87][135]
Additionally, Tunis,[72][65]Sfax[63]and the urban Sahel[128]dialects are known for not marking the second person gender. Hence, the otherwise feminineإنتِي/ʔinti/is used to address both men and women, and no feminine marking is used in verbs (inti mšīt). Northwestern,[130]southeastern[133]and southwestern[131]varieties maintain the gender distinction found in Classical Arabic (إنتَا مشيتinta mšīt,إنتِي مشيتيinti mšītī).
Furthermore, Tunis,[72][65]Sfax[63]and Sahel[128]varieties conjugate CCā verbs like mšā and klā in feminine third person and in past tense as CCāt. For example,هية مشاتhiya mšāt.However, Northwestern,[130]southeastern[133]and southwestern[131]varieties conjugate them in feminine third person and in past tense as CCat For example,هية مشتhiya mšat.
Finally, each of the six dialects have specific vocabulary and patterns.[87][128]
Tunis
editAs the prestige variety of media, the Tunis dialect is considered the standard form of Tunisian Arabic and is the variety described in pedagogical and reference materials about "Tunisian" Arabic.[72]It is spoken on the Northern East of Tunisia around Tunis, Cap Bon and Bizerte.[72][65]However, it has a characteristic not shared with some of the other Tunisian Arabic dialects.[72][65]It distinguishes the three short vowels[94][121]and tends to pronounce [æ] as [ɛ][65]and the āš suffix, used in the end of question words, as an [ɛ:h].[72]
Sahel
editThe Sahel dialect is known for the use of the singular first personānīinstead ofānā.[128][129]It is also known for the pronunciation ofwāas [wɑː] and the pronunciationūandīas respectively [oː] and [eː] when it is a substitution of the common Classical Arabic diphthongs /aw/ and /aj/.[7][128][129]For example,زيتzītis pronounced as [ze:t] andلونlūnis pronounced as [lɔːn].[7][128][129]Furthermore, whenāis at the end of the indefinite or "il-" definite word, this finalāis pronounced as [iː].[7][128][129]For example,سماءsmāis pronounced as [smiː]. Moreover, If a word begins with a consonant cluster starting with /θ/ or /ð/, these sounds are pronounced respectively as [t] and [d].[128][136]For example,ثلاثة/θlaːθa/ is pronounced as [tlɛːθæ].[7][128]As well, the Sahel dialect is known for usingمشmišinstead ofموشmūšto mean the negation of future predicted action.[128]
Sfax
editThe Sfax dialect is known mostly for its conservation of the Arabicdiphthongs/aj/ and /aw/ and of the short /a/ between two consonants[63]and its use ofوحيدwḥīd instead ofوحودwḥūd to mean the plural of someone.[137]
Other dialects have substituted them respectively by /iː/ and /uː/ and dropped the short /a/ between the first and second consonant of the word.[65][136][138] It is also known by the substitution of short /u/ by short /i/, when it comes in the beginning of the word or just after the first consonant.[63]For example,خبز/χubz/ is pronounced as [χibz].[63]
It is also known for the use of specific words, likebaṛmaqnīmeaning window.[63]Furthermore, it is known for the substitution of [ʒ] by [z] when it comes in the beginning of a word and when that word contains [s] or [z] in its middle or end.[63][130]For example,جزّار/ʒazzaːrˤ/ is pronounced as [zæzzɑːrˤ] andجرجيس/ʒarʒiːs/ is pronounced as [zærzi:s].[63]
Unlike other Tunisian dialects, Sfax dialect does not simplify the last long vowel at the end of a word.[63][65]It is also known for some specific verbs likeأرىaṛā(to see) and the use of the demonstrative articlesهاكومةhākūmafor those andهاكةhāka(m.) andهٰاكيhākī(f.) for that respectively instead ofهاذوكمhāðūkumandهاذاكةhāðāka(m.) andهاذيكةhāðākī(f.) determinants.[63]Finally, the conjugation ofmūšas a modal verb usesماهواشmāhūwāšinstead ofماهوشmāhūš,ماهياشmāhīyāšinstead ofماهيشmāhīš,ماحناشmāḥnāšinstead ofماناشmānāšandماهوماشmāhūmāšinstead ofماهمشmāhumš.[16][139]
Sfax dialect is also known for its profusion of diminutives.[63]For example,
- قطيطسqṭayṭas (little or friendly cat) forقطّوسqaṭṭūs (cat).[63]
- كليبklayib(little or friendly dog) forكلبkalb(dog).[63]
Northwestern
editThe northwestern dialect is known by pronouncing r as [rˤ] when it is written before an ā or ū.[130][140]Furthermore, it is known for the substitution of [ʒ] by [z] when it comes at the beginning of a word and when that word contains [s] or [z] in its middle or end.[130][140]Also, it is known for the pronunciation of ū and ī respectively as [o:] and [e:] when they are in an emphatic or uvular environment.[130][140]As well, northwestern dialect is known for usingمشmišthat is pronounced as [məʃ] instead ofمانيشmānīšto mean the negation of future predicted action.[130]Similarly, the conjugation ofمشmišas a modal verb usesمشنيmišnīinstead ofمانيشmānīš,مشكmiškinstead ofماكشmākš,مشّوmiššūinstead ofموشmūšandماهوشmāhūš,مشهاmišhāinstead ofماهيشmāhīš,مشناmišnāinstead ofماناشmānāš,مشكمmiškuminstead ofماكمشmākumšandمشهمmišhuminstead ofماهمشmāhumš.[130]Moreover, northwestern dialect is known for the use ofنحناnaḥnāinstead ofأحناaḥnāas a plural second person personal pronoun[130]and the southern area of this Tunisian dialect likeEl Kefis known for the use ofنايnāyorنايةnāyainstead ofآناānā(meaning I) exceptingKairouanthat is known for usingيانةyānain this situation.[130]
Southeastern
editThe southeastern dialect is known for a different conjugation of verbs ending withāin the third person of plural. In fact, people speaking this variety of Tunisian Arabic do not add the regularūsuffix after the vowel ā but used to drop theāand then add theū.[133]For example, مشىmšāis conjugated as مشواmšūinstead of مشاواmšāwwith the third person of plural.[133]Furthermore, it is known for the substitution of [ʒ] by [z] at the beginning of a word and when that word contains [s] or [z] in its middle or end.[7][4][133]Moreover, it is known like the Sahil dialect for the pronunciation /uː/ and /iː/ as respectively [oː] and [eː] when it is a substitution of the common classical Arabic diphthongs /aw/ and /aj/.[7][72][4]Furthermore, this dialect is also known for the use of أناanāinstead of آناānā(meaning I), the use of حناḥnāinstead of أحناaḥnā(meaning we), the use of إنتمintumm(masc.) and إنتنintinn(fem.) instead of انتوماintūma(meaning you in plural) and the use of همhumm(masc.) and هنhinn(fem.) instead of هوماhūma(meaning they).[141][142]
Southwestern
editThe southwestern dialect is known for a different conjugation of verbs ending withāin the third person of plural. In fact, people who are speaking this variety of Tunisian Arabic do not add the regularūsuffix after the vowelābut used to drop theāand then add theū.[131][132]For example, مشىmšāis conjugated as مشوا mšū with the third person of plural.[131][132]Furthermore, this dialect is also known for the use of نايnāyinstead of آناānā(meaning I), the use of حنيḥnīinstead of أحناaḥnā(meaning we), the use of إنتمintumm(masc.) and إنتنintinn(fem.) instead of انتوماintūma(meaning you in plural) and the use of همhumm(masc.) and هنhinn(fem.) instead of هوماhūma(meaning they).[131][132]Moreover, it is known for the pronunciation of ū and ī respectively as [o:] and [e:] in an emphatic or uvular environment.[131][132]
Use and geographical distribution
editTunisian Arabic is the mother tongue of the Arabic-speaking population inTunisia.[68]It is also the second language of theBerberminority living in the country, particularly in some villages ofDjerbaandTataouine.[22]
However, Tunisian Arabic has the role of the low variety in an example of classicdiglossia,and Standard Arabic is the high variety.[18]As such, the use of Tunisian Arabic is mainly restricted to spoken domains.[22][78]as its written and cultural use began in the 17th century[143]and regularly developed since the 20th century only.[144]Now, it is used for a wide range of purposes, including communication, politics, literature, theatre, and music.[78][145]
Society
