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Tushara

(Redirected fromTusharas)
For the literary magazine, seeTushara (magazine).For the region of Bactria, seeTokharistan.

The kingdom ofTushara,according toancient Indian literature,such as the epicMahabharata,was a land located beyond north-west India. In theMahabharata,its inhabitants, known as the Tusharas, are depicted asmlechchas( "barbarians" ) and fierce warriors.

Tushara Kingdom alongside other locations of kingdoms and republics mentioned in the Indian epics orBharata Khanda.

Modern scholars generally see Tushara as synonymous with the historical "Tukhara",also known asTokharaorTokharistan– another name forBactria.This area was the stronghold of theKushan Empire,which dominated India between the 1st and 3rd centuries CE.

Tukhara

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The historical Tukhara appears to be synonymous with the land known byAncient Chinesescholars asDaxia,from the 3rd century BCE onwards.

Its inhabitants were known later toAncient Greekscholars as theTokharoiand to theAncient RomansasTochari.Modern scholars appear to have conflated theTukharawith the so-calledTocharians– anIndo-European peoplewho lived in theTarim Basin,in present-day Xinjiang, China, until the 1st millennium. When theTocharian languagesof the Tarim were rediscovered in the early 20th century, most scholars accepted a hypothesis that they were linked to theTukhara(who were known to have migrated to Central Asia from China, with the other founding Kushan peoples). However, the subjects of the Tarim kingdoms appear to havereferred to themselvesby names such asAgni,KučiandKrorän.These peoples are also known to have spokencentum languages,whereas theTukharaof Bactria spoke asatem language.

TheTukharawere amongIndo-Europeantribes that conquered Central Asia during the 2nd century BCE, according to both Chinese and Greek sources.Ancient Chinesesources refer to these tribes collectively as theDa Yuezhi( "GreaterYuezhi"). In subsequent centuries theTukharaand other tribes founded theKushan Empire,which dominated Central and South Asia.

The account in Mahabharata (Mbh) 1:85 depicts the Tusharas asmlechchas( "barbarians" ) and descendants of Anu, one of the cursed sons of KingYayati.Yayati's eldest sonYadu,gave rise to theYadavasand his youngest sonPuruto thePauravasthat includes theKurusandPanchalas.Only the fifth son of Puru's line was considered to be the successors of Yayati's throne, as he cursed the other four sons and denied them kingship. The Pauravas inherited the Yayati's original empire and stayed in theGangetic plainwho later created theKuruandPanchala Kingdoms.They were followers of theVedic culture.The Yadavas made central and western India their stronghold. The descendants of Anu, known as theAnavas,are said to have migrated toIran.

Various regional terms and proper names may have originated with, or been derived from, the Tusharas including:Takhar Provincein Afghanistan; the Pakistani village of Thakra; the surnameThakkar,found across India; the Marathi surnameThakere,sometimes anglicised as Thackeray; theTakharJat clan in Rajasthan, and theThakar tribeof Maharashtra. It is also possible that theThakor(or Thakore) caste of Gujarat, theThakarcaste of Maharashtra and the titleThakuroriginated with names such as Tushara/Tukhara. The Sanskrit wordthakkura"lord" may be related to such terms or may itself be derived from one of them.

Indian literature

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References in Mahabharata

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TheShanti Parvaof theMahabharataassociates the Tusharas with the Yavanas,Kiratas,Chinas,Kambojas,Pahlavas,Kankas, Sabaras, Barbaras, Ramathas etc., and brands them all asbarbarictribesofUttarapatha,leading lives ofDasyus.[1]

The Tusharas along with numerous other tribes from the north-west, including the Bahlikas, Kiratas, Pahlavas, Paradas, Daradas, Kambojas, Shakas, Kankas, Romakas, Yavanas, Trigartas, Kshudrakas, Malavas, Angas, and Vangas had joined Yudhishtra at his Rajasuya ceremony and brought him numerous gifts such as camels, horses, cows, elephants and gold[2]

Later the Tusharas, Sakas and Yavanas had joined the military division of the Kambojas and participated in the Mahabharata war on the side of the Kauravas.[3]Karna Parva of Mahabharata describes the Tusharas as very ferocious and wrathful warriors.

