Turkey in NATO

Turkeyhas been a member ofNATOsince 1952, has its second largest army and is the host of theAllied Land Commandheadquarters. TheIncirlikandKonya Airbaseshave both been involved in several NATO military operations since their establishment. The current ambassador to NATO isZeki Levent Gümrükçü.^[1]^[2]

Background

Turkey yearned to become a member of NATO because it wanted a security guarantee against a potential invasion by theSoviet Union,which made several overtures towards control of theStraits of the Dardanelles.^[3]In March 1945, the Soviets terminated the Treaty of Friendship andNon Aggressionto which the Soviet Union and Turkey had agreed in 1925.^[4]In June 1945, the Soviets demanded the establishment of Soviet bases on the Straits in exchange for a reinstatement of this treaty.^[4]The Turkish PresidentIsmet Inönuand the Speaker of the Parliament responded decisively, avowing Turkey's readiness to defend itself.^[4]

Accession

In 1948, Turkey began indicating its desire for NATO membership,^[5]and throughout 1948 and 1949 American officials responded negatively towards Turkish requests for inclusion.^[6]In May 1950, during Ismet Inönü's presidency, Turkey made its first formal accession bid, which was denied by the NATO member states.^[7]In August the same year and just days after Turkey pledged a Turkish contingent for theKorean War,a second bid was made.^[7]After theUnder Secretary of State Dean Achesoncoordinated with France and the United Kingdom in September 1950, the NATO command invited both Greece and Turkey to present their plans for an eventual defense cooperation.^[8]^[9]Turkey acceded, but expressed disappointment that full membership within NATO was not considered.^[10]When US bureaucratGeorge McGheevisited Turkey in February 1951, Turkish presidentCelal Bayaremphasized that Turkey expected a full membership, particularly after sending troops to the Korean War.^[10]Turkey wanted a security guarantee in case a conflict with theSoviet Unionarose.^[11]After further evaluations taken at the NATO headquarters and by officials of theCentral Intelligence Agency(CIA) and the US Military, it was decided in May 1951 to offer Turkey full membership.^[12]The potential role Turkey could play in a war against the Soviet Union was seen as important for NATO.^[12]Throughout 1951, the US worked on convincing its fellow NATO allies of the advantages of Turkey's and Greece's membership within the alliance.^[12]In February 1952, Bayar signed the document confirming its accession.^[13]

NATO military bases in Turkey

Incirlik Air Basein 1987

Incirlik air basehas been a military air base since the 1950s and since then has gained more and more importance.^[14]It was built between 1951 and 1952 by US military contractors and has been in operation since 1955.^[15]In the base are stationed an estimated 50nuclear weapons.^[16]TheKonya airbasewas established in 1983 and hostsAWACSsurveillance jets for NATO.^[17]Since December 2012, the headquarters of NATOLand Forceshas been located inBucanearİzmiron theAegean Sea.^[18]^[19]TheAllied Air Commandfor Southern Europe was also based in Buca between 2004 and 2013.^[18]Since 2012, theKürecik radar stationlocated about 500 km from Iran, is in service as part of theNATO missile defence system.^[20]

NATO cooperation

Korea

The first military deployment in view to NATO was in the Korean War from July 1950 onwards.^[21]Turkey deployed 4500 soldiers to theUnited Nations Commandin support of the South Koreans.^[21]The Turkish soldiers left a good impression with their American allies, who awarded them with theDistinguished Unit Citation.^[21]While Turkey was not a member of NATO at the time, the troops were pledged in view of a potential NATO membership.^[11]

Afghanistan

Between 2001 and 2021, Turkey sent troops to NATO's involvement in Afghanistan.^[22]First into theInternational Security Assistance Force(ISAF) until 2014 and then also to theResolute Support Missionbetween 2020 and 2021.^[22]After anagreementbetween the United States and theTalibanfor a withdrawal of US and NATO troops, they left from May 2021 onwards.^[23]

Syria

After theSyrian Civil Warerupted, Turkey was provided with NATO assistance consisting of aPatriot air defense systemin December 2012.^[24]The US sent two batteries and 400 soldiers while Germany and the Netherlands pledged modern weaponry for the system, meant against potential missiles strikes from Syria.^[25]Turkey also demanded ano-fly zonein Syria, but this was not considered by NATO.^[26]The Netherlands withdrew their support in January 2015 and Germany and the United States the same year in August.^[27]