editFrom the 1990s, Tunisians began to write in Tunisian Arabic when communicating on the Internet, especially onsocial networkingsites, and in text messages.[146]This trend accelerated during the2011 street proteststhat brought down the regime ofZine El Abidine Ben Ali,in which text messaging and social networking played a major role.[145]
In religion, the use of Tunisian Arabic in promotingIslamis limited although there are some trial efforts.[147]InChristianity,the use of Tunisian Arabic is significant beginning with a 1903New Testamenttranslation.[22][148] In 2013 and subsequent years, Tunisian author and linguist Mohamed Bacha[149]published very popular textbooks and references to learn Tunisian Arabic and explore Tunisian culture, aimed to international readers who are fluent in English:Tunisian Arabic in 24 lessons,[150]Tunisian Arabic in 30 lessons,[151]Tunisian Arabic - English dictionary,[152]Tunisian folklore: folktales, songs, proverbs,[153]This unique book contains a selection of Tunisia's oral literature and culture: folktales, proverbs, popular songs. In the latter book, the author Mohamed Bacha adapted into written form (through transliteration) and translated into English some of the most representative oral folklore of Tunisia, while keeping its authenticity and unique cultural flavor. In addition to multilingual editions of oral folktales:Jabra and the lion,in Tunisian Arabic, English, French.[154]Eternal Classic Songs of Tunisia(Tunisian, English, French)[155]
Literature
editBeforeTunisian independence,there was a large body offolk talesand folk poems in Tunisian Arabic.[156]It was mainly anoral tradition,told by wandering storytellers and bards at marketplaces and festivals.[8][157]The most important of these folktales areil-Jāzya il-hlālīya(الجازية الهلالية) andḥkāyat ummī sīsī w il-ðīb(حكاية أمّي سيسي والذيب).[158]A few years after independence, the more popular ones were recorded forERTTbroadcast, in Tunisian Arabic by Abdelaziz El Aroui,[159]or translated mainly to French and standard Arabic by other authors.[158]The recorded Tunisian folktales were transcribed in Tunisian Arabic using Arabic script only in the 2010s, thanks to the work of the Kelemti Association of the promotion of Tunisian Arabic in 2013[160]and the work of Karen McNeil of 2014.[161]
As for novels and short stories, most authors who fluently know Tunisian Arabic prefer to write in Standard Arabic or in French. But since the initiative of theTaht Essourand particularlyAli Douagi[162]to use Tunisian Arabic in transcribing dialogues in novels and writing some newspapers, the dialogues in theStandard ArabicTunisian novels or romans became written in Tunisian Arabic using the Arabic script.[144][163][164]
However, since the early 1990s, Hedi Balegh initiated a new trend in Tunisian literature.[78]He was the first to translate a novel to Tunisian Arabic in 1997[108][165]and to make collections of Tunisian idioms and proverbs in 1994 using Arabic script.[166]Some authors, particularly Tahar Fazaa (mainly inTšanšīnāt Tūnsīya(تشنشينات تونسية))[167]andTaoufik Ben Brik(mainly when writingKalb Bin Kalb(كلب بن كلب)[168][169]andKawāzākī(كوازاكي)[170][171]) followed him and used Tunisian Arabic in order to write novels, plays and books in Tunisian Arabic.
As for plays in Tunisian Arabic, the first ones were made by the Tunisian-Egyptian Company just afterWorld War I.[172]They faced several objections.[172]However, it acquired general recognition in Tunisia by the end ofWorld War II.[172]AfterTunisian independence,the government encouraged the development of theater in Tunisian Arabic through the creation of supporting institutions.[172][173]That resulted in the creation of notable plays in Tunisian Arabic following the trends of world literature between 1965 and 2005.[172][173]The main authors of these plays wereJalila Baccar,Fadhel Jaïbiand members of the National Theatre troupes of theMedina of Tunis,El KefandGafsa.[172][173]
Now, plays are almost always written in Tunisian Arabic except when they are placed in a historical setting.[172]Plays written in Tunisian Arabic are widely considered as meaningful and valuable ones.[172]
Since the 2011Tunisian Revolution,there has been a trend of novels written in Tunisian Arabic.[174]SinceTaoufik Ben Brik'sKalb Bin Kalb(كلب بن كلب) in 2013, Tunisian Arabic novels have been written byFaten Fazaâ,Anis Ezzine,Amira Charfeddine,andYoussef Chahed.Translation of Tunisian and world literature into Tunisian Arabic have been done byDhia BousselmiandMajd Mastoura.
Music
editThe oldest lyrics found written in Tunisian, dates back to the 17th century,[143]by Abu el-Hassan el-Karray, who died in 1693 in themedina quarterofSfaxand wrote a poem in Tunisian Arabic during his youth:[175]
The effective beginning of Tunisian Arabic written songs came in the early 19th century, whenTunisian Jewsin theBeylik of Tunisbegan writing songs in Tunisian Arabic about love, betrayal and otherlibertinesubjects.[143][176]The current strengthened at the beginning of the 20th century and affected the Tunisianma'lufand folklore.[143]Judeo-Tunisian song flowered in the 1930s, with such Jewish artists as Cheikh El Afrit and Habiba Msika.[176][177]
This tendency was promoted by the creation ofRadio Tunisin 1938 and the creation ofÉtablissement de la radiodiffusion-télévision tunisiennein 1966,[177][178]which allowed many musicians to better disseminate their works and helped spread the use of Tunisian Arabic in songs.[177][178]
At the same time, popular music developed in the early 19th century, using Tunisian Arabic poems accompanied by Tunisian musical instruments like themizwad.[176][179]This kind of music was promoted by the National Troupe of the Popular Arts, created in 1962.[180]Later adaptation and promotion of popular songs, especially by Ahmed Hamza and later Kacem Kefi, further developed Tunisian music.[178]Natives of Sfax, they were both influenced by Mohamed Ennouri and Mohamed Boudaya, leading masters of popular music in that city.[143][178]Nowadays, this kind of music is very popular.[181]
Tunisian Arabic became the main variety used in writing lyrics of songs inTunisiaand even the maintechnical wordsin music have their synonyms in Tunisian Arabic.[143]
In the early 1990s,underground musicin Tunisian Arabic appeared.[182]This mainly consisted of rap and was not successful in the beginning because of the lack of media coverage.[182]Tunisian underground music, mainly written in Tunisian Arabic, became successful in the 2000s, thanks to its spread over the Internet, and came to involve other alternative genres likereggaeand rock.[182][183]
In 2014, the first opera songs in Tunisian Arabic had appeared.[184]They were the ones of Yosra Zekri that were written by Emna Rmilli and composed by Jalloul Ayed.[184] In 2018, the Tunisian linguist Mohamed Bacha[149][185]publishedEternal Classic Songs of Tunisia[155]The mythical classic Tunisian songs presented in this book were performed by artists popular in Tunisia's urban centers in the 1950s, 60s, 70s, 80s. The lyrics of these beautiful songs are in natural and authentic Tunisian Arabic, the spoken language of Tunisia. The singers performed with Western and Egyptian-like orchestra ensembles, in addition to a Chorus that repeats some verses in a beautiful, unique Tunisian manner, in some songs like ‘’O The Beauty of The Desert”[185]and ‘’How Could you believe it!?’’[185] The music of the songs was composed by great professional musicians such as Boubaker El Mouldi, Mohamed Triki, Salah El Mahdi, Ridha Kalaï, Ali Riahi, Kaddour Srarfi, Chedly Anouar, Hedi Jouini. The lyrics written by poets like Omar Ben Salem, Mahmoud Bourguiba, Mohamed Bouthina. Only rarely was the singer himself at the same time the music composer, as in the case of Ali Riahi in some of his songs. Some of the best Tunisian classic songs were selected from the rich traditional musical folklore.