At one place in the Mahabharata, the Tusharas are mentioned along with the Shakas and the Kankas.[4]At another place they are in a list with the Shakas, Kankas and Pahlavas.[5]And at other places are mentioned along with the Shakas, Yavanas and the Kambojas[6]etc.

The Tushara kingdom is mentioned in the travels of thePandavasin the northern regions beyond theHimalayas:- Crossing the difficult Himalayan regions, and the countries ofChina,Tukhara,Daradaand all the climes ofKulinda,rich in heaps of jewels, those warlike men reached the capital of Suvahu (3:176).

The Mahabharata makes clear thatVedicHindus did not know the origins of theMlechchatribes, who were highly skilled in weapons, warfare and material sciences, but never followed the Vedic rites properly. That the Vedic people were dealing with foreign tribes is evident in a passage from Mahabharata (12:35). It asks which duties that should be performed by theYavanas,theKiratas,theGandharvas,theChinas,the Savaras, the Barbaras, theSakas,the Tusharas, the Kankas, the Pathavas, theAndhras,theMadrakas,thePaundras,the Pulindas, the Ramathas, the Kambojas, and several new castes ofBrahmanas,Kshatriyas,Vaishyas,and theShudras,that had sprung up in the dominions of theAryakings.

The kings of thePahlavasand theDaradasand the various tribes of theKiratasandYavanasandSakrasand theHarahunasandChinasand Tukharas and theSindhavasand the Jagudas and the Ramathas and the Mundas and the inhabitants of the kingdom of women and the Tanganas and theKekayasand theMalavasand the inhabitants ofKasmira,were present in theRajasuyasacrifice ofYudhishthirathe king of thePandavas(3:51). TheSakasand Tukhatas and Tukharas and Kankas and Romakas and men with horns bringing with them as tribute numerous large elephants and ten thousand horses, and hundreds and hundreds of millions of golds (2:50).

The Tusharas were very ferocious warriors. TheYavanasand theSakas,along with the Chulikas, stood in the right wing of theKauravabattle-array (6:75). The Tusharas, theYavanas,theKhasas,the Darvabhisaras, theDaradas,theSakas,the Kamathas, the Ramathas, the Tanganas theAndhrakas,the Pulindas, theKiratasof fierce prowess, theMlecchas,theMountaineers,and the races hailing from the sea-side, all endued with great wrath and great might, delighting in battle and armed with maces, these all—united with theKurusand fought wrathfully forDuryodhana’s sake (8:73). A number ofSakaand Tukhara andYavanahorsemen, accompanied by some of the foremost combatants among theKambojas,quickly rushed againstArjuna(8:88). F. E Pargiter writes that the Tusharas, along with the Yavanas, Shakas, Khasas and Daradas had collectively joined the Kamboja army ofSudakshina Kambojand had fought in Kurukshetra war under latter's supreme command.[7]

In the Puranas and other Indian texts

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Puranictexts likeVayu Purana,Brahmanda PuranaandVamana Purana,etc., associate the Tusharas with the Shakas, Barbaras, Kambojas,Daradas,Viprendras, Anglaukas, Yavanas, Pahlavas etc and refer to them all as the tribes ofUdichyai.e. north or north-west.[8]The Kambojas, Daradas, Barbaras, Harsavardhanas, Cinas and the Tusharas are described as the populous races of men outside.[9]

Puranic literature further states that the Tusharas and othertribeslike the Gandharas, Shakas, Pahlavas, Kambojas, Paradas, Yavanas, Barbaras,Khasa,and Lampakas, etc., would be invaded and annihilated by Lord Kalki at the end ofKali Yuga.And they were annihilated by king Pramiti at the end ofKali Yuga.[10]

According to Vayu Purana andMatsya Purana,river Chakshu (Oxusor Amu Darya) flowed through the countries of Tusharas, Lampakas, Pahlavas, Paradas and the Shakas, etc.[11]

TheBrihat-Katha-Manjari[12]of PtKshemendrarelates that around 400 CE, Gupta king Vikramaditya (Chandragupta II) (r. 375-413/15 CE), had "unburdened the sacred earth by destroying the barbarians" like the Tusharas,Shakas,Mlecchas,Kambojas,Yavanas,Parasikas,Hunasetc.