Operation Active Endeavour

After terrorist attacks against theTwin Towers on 11 September 2001,NATO launchedOperation Active Endeavourin theMediterranean Seato monitor the maritime traffic.^[28]TheTurkish navyparticipated in this operation.^[28]

Balkan Pact

The formation of theBalkan Pact (1953)in 1954 by Turkey, Greece and Yugoslavia was initially objected to by Italy, who demanded that NATO be consulted, before other NATO members make new military agreements with Non-NATO countries.^[29]But the other members did not see this as necessary and the agreement was signed inBled,in present-day Slovenia in August 1954.^[29]

Relations with NATO member states

Greece

Greece and Turkey entered the coalition together in 1952.^[30]Over the Cyprus dispute with Turkey, Greece's involvement in NATO diminished gradually, as in 1964 Greece withdrew troops,^[31]and in 1974, the year of theTurkish invasion of Cyprus,it also withdrew from the military wing of NATO deeming it not worthy to exist if it could not find a solution to this conflict.^[30]In 1980 Greece returned. Turkey later saw allowing this to happen as a mistake, as Erdogan accused Greece of giving refuge to "terrorists".^[32]

United States

The United States is an important NATO ally with over a thousand military personnel stationed in Turkey.^[33]TheNorth Atlantic Treaty Regarding the Status of Their Forces(SOFA) signed in 1952 and 1954 also granted NATO the right to build facilities in Turkey such as the Incirlik air base.^[33]As after theTurkish invasion of Cyprusin 1974, the USA imposed a weapons embargo because Turkey used military equipment produced in the US, and Turkey expelled all US military personnel except the ones involved in NATO activities.^[34]In 1978, the US lifted the weapon embargo.^[35]In 2017 Turkey objected to weapons deliveries by the US toPeople's Defense Units(YPG) because it would violate NATO rules.^[36]

France

As in 2019 the United States decided to withdraw from northeast Syria and make way forTurkey to invade the areadespite several NATO member states being opposed to a military operation, French PresidentEmmanuel Macroncalled NATO brain-dead as he would have preferred better cooperation between NATO allies.^[37]The Turkish military operation was directed against thePeoples Defense Units(YPG) involved in the fight against theIslamic State(IS).^[37]Macron alleged that Turkey should not expect support from NATO member states if the Turkish military operation was not halted.^[37]A diplomatic spat followed, with Recep Tayyip Erdogan asking Macron if he was brain-dead himself and France summoning theTurkish ambassador.^[37]The invasion ended after the Vice President of the United States came to an agreement with Turkey for a ceasefire in order to keep US troops involved in the fight against the Islamic state in safety.^[38]In May 2022, when Turkey discussed the possibility of an additional incursion, the United States again warned against such an undertaking.^[38]

Baltic defense plan

NATO established a plan to defend theBaltic statesafter theRussian annexation of the Crimeain 2014.^[39]The plan was dubbed Eagle Defender, but was not implemented at the time due to Turkish objections.^[39]Turkey wanted NATO officials to classify thePeople's Defense Units(YPG) as a terrorist organization in exchange for its approval for the plan.^[39]In July 2020, Turkey withdrew its objection, and Eagle Defender was able to come into practice.^[39]