Cinema and mass media
editOf the few domestic movies produced since 1966, many tried to reflect new social dynamics, development, identity research and modernity shock,[186][187]and were done in Tunisian Arabic.[188][189]Some of them achieved relative success outside Tunisia, such asLa Goulette(ḥalq il-wād(حلق الواد), 1996),Halfaouine: Child of the Terraces(ʿaṣfūr il-sṭaḥ(عصفور السطح), 1990), andThe Ambassadors(il-sufaṛā(السفراء), 1975).[189]
Television and radio programs in Tunisian Arabic began officially in 1966 with the establishment of theÉtablissement de la Radiodiffusion-Télévision Tunisienne.[190][191] Tunisian Arabic is now widely used for all television and radio programs, with the exception of news, religious programs and historical dramas.[76][159]There is even several translations of cartoon series in Tunisian Arabic, like during the 1980s Qrīnaṭ il-šalwāš (قرينط الشلواش) and Mufattiš kaʿbūṛa (مفتّش كعبورة).[192]As well, foreignTelevision seriesbegun to be translated to Tunisian Arabic in 2016.[193]The first translation of foreign television series was entitled Qlūb il-rummān (قلوب الرمان) and was developed byNessma TVfrom the Turkish television series Kaderimin Yazıldığı Gün.[193][194]
Some Tunisian Arabic works acquired some honors in the broaderArab worldlike the ASBU Festival First Prize in 2015.[195]and the Festival of Arab Media Creation Prize in 2008.[196]
Moreover, since the 1990s, mass media advertisements increasingly use Tunisian Arabic, and many advertising boards have their slogans and the original or alternative company name written in Tunisian.[17]
However, the main newspapers in Tunisia are not written in Tunisian Arabic[17][18]although there were trials to establish humoristic newspapers in Tunisian Arabic[197]likekull šay b- il-makšūf(كل شيء بالمكشوف) that was directed by Hedi Saidi and Hechmi Bouaziz and led byAli Douagiand that was issued quite regularly from 23 April 1937 to 22 October 1959.[163]The leading newspapers are still written either in Modern Standard Arabic or in Standard French, even if cartoons in most of them can be written in Tunisian.[17][85]
Scripts
editArabic script
editThe Arabic script used for Tunisian is largely the same as for Arabic. However, it includes additional letters to support /g/ (ڨ), /v/ (ڥ) and /p/ (پ).[16][198]
The first known use of Arabic script for Tunisian was recorded in the 17th century, when Sheykh Karray wrote several poems in Tunisian Arabic for mystic purposes.[143]However, transcription of Tunisian Arabic was not common until 1903, when theGospel of Johnwas transcribed in Tunisian Arabic using Arabic script.[22][148]After theWorld War I,the use of Arabic script to Tunisian Arabic became very common with the works ofTaht Essour.[144][163]Nowadays, it has become the main script used for Tunisian Arabic, even in published books,[165][170]but writing conventions for Tunisian Arabic are not standardized and can change from one book to another.[16][165][170]
In 2014, Ines Zribi et al. proposed a Conventional Orthography for Tunisian Arabic based on the principles of CODA as proposed in 2012. The orthography is based on eliminating phonological simplifications by comparing the words and structures of Tunisian Arabic by their correspondent etymological equivalent inModern Standard Arabic.[16]Although the convention is quite important, the orthography does not differentiate between [q] and [g] and does not involve several important phonemes that are mainly used in loanwords.[16]
Latin script
edit
Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft Umschrift
editIn 1845, theDeutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaftor DMG, a German scientific association dedicated to the studies and the languages of the orient, was formed inLeipzig.[200]Soon, the organization developed a transcription system for Arabic in Latin script.[201]Its system was a phonemic transcription of Arabic written with anextended Latin alphabetandmacronsfor long vowels.[201]However, this Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft transcription was first tried on Tunisian only after the establishment of theFrench Protectorate of Tunisiain 1881.[65]
The first linguistic study about Tunisian to be completed was of German linguist Hans Stumme, who, from 1893 to 1896, transcribed Tunisian Arabic with the DMG transcription.[73][202]In addition, from 1897 to 1935, a series of linguistic works were conducted by several French members of the DMG, like William Marçais,[203][204]Philippe Marçais,[205][206]David Cohen[60]and Alfred Nicolas.[207]These works included corpuses,[203][204]grammar books,[205]dictionaries,[207]or studies.[60]By 1935, the DMG transcription included many unique letters and diacritics for Tunisian not used for Arabic,[208]such as, à, è, ù and ì, for short and accentuated vowels.[199]This is the reason why the XIXth international congress of orientalists held in Rome, from 23 to 29 September 1935, adopted a modified simplified version of the DMG transcription specifically for Arabic dialects.[208]From 1935 to 1985, most of the linguists working on Tunisian Arabic such as Gilbert Boris,[5]Hans Rudolf Singer,[65][209]Lucienne Saada[210][211][212]and others,[72][94]adopted the modified DMG.