TheRajataranginiofKalhanarecords that kingLaliditya Muktapida,the 8th-century ruler ofKashmirhad invaded thetribesof the north and after defeating theKambojas,he immediately faced the Tusharas. The Tusharas did not give a fight but fled to the mountain ranges leaving their horses in the battlefield.[13]This shows that during the 8th century CE, a section of the Tusharas was living as neighbours of the Kambojas near theOxusvalley.

By the 6th century CE, theBrihat SamhitaofVarahamihiraalso locates the Tusharas with Barukachcha (Bhroach) and Barbaricum (on theIndusDelta) near the sea in western India.[14]The Romakas formed a colony of the Romans near the port of Barbaricum in Sindhu Delta.[15]This shows that a section of the Tusharas had also moved to western India and was living there around Vrahamihira's time.

There is also a mention ofTushara-Giri(Tusharamountain) in theMahabharata,Harshacharitaof Bana Bhata andKavyamimansaof Rajshekhar. ÷

Kingdom

Tushara
Common languagesSanskrit,Vedic Languages
Religion
HinduismandVedic folk Religion
Rajas

Historical references

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Early Chinese & Greek sources

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Little is known of theTukharabefore they conquered theGreco-Bactrian Kingdomin the 2nd century BCE. They are known, in subsequent centuries, to have spokenBactrian,anEastern Iranian language.The Yuezhi are generally believed to have had theirethnogenesisinGansu,China. However, Ancient Chinese sources use the termDaxia(Tukhara) for a state in Central Asia, two centuries before theYuezhientered the area. Hence theTukharamay have been recruited by the Yuezhi, from a people neighbouring or subject to the Greco-Bactrians.

Likewise theAtharvavedaalso associates the Tusharas with theBahlikas(Bactrians),Yavanas/Yonas(Greeks) andSakas(Indo-Scythians), as following: "Saka.Yavana.Tushara.Bahlikashcha".[16]It also places the Bahlikas as neighbors of theKambojas.[17]This may suggest suggests that the Tusharas were neighbours to these peoples, possibly inTransoxiana.

Later Chinese sources

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In the 7th century CE, theChinesepilgrimXuanzang,by way of the "Iron Pass"entered Tukhara ( đổ hóa laPinyinDuhuoluo;W-GTu-huo-luo). Xuanzang stated that it lay south of the Iron Pass, north of the "great snow mountains" (Hindukush), and east ofPersia,with the Oxus "flowing westward through the middle of it."[18]

During the time of Xuanzang, Tukhāra was divided into 27 administrative units, each having its separate chieftain.[19][20]

Tibetan chronicles

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The Tukharas (Tho-gar) are mentioned in theTibetanchronicleDpag-bsam-ljon-bzah(The Excellent Kalpa-Vrksa), along with people like theYavanas,Kambojas,Daradas,Hunas,Khasasetc.[21]

References in association with the Kambojas

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TheKomedaiofPtolemy,[22]theKiumitoorKumituoof Xuanzang's accounts,Kiumizhiof Wu'kong,[23]Kumiof theTang Annals,[24]KumedorKumadhof some Muslim writers,Cambothi, Kambuson and Komedonof theGreekwriters (or theKumijisofAl-Maqidisi, Al-Baihaki, Nasir Khusauetc.)[25][26]who lived in Buttamen Mountains (now in Tajikistan) in the upper Oxus[27]are believed by many scholars to be theKambojaswho were living neighbors to the Tukhara/Tusharas north of theHindukushin theOxusvalley.[28]The region was also known as Kumudadvipa of the Puranic texts, which the scholars identify with Sanskrit Kamboja.[29]

Before its occupation by the Tukhara,Badakshanformed a part of ancient Kamboja (Parama Kamboja) but, after its occupation by the Tukhara in the 2nd century BCE, Badakshan and some other territories of the Kamboja became part of Tukhara.[30]

