Wikipedia

Tyrannicide

For the ships, seeMassachusetts ship Tyrannicide (1776)andFrench ship Tyrannicide (1793).

Tyrannicideortyrannomachiais the killing orassassinationof atyrantor unjust ruler, purportedly for thecommon good,[1]and usually by one of the tyrant's subjects.[2]Tyrannicide was legally permitted and encouraged inClassical Athens.Often, the term "tyrant" was a justification for political murders by rivals, but in some exceptional cases students ofPlatonic philosophyrisked their lives against tyrants. The killing ofClearchus of Heracleain 353 BC by a cohort led by his own court philosopher is considered a sincere tyrannicide. A person who carries out a tyrannicide is also called a "tyrannicide".[3]

The tyrantHipparchus of Athens(center) is assassinated byHarmodius and Aristogeiton(illustration from a Greek vase).
Look uptyrannicidein Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

The term originally denoted the action ofHarmodius and Aristogeiton,who are often called theTyrannicides,in killingHipparchus of Athensin 514 BC.[4]

Political theory

edit
See also:Right of revolution

Tyrannicide can also be a political theory and, as an allegedlyjustifiedform of thecrimeofmurder,a dilemmatic case in thephilosophy of law,and as such dates from antiquity.[5]

Classical antiquity

edit

Platodescribes a violent tyrant as the opposite of a good and "true king" in theStatesman,[6]and whileAristotlein thePoliticssees it as opposed to all other beneficial forms of government, he also described tyrannicide mainly as an act by those wishing to gain personally from the tyrant's death, while those who act without hope of personal gain or to make a name for themselves are rare.[7]

Support for tyrannicide can be found inCicero'sDe Officiis.[8]Cicero presents a philosophical stance that in certain extreme circumstances, tyrannicide can be considered a moral duty. Cicero argues that when a ruler becomes a tyrant, violating the laws and oppressing the people, it is the duty of citizens to protect the state and restore justice, even if it means taking drastic measures such as killing the tyrant. He believed that the welfare of the state and the protection of its citizens should take precedence over the life of a tyrant who endangers these principles.[9][10]

Support for tyrannicide can also be found inSeneca'sHercules Furens,[6]Seneca delves into the complex and often tragic nature of resisting tyranny. Through his dramatic narratives, Seneca portrays the psychological and ethical struggles faced by those who stand against oppressive rulers. InHercules Furens,the titular hero grapples with madness and the burdens of his immense strength, ultimately exploring themes of resistance against unjust authority. Seneca uses his characters to illustrate the moral complexities and the potential justifications for tyrannicide, highlighting the internal and external conflicts that arise when confronting tyranny.[11][12]

Plutarch, in his biographical works, notably inParallel Lives,presented tyrannicide as a defense of liberty and justice. He highlighted the moral dimensions of such acts through figures likeBrutus,whoassassinated Julius Caesarto protect theRoman Republic,andTimoleon of Corinth,who killed his tyrannical brother to saveCorinth.Plutarch praised these actions as noble sacrifices made for the greater good, underscoring the idea that tyrannicide, when motivated by a selfless commitment to civic virtue, can be a legitimate and necessary act to preserve collective freedom and justice.[13]This perspective aligns with earlier philosophical views, such as Aristotle's, which justified the removal of a tyrant if it served the common good.[14][15]

Medieval thought

edit

Augustine of Hippodebated the moral and ethical implications of tyrannicide within a Christian framework. Augustine argued that while resisting tyranny could be morally justified, it was essential to weigh such actions against the broader principles of Christian ethics and the potential for violence and disorder. His writings reflect a nuanced view, acknowledging the tension between the necessity of opposing unjust rulers and the dangers of inciting greater harm through violent resistance.[16]As R. A. Markus notes, Augustine’s approach to tyrannicide was heavily influenced by his overarching concern for maintaining social order and preventing anarchy, even while recognizing the moral repugnance of tyranny.[17]In contrast,Gregory of Nazianzus[18]andJohn Chrysostom[19]framed the death of EmperorJulian the Apostateas a divine judgment rather than explicitly addressing the concept of tyrannicide. They emphasized Julian's demise as evidence of the triumph of Christianity over paganism.[20]