As of 2016,the modified DMGis still used by institutions such asSIL Internationalor theUniversity of Viennafor Tunisian Arabic written corpuses and linguistic books.[72][131][213]
Additional scripts
editEven if the Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft transcription was abundantly used in early linguistic researches about Tunisian,[199][213]some trials were performed in order to create alternative Latin scripts and writing methods.[146][214]The purpose of the trials was to have a simpler and more intuitive Latin Script Writing system than DMG or to try to solve the lack of interconvertibility between scripts as the transcription of Tunisian with the German DMG method was phonetic and notsyntactic.[16][79][198]
The first successful trial to create a specific Latin script and writing method for Tunisian was thePractical Orthography of Tunisian Arabic,created by Joseph Jourdan in 1913.[215][216]Its principle was to use French consonant and vowel digraphs and phonology to transcribe non-Latin sounds.[215]In this method,khis used to transcribe /χ/,chto transcribe /ʃ/,thto transcribe /θ/,ghto transcribe /ʁ/,dhto transcribe /ð/ or /ðˤ/ andouto transcribe /u:/,ato transcribe /a:/ and /ɛː/, i to transcribe /i:/ and e to transcribe the short vowels.[217]The layout was successful because it did not involve additional Latin letters and could be transcribed efficiently. It was used in the later linguistic works of Joseph Jourdan about Tunisian Arabic until 1956.[79][218][219]Moreover, it is still presently used in French books to transcribe Tunisian Arabic.[217]The method was used in 1995 by the Tunisian Arabizi, anArabic chat alphabet,converting the consonant digraphs into digits.[8][68][145]It uses 2 to transcribe a glottal stop, 3 to transcribe /ʕ/, 5 to transcribe /χ/, 6 to transcribe /tˤ/, 7 to transcribe /ħ/, 8 to transcribe /ʁ/ and 9 to transcribe /q/.[145][146]The ch, dh, and th digraphs were kept in Tunisian Arabizi.[145]Vowels are transcribed according to their quality and not to their length as a is used to transcribe short and long [ɐ] and [æ], e is used to transcribe short and long [ɛ] and [e], u is used to transcribe short and long [y], eu is used to transcribe short and long [œ], o is used to transcribe short and long [o], ou is used to transcribe short and long [u] and i is used to transcribe short and long [i] and [ɪ].[146][220]Sometimes, users differentiate between short and long vowels by dropping short ones.[146][220]Like all other Arabic chat alphabets, its use spread considerably during the 1990s mainly with the Tunisian young people.[8][68][221]Nowadays, it is used principally on social networks and mobile phones.[145][146]Also, during theTunisian Revolution of 2011,Tunisian Arabizi was the main script used for message transmission on internet.[222][223]After 2011, more interest was given to Tunisian Arabizi[220][224]and in 2013, a concise grammar book about Tunisian, written with Tunisian Arabizi, was issued.[225]In 2016, Tunisian Arabizi has been recognized byEthnologueas an official informal script for writing Tunisian.[226]However, this chat alphabet is not standardized and is seen as informal as the Arabic sounds are transcribed as numbers and letters at the same time.[224][227]The use of digits as numerals and letters at the same time made transcribing Tunisian difficult to users and did not linguistically solve the matters that were faced by the Practical Transcription.[228]
Although they are popular, both methods have problems such as the possibility of ambiguity between digraphs,[229]the absolute certainty of getting a rate of graphs per phoneme that is significantly superior to 1 and of getting independent consonants having the same transliteration as the digraphs,[229]and the lack of disambiguation between /ð/ and /ðˤ/.[217]
A translation ofLe Petit Nicolasby Dominique Caubet uses a phonetic transcription.[230]
Separately, another Latin script transcription method was created by Patrick L. Inglefield and his team of linguists fromPeace CorpsTunisia andIndiana Universityin 1970.[214]Letters in this method can be written in lowercase letters only, and even T and S are not equivalent to t and s as T is used to transcribe /tˤ/ and S is used to transcribe /sˤ/.[214]Moreover, three additional Latin letters are used in this writing method that are 3 (/ʕ/), ø (/ð/) and ħ (/ħ/).[214]Four common English digraphs are used that aredh(/ðˤ/),gh(/ʁ/),th(/tˤ/) andsh(/ʃ/).[214]In order to distinguish the digraphs from the independent letters written like the digraphs, the digraphs are underlined.[214]As for the vowels, they are written as å (glottal stop or /ʔ/), ā (/æ/), ā: (/ɛ:/), a (short a or /a/), a: (long a or /a:/), i (short i or /i/), i: (long i or /i:/), u (short u or /u/), u: (Long u or /u:/).[214]This method was used in the Peace Corps books about Tunisian Arabic until 1993, whenPeace CorpsTunisia became inactive.[95][231][232]
After years of works on a phonetic transliteration of Tunisian, linguists decided that the transliteration should be mainlysyntactic.[233]Timothy Buckwalter created an orthography-based transcription of Arabic texts during his work for Xerox.[234]Buckwalter transcriptionwas created in order to avoid the effect of phoneme simplification of spoken Modern Standard Arabic on the morphological analysis of the language.[233]In 2004, Tunisian linguist Mohamed Maamouri proposed to use the same transliteration for Arabic dialects and mainly Tunisian.[235]This idea was later developed byNizar HabashandMona Diabin 2012 into CODA-based Buckwalter transliteration that eliminates phonological simplification in the Arabic dialects through doing comparisons between dialectal structures and their Modern Standard Arabic equivalents.[236][237] In 2013, a complete work about the regulations of the use of theBuckwalter transliterationfor Tunisian was issued by Ines Zribi and her team from theUniversity of Sfax.[238]In fact, a morphological analysis method and a conventional orthography for Tunisian Arabic using this method were posted by 2014.[16][239] However, the method is currently used for computer operations only[16]and it is not used by people, as it involves some ASCII non-alphanumeric graphs as letters, and S, D and T do not correspond respectively to the same phonemes as s, d and t.[240][241]Furthermore, p does not correspond to /p/ but to ﺓ.[242]Even the modified version of Buckwalter transliteration that was proposed byNizar Habashet al. in 2007 and that substitute ASCII non-alphanumeric graphs by additional Latin letters did not solve the other problems of the original Buckwalter transliteration.[242]That is why both versions of Buckwalter transliteration were not adopted for daily use in writing Tunisian Arabic and are adopted only for NLP purposes.[241]
Vocabulary
editThis article shouldspecify the languageof its non-English content, using{{langx}},{{transliteration}}for transliterated languages, and{{IPA}}for phonetic transcriptions, with an appropriateISO 639 code.Wikipedia'smultilingual support templatesmay also be used.(May 2019) |
Non-Arabic words
editThe most immediately apparent difference between Tunisian and Standard Arabic is the extensive use of native, substratum words of Latin andBerberetymology or borrowed ones from Italian, Spanish, French andTurkish.[65]For example, electricity is كهرباءkahrabain standard Arabic. It is تريسيتيtrīsītīin Tunisian Arabic (a word used mainly by older people), from the Frenchélectricité.[65][243]Other loans from French include برتمانbuṛtmān(flat), and بياسةbyāsa(coin).[65]Furthermore, there are words and structures that came from Turkish, such as ڨاوريgāwrī(foreigner) (Gavur) as well as the suffix of occupation as in بوصطاجيbūṣṭājī(post officer) and كوّارجيkawwāṛjī(football player).[65]A sample of words derived from Latin, French, Italian, Turkish, Berber, Greek or Spanish is below:[16]
| Tunisian Arabic | Standard Arabic | English | Etymology of Tunisian Arabic[citation needed] |
|---|---|---|---|
| بابورḅaḅūr | سفينة/safiːna/ | ship | Turkish:[244]vapurmeaning "steamboat" |
| باكوbakū | صندوق/sˤundu:q/ | package | Italian:[245]pacco |
| بانكةḅanka | بنك/bank/ | bank | Italian:[245]banca |
| بلاصةbḷaṣa | مكان/makaːn/ | place | Spanish:[246][failed verification]plaza |