Around the 4th to 5th century CE, when the fortunes of the Tukhara finally waned, the original population of Kambojas re-asserted itself, and the region again started to be called by its ancient name, i.e., "Kamboja",[31]though northwestern parts still retained the name of Duhuoluo or Tukharistan in Chinese at least until the time of theTang dynasty.[32]

There are several later references to Kamboja of the Pamirs/Badakshan.Raghuvamsha- a 5th-centurySanskritplay byKalidasa,attests their presence on river Vamkshu (Oxus) as neighbors to theHunas(Raghu: 4.68-70). As seen above, the 7th-century Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang mentions the Kiumito/Kumito living to the north of theOxus,[33]which may refer to Komedai ofPtolemy.[34]which, as noted above, has been equated to Kamboja mentioned in Sanskrit texts.

The 8th-century king ofKashmir,King Lalitadiya, invaded the Kambojas of the "far-spreading northern region" (uttarāpatha) as mentioned in theRajataranginiofKalhana.After encountering the Kambojas, Lalitadiya's army approached the Tuhkhāras who "fled to the mountain ranges leaving behind their horses."[35]According to D. C. Sircar, the Kambojas here are bracketed with the Tukharas and are shown as living in the eastern parts of theOxusvalley as neighbors of the Tukharas who were living in the western parts of that Valley.[36][37][38]

The 10th century CEKavyamimamsaof Rajshekhar lists the Tusharas with several other tribes of theUttarapathaviz: the Shakas, Kekeyas, Vokkanas, Hunas, Kambojas, Bahlikas, Pahlavas, Limpakas, Kulutas, Tanganas, Turusakas, Barbaras, Ramathas etc.[39]This mediaeval era evidence shows that the Tusharas were different from the Turushakas with whom they are often confused by some writers.

Possible connection to the Rishikas

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Main article:Rishikas

Pompeius Trogusremarks that theAsiiwere lords of the Tochari. It is generally believed that they are same as the Rishikas of theMahabharatawhich people are equivalent toAsii(in Prakrit).[40]V. S. Aggarwala also equates the Rishikas with the Asii or Asioi.[41]In 1870, George Rawlinson commented that"TheAsiiorAsianiwere closely connected with the Tochari and the Sakarauli (Saracucse?) who are found connected with both the Tochari and the Asiani ".[42]

If the Rishikas of theMahabharatawere same as the Tukharas, then the observation from George Rawlinson is in line with theMahabharata[43]statement which also closely allies the Rishikas with theParama Kambojas[44]and places them both in the Sakadvipa.[45]TheKambojas(i.e.the southern branch of the Parama Kambojas), are the same as the classicalAssaceni/Assacani(Aspasio/AssakenoiofArrian) and theAśvayanaandAśvakayanaof Panini.[46]They are also mentioned byMegastheneswho refers to them asOsii(=Asii),Asoi,Asenietc.,[47]all living on upperIndusin easternAfghanistan.The names indicate their connection with horses and horse culture.[48][49]These Osii, Asoi/Aseni clans represent earlier migration from theParama Kamboja(furthest Kamboja) land, lying betweenOxusandJaxartes,which happened prior to Achaemenid rule. Per epic evidence, Parama Kamboja was the land of theLoha-Kamboja-Rishikas.[50]

TheRishikasare said by some scholars to be the same people as theYuezhi.[51]TheKushanasare also said by some to be the same people.[52]Kalhana(c. 1148-1149 CE) claims that the three kings he callsHuṣka,JuṣkaandKaniṣka(commonly interpreted to refer toHuvishka,VāsishkaandKanishkaI) were "descended from the Turuṣka race".[53]Aurel Stein says that the Tukharas (Tokharoi/Tokarai) were a branch of the Yuezhi.[54]P. C. Bagchiholds that the Yuezhi, Tocharioi and Tushara were identical.[55]If he is correct, the Rishikas, Tusharas/Tukharas (Tokharoi/Tokaroi), the Kushanas and the Yuezhi, were probably either a single people, or members of a confederacy.