During theMiddle Ages,most theologians were influenced on the subject by Augustine'sThe City of God,which said that Christians should obey secular authority.[21]ThescholasticphilosopherJohn of Salisburywas the first medieval Christian scholar to defend tyrannicide,[22]under specific conditions, in thePolicraticus,circa 1159.[23]His theory was derived from his idea of the state as a political organism in which all the members cooperate actively in the realization of the common utility and justice. He held that when the ruler of thisbody politicbehaves tyrannically, failing to perform his characteristic responsibilities, the other limbs and organs are bound by their duty to the public welfare and God to correct and, ultimately, to slay the tyrant.[24]

InThomas Aquinas's commentary on theSentencesofPeter Lombard,Aquinas gave a defense not only of disobedience to an unjust authority, using as an exampleChristian martyrs in the Roman Empire,but also of "one who liberates his country by killing a tyrant." For Aquinas, "when what is ordered by an authority is opposed to the object for which that authority was constituted... not only is there no obligation to obey the authority, but one is obliged to disobey it, as did the holy martyrs who suffered death rather than obey the impious commands of tyrants."[25]

Renaissance to Enlightenment

edit

In 1408, the theologianJean Petitused biblical examples to justify tyrannicide following the murder ofLouis I, Duke of Orleans,by Petit's patronJohn the Fearless,Duke of Burgundy. Petit argued that tyrannicide was not only permissible but commendable when the ruler in question posed a threat to the public good. This justification was based on interpretations of biblical figures who had acted against tyrants in defense of divine and moral laws. Petit's thesis sparked significant controversy and was extensively discussed in ecclesiastical and political circles. Ultimately, the ChurchanathematizedPetit's views at theCouncil of Constance,condemning them as contrary to Christian teachings on legitimate authority and the sanctity of rulers.[26][27]

A Shorte Treatise of Politike Power,written byJohn Ponetin 1556, argued that the people are custodians of natural and divine law, and that if governors and kings violated their trust, then they forfeited their power, whether they relinquished their positions voluntarily or whether they had to be removed forcefully.[28]TheMonarchomachsin particular developed a theory of tyrannicide, withJuan de Marianadescribing their views in the 1598 workDe rege et regis institutione,[29]in which he wrote,"[B]oththe philosophers and theologians agree, that the prince who seizes the state with force and arms, and with no legal right, no public, civic approval, may be killed by anyone and deprived of his life... "[8]TheJesuisticcasuistrydeveloped a similar theory, criticized byBlaise Pascalin theProvincial Letters.[30]The Tenure of Kings and MagistratesbyJohn Miltonin 1649 also described the history of tyrannicide, and a defense of it when appropriate.[31]

In his bookLeviathan(1651),Thomas Hobbesidentified the idea that tyrannicide is justified and praiseworthy as one of several harmful doctrines that must be suppressed for the good of civil society. In Hobbes's view, this doctrine was equivalent to asserting that men may kill their rulers as long as they label them as tyrants first.[32]

John Locke,in hisSecond Treatise of Government(1689), argued that people have the right to overthrow a government that fails to protect their natural rights, which includes tyrannicide as a form of legitimate resistance. Locke posited that a tyrant, by definition, acts against the interest of the people and forfeits the right to rule. In such cases, it becomes the moral duty of the citizens to remove the tyrant to restore natural law and order. Locke's political theory profoundly influenced the development of modern democratic thought, emphasizing the protection of life, liberty, and property as fundamental rights.[33][34]

Jean-Jacques Rousseau,inThe Social Contract(1762), touches on the idea of the general will and the right of the people to overthrow a tyrant who acts against it. Rousseau argued that sovereignty belongs to the people, and any government that does not act in accordance with the general will is illegitimate. This perspective supports the notion that the people have the right to depose a tyrant who violates the social contract. Rousseau's work laid the philosophical foundation for the French Revolution and continues to be a critical text in discussions of political legitimacy and popular sovereignty.[35][36]

Modern perspectives

edit
Benjamin Franklin's suggestion for theGreat Seal of the United Statesincluded the phrase "Rebellion to Tyrants is Obedience to God."