| داكردوdakūrdū | حسنا/ħasanan/ | okay | Italian:[245]d'accordo |
| فيشتةfišta | عيد/ʕiːd/ | holiday | Latin:[247]festa |
| كرّوسةkaṛṛūsa | عربة/ʕaraba/ | carriage | Italian:carrozza |
| كيّاسkayyās | طريق معبد/tˤarīqmaʕbad/ | roadway | Spanish:calles |
| كوجينةkūjīna | مطبخ/matˤbax/ | kitchen | Italian:cucina |
| كسكسيkusksī | كسكسي/kuskusi/ | couscous | Berber:[248]seksu |
| كلسيطةkalsīta | جورب/jawrab/ | sock | Italian:calzetta |
| قطّوسqaṭṭūs | قط/qitˤː/ | cat | Latin:[247]cattus |
| سبيطارsbīṭaṛ | مستشفىً/mustaʃfa:/ | hospital | Latin:[247]hospitor |
| سفناريةsfinārya | جزر/jazar/ | carrot | Greek:[249][failed verification]σταφυλῖνος ἄγριος(stafylīnos ā́grios) |
Those words are not to be confused with the actual use of French words or sentences in everyday speech by Tunisians (codeswitching), which is common in everyday language and business environments. However, many French words are used within Tunisian Arabic discourse, without being adapted to Tunisian phonology, apart from the Frenchr[ʁ],which is often replaced, especially by men, with[r].[250]For example, many Tunisians, when asking "How are you?" will use the French"ça va?"instead of, and in addition to the Tunisian لاباس(lebes).It is difficult in this case to establish whether it is an example of using French or borrowing.[250]
In general, concerning the case of loanwords, they are adapted to Tunisian phonology for years until they become pronounced with basic Tunisian Arabic sounds only.[65][251]For example, the French wordapartementbecame برتمانbuṛtmānand the Italian wordpaccobecame باكوbakū.[65][252]
Shift in meanings
editThe greatest number of differences between Tunisian and standard Arabic is not due to the influences from other languages but to a shift in meaning of several Arabic roots.[90]For example,/x-d-m/means "serve" in Standard Arabic but "work" in Tunisian Arabic; meanwhile,/ʕ-m-l/means "work" in Standard Arabic but has a broader meaning of "do" in Tunisian Arabic; and/m-ʃ-j/in Tunisian Arabic means "go" rather than "walk" as in Standard Arabic.[72]
In general, meaning shift happens when there is a lexical implication of the society speaking the language so the social situation and the thoughts of the speakers of the languages obliged them to change the meaning of some words so their language could be adapted to their situation[253][254]and that is exactly what happened in Tunisia.[90]In fact, the influences of rhetoric and semantic structures from other contact languages like French helped the meaning shift in Tunisian.[74][90]
Word fusion
editIn Tunisian, some new words and structures were created through the fusion of two words or more.[citation needed]Almost all question words fall into the latter category. The question words are noticeable by beginning or ending with the soundšorāšand are not to be confused with the negation mark,š,which agrees verbs, as inmā mšītšما مشيتش (I did not go).[72]
The table below shows a comparison of various question words in Tunisian, Standard Arabic and English:[72][128]
| Tunisian Arabic | Construction | Standard Arabic | English |
|---|---|---|---|
| škūnشكون | āš + kūnآش + كون | من/man/ | who |
| šnūwaشنو(masc.) šnīya (fem.)شني āšآش |
āš + n + (h)ūwaآش + هو āš + n + (h)īyaآش + هي āšآش |
ماذا/maːða/ | what |
| waqtāšوقتاش | waqt + āšوقت + آش | متى/mata/ | when |
| lwāšلواش | l- + āšل + آش | لماذا/limaːða/ | for what reason |
| ʿlāšعلاش | ʿlā + āšعلى + آش | لماذا/limaːða/ | why |
| kīfāšكيفاش | kīf + āšكيف + آش | كيف/kajfa/ | how |
| qaddāšقدّاش | qadd + āšقدّ + آش | كم/kam/ | how much |
| mnāšمناش | min + āšمن + آش | من أين/manʔajna/ | from what |
| fāšفاش | fī + āšفي + آش | في من/fiman/ | in what, what |
| wīnوين | w + aynو + اين | أين/ʔajna/ | where |
Some of the question words can be merged with other structures such as the prepositions and object pronouns. For example, "who are you" becomes شكونك إنتškūnik intīor simply شكونكškūnikand "how much is this" becomes بقدّاشb-qaddāš.[citation needed]
Another example of word fusion in Tunisian is the formation of numerals between 11 and 19, which are pronounced as one word, composed of the name of the digit obtained by subtracting 10 to the number and the suffix طاشṭāšderived from the standard Arabic word عَشَرَ /ʕaʃara/, those numbers are in order: احداشaḥdāš,اثناشθṇāš,ثلطّاشθlaṭṭāš,أربعطاشaṛbaʿṭāš,خمسطاشxmasṭāš,سطّاشsitṭāš,سبعطاشsbaʿṭāš,ثمنطاشθmanṭāšand تسعطاشtsaʿṭāš.[citation needed]
Pattern and root-based creation of new words
editIn Tunisian Arabic, as in otherSemitic languages,the creation of new words is based on a root and pattern system, also known as theSemitic root.[255]That means that new words can be created through the association of a root that is composed most of the time of three letters that have a meaning with a rhythm or pattern that informs about the position of the object in the fact.[255]For example, K-T-B is a root meaningto writeand مفعول maf‘ūlis a pattern meaning that the object submitted the fact. Thus, the combination of the root and the given pattern rendermaKTūB,which means something that was written.[255]
Conjugation in Tunisian
editIn this representation, we are going to use Latin letters from theStandard Tunisian Alphabet
| Pronouns in Eng | Pronouns | Present | Past | Future | Imperative | Passive form | Subjunctive I | Subjunctive II | Conditional |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| I | Ena | Nqoul | Qolt | Beç nqoul | Netqal | Kên nqoul | Rani nqoul | Taw nqoul | |
| You sg. | Enti | Tqoul | Qolt | Beç tqoul | Qoul | Tetqal | Kên tqoul | Rak tqoul | Taw tqoul |
| She | Hia | Tqoul | Qalet | Beç tqoul | Tetqal | Kên tqoul | Rahi tqoul | Taw tqoul | |
| He | Houa | Yqoul | Qal | Beç yqoul | Yetqal | Kên yqoul | Rahu yqoul | Taw yqoul | |
| We | Aħna | Nqoulu | Qolna | Beç nqoulu | netqalu | Kên nqoulu | Rana nqoulu | Taw nqoulu | |
| You pl. | Entuma | Tqoulu | Qoltu | Beç tqoulu | Qoulu | Tetqalu | Kên tqoulu | Rakom tqoulu | Taw tqoul |
| They | Huma | Yqoulu | Qalu | Beç yqoulu | Yetqalu | Kên yqoulu | Rahom yqoulu | Taw yqoulu |
Studying Tunisian verbs, we have found out that we can classify verbs depending on the number and the position of consonants and vowels in a verb. There are more than 11 possible verb patterns/groups, however Tunisians mostly use 4-5: CVC-CCV-CCVC-CVCC-CV.
Some examples of infinitive verbs from each category:
- CVC: Qal (to say), Çêf (to see), Qaas (to measure), Zeed (to add/to increase).
- CVCC: Ħatt (to put), Ħäbb (to love/to want), Jeewb (to respond/to answer), Xaalf (to disagree).
- CCV: Klee (to eat), Msce (to go), Qra (to read/to study)
- CCVC: Scrab (to drink), Sreq (to steal), Staad (to hunt), Mteez (to be different or special at something).
- CV: Je (to come), Ra (to see, less commonly used).
Concerning the conjugation, each verb group has its way:
Verbs starting with one consonant:
| Pronouns in Eng | Pronouns | Present | Past | Imperative |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| I | Ena | n+gav | gav+t | |
| You sg. | Enti | t+gav | gav+t | gav |
| He | Houa | y+gav | infinitive | |
| She | Hia | t+gav | infinitive+(e)t | |
| We | Aħna | n+gav+u | gav+na | |
| You pl. | Entuma | t+gav+u | gav+tu | gav+u |
| They | Huma | y+gav+u | infinitive+u |
As for CVCC verbs, things might change a bit. Both simple-voweled verbs and double-voweled ones will be conjugated differently.
| Pronouns in Eng | Pronouns | Present | Past | Imperative |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| I | Ena | n+gav | infinitive+it | |
| You sg. | Enti | t+gav | infinitive+it | gav |
| He | Houa | y+gav | infinitive | |
| She | Hia | t+gav | infinitive+et | |
| We | Aħna | n+gav+u | infinitive+ina | |
| You pl. | Entuma | t+gav+u | infinitive+itu | gav+u |
| they | huma | y+gav+u | infinitive+u |
| Pronouns in Eng | Pronouns | Present | Past | Imperative |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| I | Ena | n+infinitive | CVC+e+C+t | |
| You sg. | Enti | t+infinitive | CVC+e+C+t | infinitive |
| He | Houa | y+infinitive | infinitive | |
| She | Hia | t+infinitive | infinitive+et | |
| We | Aħna | n+infinitive+u | CVC+e+C+na | |
| You pl. | Entuma | t+infinitive+u | CVC+e+C+tu | infinitive+u |
| they | huma | y+infinitive+u | CVC+e+C+u |
Examples:
Jeewb:
- Huma: y+infinitve+u → y+jeewb+u →Yjeewbu(they answer).