Sabha ParvaofMahabharatastates that the Parama Kambojas, Lohas and the Rishikas wereallied tribes.[56]Like the "Parama Kambojas", the Rishikas of theTransoxianregion are similarly styled as "Parama Rishikas".[57]Based on the syntactical construction of theMahabharataverse 5.5.15[58] andverse 2.27.25,[59]Ishwa Mishra believe that the Rishikas were a section of theKambojasi.e.Parama Kambojas.V. S. Aggarwala too, relates the Parama Kambojas of the Trans-Pamirs to theRishikasof theMahabharata[60]and also places them in the Sakadvipa (orScythia).[61]According to Dr B. N. Puri and some other scholars, the Kambojas were a branch of the Tukharas.[62][63]Based on the above Rishika-Kamboja connections, some scholars also claim that the Kambojas were a branch of the Yuezhi themselves.[64]Dr Moti Chander also sees a close ethnic relationship between the Kambojas and the Yuezhi.[65][66]

Modern scholars are still debating the details of these connections without coming to any firm consensus.[67][68]

Japan Visit

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According to theNihon Shoki,the second-oldest book of classicalJapanese history,in 1654 two men and two women of the Tushara Kingdom, along with one woman fromShravasti,were drive by a storm to take refuge at the formerHyūga Provincein southernKyushu.They remained for several years before setting off for home.[69]: 75 That is the first recorded visit of people from India to Japan.