Abraham Lincolnbelieved that assassinating a leader is morally justified when a people has suffered under a tyrant for an extended period of time and has exhausted all legal and peaceful means of ouster.[37]He saw tyrannicide as a necessary last resort to protect liberty and justice. Lincoln's views, shaped by theAmerican Civil War,reflect the ethical debate on violent resistance against tyranny, emphasizing that removing a despot can be a moral imperative to restore democratic governance and human rights.[38][39]Lincoln was himself assassinated in 1865—with the assailant shouting "sic semper tyrannis"(" thus always to tyrants ") during the act—as part of an unsuccessful conspiracy to overthrow the government.[40]

Carl Schmitt,inPolitical Theology(1922) andThe Concept of the Political(1932), addresses the nature of sovereignty and the state of exception. Schmitt argues that in extreme situations, the normal legal order can be suspended to address existential threats, which can include justifications for extreme measures like tyrannicide. His ideas have been influential and controversial in discussions about the limits of legal and political authority.[41][42]

Leo Strauss,inOn Tyranny(1956), engages deeply with classical and modern discussions on tyranny. Strauss analyzes the philosophical implications of opposing tyrannical rule and the potential justification for tyrannicide, drawing on historical examples and philosophical arguments to explore the moral complexities of resisting despotism.[43][44]

Hannah Arendt,in her workOn Violence(1970), explores the nature of power, violence, and authority. Arendt argues that violence can be justified in certain circumstances, particularly when it is used to combat oppressive regimes and restore political freedom. While she does not focus exclusively on tyrannicide, her analysis provides a framework for understanding the ethical justifications for violent resistance against tyranny.[45][46]

John Rawls,although primarily known for his theories of justice, touches on the conditions under which civil disobedience and resistance to unjust authority can be morally justified inA Theory of Justice(1971). Rawls argues that when a government acts tyrannically, violating the principles of justice and fairness, citizens have the right to resist, which may include tyrannicide under extreme circumstances.[47][48]

Michael Walzer,inJust and Unjust Wars(1977), examines the ethics of war and resistance, including the moral considerations surrounding the assassination of tyrants. Walzer discusses tyrannicide within the broader context of just war theory, arguing that in some cases, killing a tyrant may be necessary to protect innocent lives and restore justice.[49][50]

David George, inDistinguishing Classical Tyrannicide from Modern Terrorism(1988), has argued thatterrorismis a form of tyranny of which tyrannicide is a negation.[51]He posits that tyrannicide serves as a countermeasure to terrorism, which uses fear and violence to subjugate populations. In George's view, the assassination of tyrants can be an act of liberation, dismantling oppressive structures and restoring autonomy. This situates tyrannicide within a broader discourse on the ethics of political violence, suggesting it aims to eliminate tyranny and restore justice.[52]

Aoife O'Donoghue explores the concept of tyranny and tyrannicide within the broader context of the global legal order in her bookOn Tyranny and the Global Legal Order(2021). O'Donoghue delves into the historical and philosophical foundations of tyrannicide, examining its evolution and relevance in contemporary political thought. Her analysis highlights the intersection of tyrannicide with issues of global justice, sovereignty, and international law, providing a nuanced understanding of how the act of resisting tyranny through violence is viewed in modern legal and ethical frameworks.[53]

History

edit
See also:List of regicides
Statue of Harmodius and Aristogeiton

Throughout history, many leaders have died under the pretext of tyrannicide.Hipparchus,one of the last Greek leaders to use the title of "tyrant", was assassinated in 514 BC by Harmodius and Aristogeiton, the original tyrannicides.[54][4]Since then "tyrant" has been a pejorative term lacking objective criteria. Many rulers and heads of state have been considered tyrannical by their enemies but they have not been considered tyrannical by their supporters. For example, whenJohn Wilkes Boothassassinated Abraham Lincoln in 1865, he wrote that he considered Lincoln a tyrant and he compared himself to Marcus Junius Brutus,[55]who stabbed the Roman dictator Julius Caesar in 44 BC.[56]Booth famously shouted "sic semper tyrannis" during the assassination.

Tyrannicides have a poor record of achieving their intended outcome. Caesar's death, for example, failed to bring a return to republican power, and instead led to theRoman Empire,but it galvanized later assassins. Several of Caesar's successors came to their demise by assassinations, includingCaligula,who was stabbed in 41 byCassius Chaereaand otherPraetorian Guards,[57]andDomitian,stabbed in 96 by a steward ofFlavia Domitillanamed Stephanus.[58]Many attempts onCommodus's life in the late 2nd century failed, including the one instigated by his own sisterLucilla,but he ultimately fell victim to his own excess by a successful murderous coup.[59]Other emperors assassinated from within includeClaudius,Caracalla,Elagabalus,Marcus Aurelius Marius,andSeverus Alexander.After thefall of the Western Roman Empire,tyrannicide continued in theEastern Roman Empirewhen EmperorAndronikos I Komnenoswas tied to a pillar, beaten, and dismembered by a mob in 1185.[57]