Seefr:
- Aħna: CVC+e+C+na → seef+e+r+na →Seeferna(We travelled).
Note:
gav,as seen in the charts, orthe grammatical aspect of the verbrepresents the new form, a verb could take corresponding to the tense.
It's just replacing the V in its CVC or CVCC form by another vowel Vs
| Example | V | Vs | Vs | Vs | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present | Past | Imperative | |||
| Qal | a | ou | o | ou | "to say" |
| Scêf | ê | ou | o | ou | "to see" |
| Qaas | aa | i | e | i | "to measure" |
| Zeed | ee | i | e | i | "to add" |
Depending on this chart, we can know the shifted vowels and be able to conjugate verbs in every tense.
gav(CVC)=CVsC, gav(CVCC)=CVsCC.
- Ena: n+gav(qal) → n+qoul → Nqoul (I say).
- Entuma: gav(zeed)+tu → zed+tu → Zedtu (you added).
Of course there are some exceptions like "Thaë" (to be lost) and "Xaf" (to be scared).
| Example | V | Vs | Vs | Vs | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present | Past | Imperative | |||
| Ħatt | a | o | o | "to put" | |
| Ħäbb | ä | e | e | "to love/want" | |
| Xaalf | aa | "to disagree" | |||
| Jeewb | ee | "to respond/answer" |
Other examples:
Fädd:
- Entuma: t+gav(fädd)+u → t+fedd+u → Tfeddu. (you get bored)
Ħatt:
- Hia: infinitive+et → ħatt+et → Ħattet. (she put)
Ëaawd
- Enti: infinitive → Ëaawd. (repeat!)
Verbs starting with two consonants:
Ongoing work
Phonology
editThis article shouldspecify the languageof its non-English content, using{{langx}},{{transliteration}}for transliterated languages, and{{IPA}}for phonetic transcriptions, with an appropriateISO 639 code.Wikipedia'smultilingual support templatesmay also be used.(May 2019) |
There are several differences in pronunciation between Standard and Tunisian Arabic.Nunationdoes not exist in Tunisian Arabic, and shortvowelsare frequently omitted, especially if they would occur as the final element of anopen syllable,which was probably encouraged by the Berbersubstratum.[127][251][256]
However, there are some more specific characteristics related to Tunisian Arabic like the phenomenon ofmetathesis.[256]
Metathesis
editMetathesis is the shift of the position of the first vowel of the word.[256][257]It occurs when the unconjugated verb or unsuffixed noun begins with CCVC, where C is an ungeminated consonant and V is a short vowel.[256][257][258]When a suffix is added to this kind of noun or when the verb is conjugated, the first vowel changes of position and the verb or noun begins with CVCC.[256][257][258]
For example:
- (he) wrotein Tunisian Arabic becomes كتبktiband(she) wrotein Tunisian Arabic becomes كتبتkitbit.[121][256]
- some stuffin Tunisian Arabic becomes دبشdbašandmy stuffin Tunisian Arabic becomes دبشيdabšī.[121][256]
| The English pronoun | Pronoun | Dbaš | Wdhin | 3mor |
| I | Ena | Dabši | Widhni | 3omri |
| You sg. | Enty | Dabšk | Widhnk | 3omrk |
| He | Houa | Dabšu | Withnu | 3omru |
| She | Hia | Dbašha | Wthinha | 3morha |
| We | Aħna | Dbašna | Wthinna | 3morna |
| You pl. | Entuma | Dbaškom | Wthinkom | 3morkom |
| They | Huma | Dbaš'hom' | Wthinhom | 3morhom |
Stress
editStress is not phonologically distinctive[257]and is determined by the word's syllable structure. Hence,
- it falls on the ultimate syllable if it is doubly closed:[257]سروالsirwāl(trousers).
- Otherwise, it falls on thepenultimate syllable,[72]if there is one: جريدةjarīda(newspaper).
- Stress falls on all the word if there is only one syllable within it:[257]مراmṛa(woman).
- Affixes are treated as part of the word:[257]نكتبولكمniktbūlkum(we write to you).
For example:
Assimilation
editAssimilation is a phonological process in Tunisian Arabic.[73][128][257]The possible assimilations are:
| /ttˤ/ > /tˤː/ | /tˤt/ > /tˤː/ | /χh/ > /χː/ | /χʁ/ > /χː/ |
| /tɡ/ > /dɡ/ | /fd/ > /vd/ | /ħh/ > /ħː/ | /nl/ > /lː/ |
| /sd/ > /zd/ | /td/ > /dː/ | /dt/ > /tː/ | /ln/ > /nː/ |
| /hʕ/ > /ħː/ | /tð/ > /dð/ | /hħ/ > /ħː/ | /nr/ > /rː/ |
| /nf/ > /mf/ | /qk/ > /qː/ | /kq/ > /qː/ | /lr/ > /rː/ |
| /ndn/ > /nː/ | /ħʕ/ > /ħː/ | /ʁh/ > /χː/ | /ʕh/ > /ħː/ |
| /ʃd/ > /ʒd/ | /fC/1> /vC/1 | /bC/2> /pC/2 | /nb/ > /mb/ |
| /ʕħ/ > /ħː/ | /tz/ > /d͡z/ | /tʒ/ > /d͡ʒ/ |
Consonants
editTunisian Arabicqāfhas[q]and[ɡ]as reflexes in respectively sedentary and nomadic varieties:he saidis[qɑːl]instead of[ɡɑːl]). However, some words have the same form[ɡ]whatever the dialect:cowis always[baɡra][259](the /g/ deriving from an originally Arabic [q]), and a specific species ofdateis always[digla][260](the /g/ deriving from an originally Semitic [q] - e.g.Aramaic:/diqla/: date tree). Sometimes, substituting [g] by [q] can change the meaning of a word.[121]For example, garn means "horn" and qarn means "century".[121]
Interdental fricatives are also maintained for several situations, except in the Sahil dialect.[261]
Furthermore, Tunisian Arabic merged/dˤ/⟨ض⟩with/ðˤ/⟨ظ⟩.[262]
| Labial | Interdental | Dental/Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Pharyngeal | Glottal | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| plain | emphatic | plain | emphatic | plain | emphatic | |||||||
| Nasal | mm | (mˤ)ṃ | nn | (nˤ)ṇ | ||||||||
| stop | voiceless | (p)p | tt | tˤṭ | kk | (ʔ) | ||||||
| voiced | bb | (bˤ)ḅ | dd | ɡg | ||||||||
| Affricate | voiceless | (t͡s)ts | (t͡ʃ)tš | |||||||||
| voiced | (d͡z)dz | |||||||||||
| Fricative | voiceless | ff | θþ | ss | sˤṣ | ʃš | χx | ħḥ | hh | |||
| voiced | (v)v | ðð | ðˤḍ | zz | (zˤ)ẓ | ʒj | ʁġ | ʕʿ | ||||
| Trill | rr | rˤṛ | ||||||||||
| Approximant | ll | ɫḷ | jy | ww | ||||||||
Phonetic notes:
- The emphatic consonants /mˤ, nˤ, bˤ, zˤ/ rarely occur, and most of them are found in words of non-Arabic etymology.[65][94][128]Minimal pairsare not always easy to find for these contrasts, but there are nonetheless examples, which show that these marginal forms do not representallophonesof other phonemes.[72][251]For example:
- These emphatic consonants occur before or after the vowels/a/and/aː/.[72][128]A different analysis is that the posited allophones of/a/and/aː/are phonemically distinct, and it is the marginal emphatic consonants that are allophonic.[7][251][257]
- /p/ and /v/ are found in words of non-Arabic etymology and are usually replaced by /b/, like inḅāḅūrandḅāla.However, they are preserved in some words, likepīsīnandtalvza.[72][65][257]
- /t͡ʃ/ and /d͡z/ are rarely used, for exampletšīša,dzīṛaanddzāyir.[65][263]
- The glottal stop /ʔ/ is usually dropped but tends to occur in the learnedregister,in loans from Standard Arabic, often inmaṣdar(verbal noun) forms at the onset of the word but also in other words like/biːʔa/"environment" and/jisʔal/"he asks", though many (mainly less educated) speakers substitute/ʔ/for/h/in the latter word.[72][65]
- Like inStandard Arabic,shadda"gemination"is very likely to occur in Tunisian. For example,haddadهدد meaning to threaten.[257]
Vowels
editThere are two primary analyses of Tunisian vowels:
- Three vowel qualities,/a,i,u/and a large number of emphatic consonants, namely/tˤ,sˤ,ðˤ,rˤ,lˤ,zˤ,nˤ,mˤ,bˤ/./a/has distinct allophones nearguttural(emphatic, uvular and pharyngeal) consonants ([ɐ], [ä]) and near non-guttural consonants ([æ]).[72][128]
- Four vowel qualities,/æ,ɐ,i,u/,and only the three phonemic emphatic consonants/tˤ,sˤ,ðˤ/.The other emphatic consonants are allophones found in the environment of/ɐ/.[7][65][121]
The first analysis is suggested by comparing otherMaghrebi Arabicdialects, likeAlgerianandMoroccan Arabic,where the same phenomenon of vocalic allophony happens for /u/ and /i/ as well.[205]
Regardless of the analysis, Hilalian influence has provided the additional vowels/eː/and/oː/to the Sahil and southeastern dialects. These two long vowels are reflexes of thediphthongs/aj/ and /aw/.[4][130][128]