See also

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Footnotes

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  1. ^MBH12.65.13-15
  2. ^Mahabharata 2.51-2.53; 3.51.
  3. ^MBH 6.66.17-21; MBH 8.88.17
  4. ^Shakas.Tusharah.Kankascha
  5. ^Shakas Tusharah Kankashch.Pahlavashcha
  6. ^Shaka.Tushara.Yavanashcha sadinah sahaiva.KambojavaraijidhansavahORKritavarma tu sahitah Kambojarvarai.Bahlikaih...Tushara.Yavanashchaiva.Shakashcha saha Chulikaih
  7. ^The Nations of India at the Battle Between the Pandavas and Kauravas, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1908, pp 313, 331, Dr F. E. Pargiter, (Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland).
  8. ^Brahmanda Purana27.46-48.
  9. ^Markandeya Purana, LVII.39, The Markandeya Purana, F. E. Pargiter, Trans. Varanasi Reprint, 1969, pp 307-44; A Sourcebook of Indian Civilization, 2000, p 39, Niharranjan Ray, Brajadulal Chattopadhyaya.
  10. ^VayuI.58.78-83; cf:Matsya144.51-58
  11. ^Vayu PuranaI.58.78-83
  12. ^10/1/285-86
  13. ^RT IV.165-166
  14. ^bharukaccha.samudra.romaka.tushrah..:Brhatsamhita XVI.6
  15. ^See comments: M. R. Singh inThe Geographical Data of Early Purana, 1972,p. 26
  16. ^Ed Bolling & Negelein, 41.3.3.
  17. ^AV-Par, 57.2.5; cfPersica-9, 1980, p. 106,Michael Witzel
  18. ^Li, Rongxi (translator). 1995.The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions,p. 31. Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research. Berkeley, California.ISBN1-886439-02-8.
  19. ^On Yuan Chwang's Travels in India, 629-645 A.D.,Edition: 1904, pp. 102, 327. Thomas Watters - Buddhism; Publications, 1904. Oriental Translation Fund - Oriental literature.
  20. ^Li, Rongxi (translator). 1995.The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions,p. 32. Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research. Berkeley, California.ISBN1-886439-02-8.See also: E. J. Brill'sFirst Encyclopaedia of Islam,1913-1936, Edition 1935, p. 807; M. Th. Houtsma, E. van Donzel;Geographical Data in the Early Purāṇas: A Critical Study,1972, p. 174, M. R. Singh.
  21. ^Tho-gar yul dań yabana dań Kambodza dań Khasa dań Huna dań Darta dań...(See: Pag-Sam-Jon-Zang (1908), I.9, Sarat Chandra Das; Ancient Kamboja, 1971, p 66,H. W. Bailey.
  22. ^Ronca, Italo. (1971).Ptolemaios: Geographie 6,9-21 Ostiran und Zentalasien.Teil I. IsMEO, Rome p. 108.
  23. ^Lévi, Sylvain and Chavannes, Éd. (1895). "L'itinéraire d'Ou-k'ong.Journal Asiatique, Sept.-Oct. 1895, p. 362.
  24. ^Chavannes, Éd. (1900).Documents sur les Tou-kiue (Turcs) occidentaux.Paris, Librairie d’Amérique et d’Orient. Reprint: Taipei. Reprint: Cheng Wen Publishing Co., pp. 164, 339.
  25. ^See: (Author?)Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies,University of London, 1940, p 850, University of London School of Oriental and African Studies - Oriental philology Periodicals; Bagchi, P. C.India and Central Asia,p. 25; Prācīna Kamboja, jana aura janapada =: Ancient Kamboja, people and country, 1981, pp 401, Jiyālāla Kāmboja, Satyavrat Śāstrī - Kamboja (Pakistan);Turkestan Down to Mongol Invasion,1968, pp. 293-6, Barthold; The Ghaznavids, p 108, C. E. Bosworth. In:History of Civilizations of Central Asia,1999, Ahmad Hasan Dani, Vadim Mikhaĭlovich Masson, János Harmatta, Boris Abramovich Litvinovskiĭ, Clifford Edmund Bosworth, Unesco - Central Asia;The Cambridge History of Iran,1975, pp 173, 192, Richard Nelson Frye - History; On the Kumijis see also article 26,10, Hudud Al'alam: The Regions of the World: a Persian Geography, 327 A.H.-982 A.D. See p 209.
  26. ^See: THE ETHNIC OF THE SAKAS (SCYTHIANS.See link:[1].
  27. ^The Cambridge History of Iran,1975, p. 192, Richard Nelson Frye; cf. also: Li, Rongxi (translator). 1995.The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions,p. 33. Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research. Berkeley, California.ISBN1-886439-02-8.
  28. ^Bagchi, P. C.India and Central Asia,p. 25; Studies in Indian History and Civilization, Agra, p 351; cf: India and Central Asia, p 25, Dr P. C. Bagchi; Prācīna Kamboja, jana aura janapada =: Ancient Kamboja, people and country, 1981, pp 401, Dr Jiyālāla Kāmboja, Dr Satyavrat Śāstrī - Kamboja (Pakistan).