Tyrannicide has also been connected to revolutions, because many tyrannicides have occurred during successful revolutions, and other tyrannicides have sparked revolutionary upheavals. In the midst of theFrench Revolution,Maximilien Robespierretook power as thePresident of the National Convention,but after he led theReign of Terrorfrom 1793 to 1794, he was executed by beheading by theNational Convention.Russian TsarNicholas IIwas executed by theBolsheviksas an enemy of the people in 1918, following the1917 October Revolution.TheRomanian Revolution,one of therevolutions of 1989,enabled a group of disaffectedRomanian People's Armysoldiers to captureNicolae Ceauşescu,the country's communist leader, andstage a trial after which he and his wife were executedby a firing squad of paratroopers.[60]

Many assassins have been killed in the act, such asRigoberto López Pérez,who shot Nicaraguan dictatorAnastasio Somoza Garcíain 1956.[61]Claus von Stauffenbergtried to killAdolf Hitleron20 July 1944,was sentenced to death by an impromptucourt martialand executed a few hours after the attempted murder. Others were prosecuted for the killing:Antonio de la Mazaand his conspirators were executed after their shooting ofRafael Trujillo,dictator of theDominican Republicin 1961,[62]as wasKim Jaegyu,whoshotSouth Korean dictatorPark Chung Heein 1979.[63]Five of the members ofYoung Bosniawho were involved with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo were sentenced to death by hanging, while eleven were sentenced to various years in prison, includingGavrilo Principwho fired the fatal shot.Khalid Islambouliwas one of three members ofEgyptian Islamic Jihadexecuted for theassassination of Anwar Sadat,the autocraticPresident of Egyptin 1981.[64]Both Hipparchus's assassins were themselves killed, Harmodius on the spot and Aristogeiton after being tortured, and themajor conspiratorsin the plot to kill Caesar were likewise killed or forced to commit suicide.

Outright revolt was the context for other tyrannicides and it allowed individual killers to escape or remain anonymous. DuringWorld War IIand the insurgency of theItalian resistance movement,Walter Audisioclaimed to have led his team of partisans in theabduction and execution by firing squadofBenito Mussoliniin 1945.[57][65]The circumstances remain clouded, though Audisio was later elected to both theItalian Chamber of Deputiesand theItalian Senate.In 1990,Samuel Doe,the President of Liberia, was tortured to his death. In 1996, during their takeover of Afghanistan,Talibansoldiers capturedMohammad Najibullah,the President of the Soviet-backedDemocratic Republic of Afghanistanand dragged him to death. During the2011 Libyan civil war,Libyan leaderMuammar Gaddafiwas killed in theBattle of Sirte,in unclear circumstances.[57]

Literature

edit

Tyrannicide is a popularliterary trope.Many works of fiction deal with the struggle of an individual or group of individuals to overthrow and kill an unjust tyrant. Often the tyranny is caused by a usurper to a royal throne, where the conclusion restores the proper heir.Children's literaturefrequently deals with the subject.Folk taleslikeThe Nutcrackerinclude the act, as do some video games series, likeThe Legend of ZeldaandStar Fox.Examples in Disney animation includeThe Lion KingandAladdinwhich both involve the tyrannical takeover of a monarchy and its overhaul. Fantasy works likeThe Chronicles of Narnia,The Brothers Lionheart,A Song of Ice and Fireand science-fiction series likeStar WarsandDoctor Whoall deal with the killing of tyrants. BesidesJulius Caesar,a number ofWilliam Shakespeare's plays deal with the subject, includingHamlet,Macbeth,andRichard III.[66]Friedrich Schillerbased the playWilliam Telland the balladDie Bürgschafton existing legends of tyrannicide. The Italian dramatist, poet and philosopherVittorio Alfieridevoted much of his work to this issue.[67]

See also

edit
  • Assassination– Murder of a prominent person, especially for political or ideological reasons
  • Regicide– Intentional killing of a monarch
  • Sic semper tyrannis– Latin phrase meaning "thus always to tyrants"