| Front | Back | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| unrounded | rounded | |||||
| short | long | long | short | long | ||
| Close | ɪi | iːī | (yː)ü | uu | uːū | |
| Open-mid | oral | eːā | (œː)ë | (ʊː)ʊ | (oː)o | |
| nasal | (ɛ̃)iñ | (ɔ̃)uñ | ||||
| Open | (ɑ̃)añ | |||||
| oral | æa | ɐa | ɐːā | |||
- By assuming that pharyngealisation is a property of consonants, most dialects have three vowel qualities/a,i,u/,all also distinguished for length, as in Standard Arabic.[65][127]
- The length distinction is suspended at the end of the word. A final vowel is realised long in accent-bearing words of one syllable (For example, جاءjā[ʒeː]he came), otherwise short.[72][65]
- In non-pharyngealised environments, the open vowel/a/is[e]in stressed syllables and[æ]or[ɛ]in unstressed syllables. In pharyngealised environments, the open vowel is[ɑ].[72][65][130]
- /ɔː/and nasal vowels are rare in native words, for most of the varieties of Tunisian and mainly for the Tunis dialect, like منقوبة mañqūba and لنڨار lañgār and mainly occur in French loans.[128][251]/yː/and/œː/only exist in French loanwords.[72][65]
- Unlike other Maghrebi dialects,[205]shortuandiarereducedto[o]and[e]when written between two consonants unless when they are in stressed syllables.[264][265]
Syllables and pronunciation simplification
editTunisian Arabic has a very different syllable structure from Standard Arabic like all other Northwest African varieties.[11]While Standard Arabic can have only one consonant at the beginning of a syllable, after which a vowel must follow, Tunisian Arabic commonly has two consonants in theonset.[251]For example, Standard Arabicbookis كتاب/kitaːb/,while in Tunisian Arabic it is ktāb.[72][65]
Thesyllable nucleusmay contain a short or long vowel, and at the end of the syllable, in thecoda,it may have up to three consonants ما دخلتش (/madχaltʃ/I did not enter). Standard Arabic can have no more than two consonants in this position.[72][65]
Word-internal syllables are generallyheavyin that they either have a long vowel in the nucleus or consonant in the coda.[72][65]
Non-final syllables composed of just a consonant and a short vowel (light syllables) are very rare, generally in loans from Standard Arabic. Short vowels in this position have generally been lost (Syncope), resulting in the many initial CC clusters. For example, جواب/ʒawaːb/replyis a loan from Standard Arabic, but the same word has the natural development/ʒwaːb/,which is the usual word forletter.[72][65]
As well as those characteristics, Tunisian Arabic is also known for differently pronouncing words according to their orthography and position within a text.[266][267]This phenomenon is known as pronunciation simplification[268]and has four rules:
- [iː] and [ɪ], at the end of a word, are pronounced [i]. Also, [uː] and [u] are pronounced [u]. [aː], [ɛː], [a] and [æ] are pronounced [æ].[269][270]For example, yībdā is practically pronounced as[jiːbdæ][271][272]
- If a word finishes with a vowel and the next word begins with a short vowel, the short vowel and the space between the two words are not pronounced (Elision).[251][256][273]The phenomenon is seen clearly when Arabic texts are compared to their Latin phonemic transliteration in several works.[121]
- If a word begins with two successive consonants, anepenthetic[ɪ] is added at the beginning.[79][121][271]
- A sequence of three consonants, not followed by a vowel, is broken up with an epenthetic [ɪ] before the third consonant.[94][214]For example: يكتب yiktib,يكتبوا yiktbū.[94][214]
Morphology
editNouns and adjectives in Tunisian Arabic are classified into nouns that have a regular plural and nouns that have an irregular plural.[72][128]Several nouns in Tunisian Arabic even havedual forms.[72][65][121]Irregular orbroken pluralsare broadly similar to those of Standard Arabic.[72][128]gendershift is achieved for singular nouns and adjectives by adding an -a suffix.[72][65]However, this cannot occur for most plural nouns.[72][128]
Tunisian Arabic has five types of pronouns:personal,possessive,demonstrative,indirect objectandindefinite pronouns.[72][128]Unlike in Standard Arabic, there is a unique pronoun for the second person singular and a unique pronoun for the second person in plural.[72][65]Furthermore, there are three types of articles:definite,demonstrativeandpossessive articles.[72][128]Most of them can be written before or after the noun.[72][65]
As for verbs, they are conjugated in five tenses:perfective,imperfective,future,imperative,conditional presentandconditional pastTenses and in four forms:affirmative,exclamative,interrogativeandnegativeforms.[72][65]They can be preceded by modal verbs to indicate a particular intention, situation, belief or obligation when they are conjugated in perfective or imperfective tenses.[72][65]Questions in Tunisian Arabic can be āš (wh question) or īh/lā (yes–no question).[72][128]
Thequestion wordsfor āš questions can be either a pronoun or an adverb.[72][128]As fornegation,it is usually done using the structure mā verb+š.[72][65]
There are three types of nouns that can be derived from verbs:present participle,past participleandverbal noun.There are even nouns derived from simple verbs having the rootfʿalorfaʿlil.[72][65]The same is true in Standard Arabic. Tunisian Arabic also involves severalprepositionsandconjunctions.[72][128]These structures ultimately derive from those of Standard Arabic, even if they are radically different in modern Tunisian because of heavy influence fromBerber,Latinand otherEuropean languages.[72][65]
Semantics and pragmatics
editDiscourses in Tunisian Arabic are likely to use some rhetorical styles likemetaphors.[274]Furthermore, Tunisian Arabic styles and tenses hold several figurative meanings.[275]For example, the use of past tense can mean that the situation is uncontrollable.[276]As well, the use of the third person pronouns can be figurative to mean saints and/or supernatural beings[277]and the use of demonstrative can have figurative meanings like underestimation.[278]Moreover, the name of some parts of the body can be used in several expressions to get figurative meanings.[276][279][280]That is entitled the embodiment.[279]
Some structures like nouns and verbs have figurative meanings,[121]and the use and the adoption of these figurative meanings depends on the circumstances of the discourse like the political situation of the country and the ages of the people participating in the discussion.[281][282]
International influences
editSeveral Tunisian words were used in the lyrics of some famous Arabic songs and poems like ʿaslāma ofMajda Al Roumi.[283]Furthermore, some famous Arabic singers were acknowledged for singing several old Tunisian Arabic songs likeHussain Al Jassmi[284]andDina Hayek.[285]Tunisian Arabic influenced several Berber dialects by transferring to them several Arabic or Tunisian structures and words.[286]It was as well the origin ofMaltese[19][287]and some of its words likeبريكBrīk andفريكسايfrīkasāy were inspired by French as loanwords.[288]The Il-Ṭalyānī Tunisian Arabic word meaning "the Italian" (الطلياني) was used as a title of a novel in standard Arabic which received the Booker Prize for Arabic literature in 2015.[289]Also, several prestigious television series from other Arabic countries like the Lebanese Cello Series involved a character talking in Tunisian Arabic.[290]
See also
edit
Notes and references
edit- ^abTunisian ArabicatEthnologue(27th ed., 2024)
- ^abCaubet, Dominique (November–December 2004)."La 'darja', langue de culture en France"(PDF).Hommes et Migrations(in French) (1252,Langues de France):34–44.doi:10.3406/homig.2004.4263.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 24 September 2015.