  29. ^Dr Buddha Prakash maintains that, based on the evidence of Kalidasa's Raghuvamsha, Raghu defeated the Hunas on river Vamkshu (Raghu vamsha 4.68), and immediately after them he marched against the Kambojas (4.69-70). These Kambojas were of Iranian affinities who lived in Pamirs and Badakshan. Hiun Tsang calls this regionKiu.mi.to which is thought to beKomdeiof Ptolemy andKumadhorKumedhof Muslim writers (See: Studies in Indian History and Civilization, Agra, p 351; India and the World, 1964, p 71, Dr Buddha Prakash; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 300, Dr J. L. Kamboj).
  30. ^Proceedings and Transactions of the All-India Oriental Conference, 1930, p 108, Dr J. C. Vidyalankara; Bhartya Itihaas ki Ruprekha, p 534, Dr J. C. Vidyalankar; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, pp 129, 300 Dr J. L. Kamboj;
  31. ^Bhartya Itihaas ki Ruprekha,p. 534, J. C. Vidyalankar;Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country,1981, pp. 129, 300. J. L. Kamboj;
  32. ^See, for example, the references to Xuanzang's account above.
  33. ^Li, Rongxi (translator). 1995.The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions,p. 33. Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research. Berkeley, California.ISBN1-886439-02-8.
  34. ^Beal, Samuel.1884.Si-Yu-Ki: Buddhist Records of the Western World, by Hiuen Tsiang.2 vols. Translated by Samuel Beal. London. 1884. Reprint: Delhi. Oriental Books Reprint Corporation. 1969. vol. I, p. 41, n. 131.
  35. ^Kalhaṇa's Rājataraṅgiṇī: A Chronicle of the Kings of Kaśmīr.(1900). Translated and annotated byM. A. Stein.Reprint (1979): Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi. Vol. I, Bk. 4, 163-165, p. 136.
  36. ^Sircar, D. C. "The Land of the Kambojas",Purana,Vol V, No?, July 1962, p. 250.
  37. ^These Kambojas, apparently were descendants of that section of the Kambojas who, instead of leaving their ancestral land during second century BCE under assault from the Da Yuezhi, had compromised with the invaders and decided to stay put in their ancestral land instead of moving to theHelmandorKabulvalley.
  38. ^There are other references which also equateKambojawithTokhara.ABuddhistSanskritVinaya text translated by N. Dutt,Gilgit Manuscripts,III, 3, 136, (quoted inB.S.O.A.S.XIII, p. 404) has the expressionsatam Kambojikanam kanyanami.e. 'a hundred maidens from Kamboja'. This has been rendered asTho-gar yul-gyi bu-mo brgyain theTibetanand asTogar ulus-un yagun ükinin Mongolian. Thus,Kambojahas been rendered asTho-garor Togar. And Tho-gar/Togar are Tibetan or Mongolian forms of Tokhar/Tukhar (See: H. W. Bailey,Irano-Indica III,Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies,University of London, Vol. 13, No. 2, 1950, pp. 389-409; see also:Ancient Kamboja, Iran and Islam,1971, p. 66, H. W. Bailey.
  39. ^Kavyamimamsa,Chapter 17.
  40. ^Note - name of author and article needed here-Indian Historical Quarterly,1963, p. 227 (v.30-31 1954-1955).
  41. ^Aggarwala, V. S.India as Known to Pāṇini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashṭādhyāyī,1953, p 68, Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala -India; A Grammatical Dictionary of Sanskrit (Vedic): 700 Complete Reviews of the... - Page 68, Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala, Surya Kanta, Jacob Wackernagel,Arthur Anthony Macdonell,Peggy Melcher - India.
  42. ^Rawlinson, George. The Project Gutenberg EBook ofThe Seven Great Monarchies Of The Ancient Eastern World,Vol 6. (of 7):Parthia.)[2].
  43. ^Mahabharata2.27.25-26.
  44. ^The Mahabharata, Book 2: Sabha Parva: Jarasandhta-badha Parva: Section XXVI
  45. ^Agrawala, Vasudeva SharanaIndia as Known to Pāṇini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashṭādhyāyī,1953, p 64: Agrawala, Vasudeva Sharana.India; A Grammatical Dictionary of Sanskrit (Vedic):700 Complete Reviews of the..., 1953, p 62, Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala, Surya Kanta, Jacob Wackernagel, Arthur Anthony Macdonell, Peggy Melcher - India.
  46. ^See: Ashtadhyayi Sutra IV.1.110 & Ganapatha, Nadadigana IV.1.99 respectively.
  47. ^FRAGM. LVI.,Plin. Hist. Nat.VI. 21. 8-23. 11., List of the Indian Races"Project South Asia".Archived fromthe originalon 2006-05-28.Retrieved2011-02-24.. .
  48. ^"In Aswa, we have ancient race peopled on both sides of Indus and probable etymon of Asia. The Assaceni, the Ari-aspii, the Aspasians and (the Asii) whom Strabo describes as Scythic race have same origin. Hence Asi-gurh (Hasi/Hansi) and Asii-gard, the first settlements of Scythic Asii in Scandinavia" (see: Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1826, p 318, Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland - Great Britain; Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, Reprint (2002), Vol I, p 64. Also see: pp 51-54, 87, 95; Vol-2, P 2, James Tod; The Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia: Commercial..., 1885, p 196, Edward Balfour - India.