References

edit
  1. ^Louis, chevalier de Jaucourt (biography) (2009-11-06)."Tyrannicide".Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert - Collaborative Translation Project.
  2. ^Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913)."Tyrannicide".Catholic Encyclopedia.New York: Robert Appleton Company.
  3. ^"Tyrannicide".Britannica.the killer or would-be killer of a tyrant
  4. ^abWebb, E. Kent (October 18, 1997)."The Athenian Tyrannicides: Icons of a Democratic Society".University of Washington.Archived fromthe originalon 2018-12-25.Retrieved2008-10-30.
  5. ^Goebel, Julius Ludwig (1915).The recognition policy of the United States.Columbia University.pp.24–29.RetrievedOctober 30,2008.
  6. ^abMohamed, Feisal G. (May 11, 2013)."In Syria and Beyond, the Tyrant as Target".The New York Times.RetrievedMay 16,2013.
  7. ^Aristotle,PoliticsX
  8. ^abBeres, Louis Rene (1990–1991),Assassinating Saddam: A Post-War View from International Law,vol. 19, Denv. J. Int'l L. & Pol'y, p. 613
  9. ^Cicero. (1913). De Officiis. Translated by Walter Miller. Harvard University Press.
  10. ^Wirszubski, C. (1950). Libertas as a Political Idea at Rome during the Late Republic and Early Principate. Cambridge University Press.
  11. ^Seneca. (2002). Hercules Furens. Translated by John G. Fitch. Harvard University Press.
  12. ^Schiesaro, A. (2003). The Passions in Play: Thyestes and the Dynamics of Senecan Drama. Cambridge University Press.
  13. ^Plutarch'sLives,Dryden's translation, revised by Clough, 1859; "Life of Timoleon" inParallel Lives.
  14. ^Politics,Aristotle, translated by Jowett, 1885.
  15. ^Nyquist, M. (2022). "Tyrannicide, Law, and Sacrifice in Julius Caesar".ELH89(4), 893-926.https://doi.org/10.1353/elh.2022.0031.
  16. ^Augustine. (1998). The City of God against the Pagans. Edited and translated by R.W. Dyson. Cambridge University Press.
  17. ^Markus, R. A. (1994).Saeculum: History and Society in the Theology of St. Augustine.Cambridge University Press.
  18. ^Gregory of Nazianzus, Orations. (Translation by Charles Gordon Browne and James Edward Swallow, 1929).
  19. ^John Chrysostom, Homilies on the Statues. (Translation by W.R.W. Stephens, 1889).
  20. ^Wilken, Robert Louis. The Christians as the Romans Saw Them. Yale University Press, 1984.
  21. ^The Routledge history of terrorism.Randall David Law. Abingdon, Oxon. 2015.ISBN978-0-415-53577-9.OCLC892804140.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: others (link)
  22. ^Fine, Jonathan (2010). "Political and Philological Origins of the Term 'Terrorism' from the Ancient Near East to Our Times".Middle Eastern Studies.46(2):271–288.doi:10.1080/00263201003619927.JSTOR20720662.S2CID143268246.
  23. ^Voegelin & Von Sivers 1989,pp. 122–123.
  24. ^Nederman, Cary J. (1988), "A Duty to Kill: John of Salisbury's Theory of Tyrannicide",The Review of Politics,50(3), Cambridge University Press:365–389,doi:10.1017/S0034670500036305,S2CID145277381
  25. ^Commentary on the Sentences of Peter Lombard, trans. J.G. Dawson (Oxford, 1959), 44, 2 in O’Donovan, pp. 329–330.
  26. ^Rollo-Koster, Joëlle. "The Great Western Schism, Legitimacy, and Tyrannicide: The Murder of Louis of Orléans (1407)". Inventing Modernity in Medieval European Thought, ca. 1100–ca. 1550, edited by Cary J. Nedermann and Bettina Koch, Berlin, Boston: Medieval Institute Publications, 2019, pp. 193-212.https://doi.org/10.1515/9781580443500-012
  27. ^Provvidente, S. (2019). Stylus theologicus et iuridicus: la causa Jean Petit à Constance (1414-1418) et les débats sur le tyrannicide. Médiévales, 77, 129-151.https://doi.org/10.4000/medievales.10527
  28. ^C Watner (1986),"Oh, Ye Are For Anarchy!": Consent Theory in the Radical Libertarian Tradition(PDF),Journal of Libertarian Studies
  29. ^Fülöp-Miller, René(1997).Power and Secret of the Jesuits.Kessinger Publishing. pp.313–318.ISBN0-7661-0056-1.RetrievedOctober 30,2008.