Finnish and Swedish accession bids

WhenFinland and Sweden made their accession bids to NATOin May 2022, Turkey was the only NATO member to oppose their membership due to the harboring ofKurdistan Workers' Party(PKK),Democratic Union Party (Syria)(PYD),People's Defense Units(YPG) and ofGülen movementmembers that Turkey sees as terrorists.^[40]^[41]Diplomats of the two Nordic countries arrived in Ankara to negotiate, but the negotiations were not to the satisfaction of Erdogan, who was offended by the fact that the Syrian Kurdish politicianSalih Muslimwas seen onSveriges Televisionthe same day Nordic diplomats were in Ankara to negotiate.^[42]Nationalist Movement Party(MHP) leaderDevlet Bahçelisuggested that a scenario in which Turkey would leave NATO should be considered an option.^[43]In late May 2022, opposition leaderKemal Kiliçdarogluargued that if the accession row persisted, AKP and MHP would decide to close theIncirlik Airbase,theRepublican People's Party(CHP) would also support it.^[44]At the end of May 2022,^[45]On 18 May 2022, Turkey quickly blocked the accession applications of Finland and Sweden.^[46]Turkish Foreign MinisterMevlüt Çavuşoğludemanded that Finland and Sweden adapt their laws, if this had to be done in order to address Turkish security concerns.^[47]On 28 June 2022, during theNATO summitin Madrid, Turkey agreed to support the accession bids of Finland and Sweden.^[48]On 30 June 2022, Turkish PresidentRecep Tayyip Erdoğanannounced that the accession protocols of Finland and Sweden would not be approved in theTurkish Grand National Assemblyif the necessary conditions of the tripartite memorandum are not met.^[49]Eventually Finland received Turkey approval on the 30 March 2023, but Sweden not.^[50]On 1 April 2023, Erdoğan signed and approved the proposal containing Finland's accession protocol.^[51]Just prior to the NATO summit in Vilnius in July 2023, Erdoğan linkedSweden's accession to NATO membershiptoTurkey's application for EU membership.Turkey had applied for EU membership in 1999, but talks made little progress since 2016.^[52]^[53]On July 10, 2023, Turkish President Erdogan agreed to support Sweden's NATO bid.^[54] On 23 January 2024, theTurkish Parliamentaccepted Sweden's accession bid with a vote of 287 in favor, 55 against and 4 abstained.^[55]On 25 January 2024, Erdoğan signed and approved the proposal containing Sweden's accession protocol.^[56]

Bilateral visits

NATO Secretary GeneralJens Stoltenbergmet with Turkish PresidentRecep Tayyip Erdoğan,Turkish Foreign MinisterMevlüt Çavuşoğluand Turkish Defense MinisterHulusi Akarin Istanbul on 3–5 November 2022 to hold talks regarding the membership ofFinlandandSweden.^[57]On 25 November 2024, NATO Secretary GeneralMark Ruttemet with Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, Turkish Foreign MinisterHakan Fidanand Turkish Defense MinisterYaşar Gülerin Ankara.^[58]

Controversy

Turkey's actions over the past decade have sparked significant controversy within NATO. Key points of contention include its purchase of Russian S-400 air defense systems, sustained energy and economic ties with Russia and China, independent military operations in Syria and Iraq, and military threats against NATO members and allies. These actions have consistently caused friction and raised concerns among other NATO members and allies.^[59]

In December 2020, theTrump administrationimposed sanctions on Turkey due to its acquisition of the RussianS-400 missile system.This $2.5 billion deal, brokered in 2017 between Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and Russian PresidentVladimir Putin,was viewed as a threat to NATO's security and the operational integrity of theF-35 program.Despite repeated US offers to sell thePatriot missile systeminstead, Turkey proceeded with the S-400 purchase, resulting in its removal from the F-35 program and the imposition of sanctions under the Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act. The sanctions targeted Turkey's Presidency of Defense Industries and its top officials, freezing assets and imposing visa restrictions.^[60]

In December 2022, Erdoğan threatened to strike the Greek capital ofAthenswith ballistic missiles. In a speech, he revealed that Turkey had begun producing its own short-range ballistic missiles, which he claimed were "frightening the Greeks." Erdogan stated, "(The Greeks) say 'It can hit Athens.' Of course, it will. If you don't stay calm, if you try to buy things from the United States and other places (to arm) the islands, a country like Turkey... has to do something." In response, Greek Foreign MinisterNikos Dendiascondemned the threats, describing them as "unacceptable and universally condemnable" and likened Erdogan's behavior to "North Korean attitudes." Dendias emphasized that such actions should not be part of NATO.^[61]

In July 2024, Erdoğan threatened to invadeIsrael,stating that Turkey might intervene as it had previously done inLibyaandNagorno-Karabakh.Erdoğan's threats, which followed a series of anti-Israel comments made by him in the past, came during a speech praising Turkey's defense industry and amidst escalating tensions between Israel and Hezbollah.^[62]^[63]^[64]Dutch politicianGeert Wilderscondemned Erdoğan's statements and called for Turkey's removal from NATO.^[65]