  49. ^For Asii = Assi = Asvaka - a tribe connected with Asvas or horses, See also: The Racial History of India - 1944, pp 815, 122, Chandra Chakraberty. For Aspasii, Hipasii, see: Olaf Caroe, The Pathans, 1958, pp. 37, 55-56,
  50. ^Mahabharata 2.27.25-26.
  51. ^Aggarwala, V. S.India as Known to Panini,p. 64
  52. ^Vidyalnkara, J. C. (1941).Bhartya Itihaas ki Ruprekha.
  53. ^But as noted above, tenth century CEKavyamimamsaof Rajshekhar lists the Tusharas with several other tribes of theUttarapathaviz: the Shakas, Kekeyas, Vokkanas, Hunas, Kambojas, Bahlikas, Pahlavas, Limpakas, Kulutas, Tanganas, Turusakas, Barbaras, Ramathas etc. (Kavyamimamsa,Chapter 17), which clearly differentiates the Tukharas from the Turusakas.
  54. ^Kalhaṇa's Rājataraṅgiṇī: A Chronicle of the Kings of Kaśmīr.(1900). Translated and annotated byM. A. Stein.Reprint (1979): Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi. Vol. I, Bk. I, 169-170, pp. 30-31.
  55. ^Bagchi, P. C.India and Central Asia,1955, p 24.
  56. ^Mahabharata2.26.25: See: The Mahabharata, Book 2: Sabha Parva, section XXVI, p 58, Kisari Mohan Ganguli, trans. [1883-1896][3];The Mahabharata of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa: Translated Into English Prose, 1962, p 66, Pratap Chandra Roy; Geographical and Economic Studies in the Mahābhārata: Upāyana Parva, 1945, p 13, Moti Chandra - India.
  57. ^taraka maya sankashahParama Rishikaparthayoh || 26 ||.
  58. ^
    Shakanam Pahlavana.n cha Daradanam cha ye nripah |
    Kamboja Rishikaye cha pashchim.anupakash cha ye ||5.5.15||
    Trans:The kings of the Shakas, Pahlavas and the Daradas, and the Kamboja-Rishikas live in the west in theAnuparegion.
  59. ^LohanParamaKambojanRishikanuttaran api ||v 2.27.25||
  60. ^The Deeds of Harsha: Being a Cultural Study of Bāṇa's Harshacharita,1969, p 199, Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala.
  61. ^India as Known to Pāṇini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashṭādhyāyī,1953, p 64, Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala -India; A Grammatical Dictionary of Sanskrit (Vedic):700 Complete Reviews of the..., 1953, p 62, Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala, Surya Kanta, Jacob Wackernagel, Arthur Anthony Macdonell, Peggy Melcher - India.
  62. ^Buddhism in Central Asia,p. 90.
  63. ^The Journal of Central Asian Studies, 2003, p 33, University of Kashmir Centre of Central Asian Studies - Central Asia.
  64. ^Journal of Tamil Studies,1969, pp 86, 87, International Institute of Tamil Studies - Tamil philology.
  65. ^Geographical and Economic Studies in the Mahābhārata: Upāyana Parva, 1945, p 19, Dr Moti Chandra - India.
  66. ^The Cultural Heritage of Indiaalso sees a close ethnic relationship between the Kambojas, the Tukharas (=Rishikas = Yue-chis) and the modern Tajik race. It calls the modern Tajik race to be descendants of the Tukharas and Kambojas, thus assuming Kambojas as a component of the Tukharas or vice versa (The Cultural Heritage of India: Sri Ramakrishna Centenary Memorial, 1936, p 151). Cf: "The Kambojas indicate the people of Tajikistan speaking Ghalcha..." (See: Trade and Trade Routes in Ancient India, 1977, p 94, Dr Moti Chandra). For Kambojas as the ancestors of the Tajiks, Cf: Bhart Bhumi Aur Unke Nivasi, p 313-314, 226, Bhartya Itihaas Ki Mimansa, p 335 by Dr J. C. Vidyalanka; Prācīna Kamboja, jana aura janapada =: Ancient Kamboja, people and country, 1981, pp 164-65, Dr Jiyālāla Kāmboja, Dr Satyavrat Śāstrī.
  67. ^Mallory, J. P. and Mair, Victor H. (2000).The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West,pp. 91-99. Thames & Hudson, London.ISBN0-500-05101-1.
  68. ^Lebedynsky, Iaroslav (2006).Les Saces: Les "Scythes" d'Asie, VIIIesiècle av, J.-C.— IVesiècle apr. J.-C.,p. 63. Edition Errance. Paris.ISBN2-87772-337-2.
  69. ^Waterhouse, David (1991), "Where did Toragaku come from?", in Marett, Allan (ed.),Musica Asiatica,vol. 6, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 73–94,doi:10.1017/CBO9780511896071.006,ISBN978-0-521-39050-7
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