  30. ^Ganns, H. G."The Jesuits and Tyrannicide,"The American Catholic Quarterly Review, Vol. XXVII, 1902.
  31. ^Luxon, Thomas H., ed. (March 2008)."Milton: The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates".The Milton Reading Room.Dartmouth College.Retrieved2008-10-30.
  32. ^Berns, Laurence (1987) [First ed. published 1963]. "Thomas Hobbes". In Strauss, Leo; Cropsey, Joseph (eds.).History of Political Philosophy(3rd ed.). University of Chicago Press. pp.414–415.ISBN9780226924717.
  33. ^Locke, John.Two Treatises of Government.Edited by Peter Laslett, Cambridge University Press, 1988.
  34. ^Dunn, John.Locke: A Very Short Introduction.Oxford University Press, 2003.
  35. ^Rousseau, Jean-Jacques.The Social Contract.Translated by Maurice Cranston, Penguin Books, 1968.
  36. ^Bertram, Christopher.Rousseau and The Social Contract.Routledge, 2004.
  37. ^Johnson III, Boyd M. (Spring 1992)."Executive Order 12,333: The Permissibility of an American Assassination of a Foreign Leader".Scholarship@Cornell Law: A Digital Repository.Cornell University Law School Research.RetrievedJuly 27,2019.
  38. ^White, Ronald C. A. (2009).Lincoln: A Biography.Random House.
  39. ^Dirck, Brian R. (2012).Lincoln and the Constitution.Southern Illinois University Press.
  40. ^Fraser, Richard A. R. (February–March 1995)."How Did Lincoln Die?".American Heritage.46(1).
  41. ^Schmitt, Carl.Political Theology: Four Chapters on the Concept of Sovereignty.University of Chicago Press, 1985.
  42. ^McCormick, John P.Carl Schmitt's Critique of Liberalism: Against Politics as Technology.Cambridge University Press, 1997.
  43. ^Strauss, Leo.On Tyranny: Corrected and Expanded Edition, Including the Strauss-Kojeve Correspondence.University of Chicago Press, 1968.
  44. ^Drury, Shadia B.The Political Ideas of Leo Strauss.Palgrave Macmillan, 2005.
  45. ^Arendt, Hannah.On Violence.Harcourt, 1970.
  46. ^Villa, Dana.The Cambridge Companion to Hannah Arendt.Cambridge University Press, 1999.
  47. ^Rawls, John.A Theory of Justice.Harvard University Press, 1999.
  48. ^Freeman, Samuel.Rawls.Routledge, 2007.
  49. ^Walzer, Michael.Just and Unjust Wars: A Moral Argument with Historical Illustrations.Basic Books, 2006.
  50. ^Bellamy, Alex J.Just Wars: From Cicero to Iraq.Polity Press, 2006.
  51. ^George, David (1988). "Distinguishing Classical Tyrannicide from Modern Terrorism".The Review of Politics.50(3). Cambridge University Press:390–419.doi:10.1017/S0034670500036317.S2CID146523905.
  52. ^Coady, C. A. J. (2008).Morality and Political Violence.Cambridge University Press.
  53. ^O'Donoghue, Aoife.On Tyranny and the Global Legal Order.Cambridge University Press, 2021.
  54. ^Law 2009,p. 18.
  55. ^Booth 2000,p. 17.
  56. ^Law 2009,p. 23.
  57. ^abcdMontefiore, Simon Sebag (October 26, 2011)."Dictators Get the Deaths They Deserve".The New York Times.RetrievedOctober 31,2011.
  58. ^Law 2009,p. 26.
  59. ^Cassius Dio,Roman History,71.1, 3; 73.4.4–5.
  60. ^Graubard 1999,pp. 72–73.
  61. ^Borge 1982,p. 54.
  62. ^Diederich 1990,p. 20.
  63. ^"Hearts and Minds; Without Kim Jae-kyu? The Morality of Tyrannicide".Korea Times.July 18, 2000.
  64. ^Ajami, Fouad (September–October 1995). "The Sorrows of Egypt: A Tale of Two Men".Foreign Affairs.Council on Foreign Relations.doi:10.2307/20047301.JSTOR20047301.
  65. ^"What Price Brutus?".Time Magazine.April 7, 1947. Archived fromthe originalon February 3, 2011.RetrievedOctober 31,2011.
  66. ^McGrail, Mary Ann (2001)."Tyranny in Shakespeare".Utah Valley State College.Archived fromthe originalon 2012-08-02.Retrieved2008-09-18.
  67. ^Gérard Chalian, Arnaud Blin,The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to Al Qaeda,p.82, 2007.

Bibliography

edit
edit

Quotations related toTyrannicideat Wikiquote

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tyrannicide&oldid=1268716605"