- ^abcdBarontini, Alexandrine (2007)."Valorisation des langues vivantes en France: le cas de l'arabe maghrébin".Le français aujourd'hui(in French) (158):20–27.doi:10.3917/lfa.158.0020.ISSN2107-0857.Archived fromthe originalon 24 September 2015.
- ^abcde(in French)Cantineau, Jean-Pierre. (1951) "Analyse du parler arabe d'El-Hâmma de Gabès" Bulletin de la Société Linguistique de Paris 47, pp. 64–105
- ^abc(in French)Boris, G. (1951). Documents linguistiques et ethnographiques sur une région du Sud Tunisien (Néfzaoua). Imprimerie nationale de France.
- ^ab(in French)Boris, G. (1958). Lexique du parler arabe des Marazig. Klincksieck.
- ^abcdefghijklBaccouche, T.; Skik, H.; Attia, A. (1969).Travaux de Phonologie, parlers de Djemmal, Gabès et Mahdia(in French). Tunis: Cahiers du CERES.
- ^abcdefghSayahi, Lotfi (24 April 2014).Diglossia and Language Contact: Language Variation and Change in North Africa.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1-139-86707-8.
- ^Wehr, Hans (1979).A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic: (Arab.-Engl.).Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 319.ISBN3447020024.Retrieved30 September2017.
- ^Elimam, Abdou (2009)."Du Punique au Maghribi: Trajectoires d'une langue sémito-méditerranéenne"(PDF).Synergies Tunisie(1):29–38. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 17 December 2014.
- ^abcdTilmatine, Mohand (1999)."Substrat et convergences: Le berbére et l'arabe nord-africain".Estudios de Dialectologia Norteafricana y Andalusi(in French).4:99–119.
- ^abCorriente, Federico (1992).Árabe andalusí y lenguas romances(in Spanish). Fundación MAPFRE.ISBN84-7100-208-6.
- ^Benramdane, Farid (1998). "« Le maghribi, langue trois fois millénaire » de ELIMAM, Abdou (Ed. ANEP, Alger 1997)".Insaniyat(6):129–130.doi:10.4000/insaniyat.12102.S2CID161182954.
- ^Leddy-Cecere, Thomas A. (2010).Contact, Restructuring, and Decreolization: The Case of Tunisian Arabic(PDF)(Thesis). Dartmouth College. pp. 10–12–50–77.
- ^Wexler, Paul (1 February 2012).The Non-Jewish Origins of the Sephardic Jews.State University of New York Press.ISBN978-1-4384-2393-7.
- ^abcdefghijklmnZribi, I.; Boujelbane, R.; Masmoudi, A.; Ellouze, M.; Belguith, L.; Habash, N. (2014). "A Conventional Orthography for Tunisian Arabic".Proceedings of the Language Resources and Evaluation Conference (LREC), Reykjavik, Iceland.
- ^abcdefDaoud, Mohamed (2001). "The Language Situation in Tunisia".Current Issues in Language Planning.2:1–52.doi:10.1080/14664200108668018.S2CID144429547.
- ^abcMejri, S.; Said, M.; Sfar, I. (2009)."Pluringuisme et diglossie en Tunisie"(PDF).Synergies Tunisie(in French) (1):53–74.
- ^abcdAzzopardi-Alexander, Marie; Borg, Albert (1997).Maltese.Routledge. p. xiii.ISBN9780415657150.
The immediate source for the Arabic vernacular spoken in Malta was Muslim Sicily, but its ultimate origin appears to have been Tunisia. In fact, Maltese displays some areal traits typical of Maghrebi Arabic although during the past 800 years of independent evolution it has drifted apart from Tunisian Arabic.
- ^"The Language in Tunisia, Tunisia | TourismTunisia.com".www.tourismtunisia.com.Retrieved31 July2017.
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{{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^(in French)Goursau, H. (2012). Le tour du monde en 180 langues. éd. Goursau.ISBN2-904105-36-0
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- ^abcdefg(in French)Fakhfakh, N. (2007). Le répertoire musical de la confrérie religieuse "al-Karrâriyya" de Sfax (Tunisie) (Doctoral dissertation, Paris8).
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- ^Bacha, Mohamed (25 December 2013).Tunisian Arabic in 30 Lessons: A Course in Tunsi: The Spoken Language in Tunisia.CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.ISBN978-1494706982.
- ^Bacha, Mohamed (17 November 2015).Tunisian Arabic - English Dictionary.CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.ISBN978-1519363428.
- ^Tunisian Folklore: Folktales. Songs. Proverbs.Tunisian Arabic 24. 28 October 2017.
- ^Bacha, Mohamed (14 March 2018).Jabra and the Lion Jabra W ESSid: Folktale by the Great Tunisian Storyteller Abdelaziz el Aroui Multilingual Edition of English, Tunisian Arabic (Arabic and Latin Scripts), French, Italian.CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.ISBN978-1986496087.
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- ^ab.The linguist and author Mohamed Bacha was the first to adapt some folktales from the oral tradition into bilingual publications in English and Tunisian Arabic, using a special latin transliteration system. Mohamed Bacha's transformation of Tunisian oral literature into written form includes folktales such asummī sīsī(in French)and folktales told decades ago on radio by the famous storyteller Abdelaziz El Aroui, such as Jabra and the lion,jabra w essid,The great and marvelous Akarek,all met with success by readers worldwide.,(rabe/Contes Takamtikou BNF (2015). Contes du monde arabe. Bibliothèque Nationale de France, BNF 2015
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- ^abc(in Tunisian Arabic)Hédi Balegh, Le Petit Prince, avec des dessins de l'auteur. Traduit en arabe tunisien par Hédi Balegh, éd. Maison tunisienne de l'édition, Tunis, 1997
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- ^abc(in French)Manoubi Snoussi, Initiation à la musique tunisienne, vol. I "Musique classique", Tunis, Centre des musiques arabes et méditerranéennes Ennejma Ezzahra, 2004
- ^abc(in French)Hamadi Abassi, Tunis chante et danse. 1900–1950, Tunis/Paris, Alif/Du Layeur, 2001
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- ^abc"Home".tunisianarabic24.blogspot.com.
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