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United States Fish and Wildlife Service

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"FWS" redirects here. For other uses, seeFWS (disambiguation).

TheUnited States Fish and Wildlife Service(USFWSorFWS) is aU.S. federal government agencywithin theUnited States Department of the Interiorwhich oversees the management offish,wildlife,and naturalhabitatsin the United States. The mission of the agency is "working with others to conserve, protect, and enhance fish, wildlife, plants and their habitats for the continuing benefit of the American people."[1]

United States Fish and Wildlife Service
Seal of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Flag of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Agency overview
FormedFish and Wildlife Service: June 30, 1940;84 years ago(1940-06-30) U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: 1956; 68 years ago
Preceding agency
  • Bureau of Fisheries
JurisdictionUnited States Federal Government
HeadquartersBailey's Crossroads,Virginia,United States[Note 1]
38°50′44″N77°07′12″W/ 38.845663°N 77.120087°W/38.845663; -77.120087
EmployeesApprox. 8,000[1]
Annual budget$1.584 billion (FY2021)[2]
Agency executives
Parent departmentU.S. Department of the Interior
Websitefws.gov
Footnotes
[3][4][5][6][7][8]
Heather Bartlett, an Arctic Refuge law enforcement officer with the Fish and Wildlife Service, next to herPiper PA-18 Super Cubin 2009
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service personnel in uniform on 11 April 2018

Among the responsibilities of the USFWS are enforcing federal wildlife laws; protecting endangered species; managingmigratory birds;restoring nationally significant fisheries; conserving and restoring wildlife habitats, such as wetlands; helping foreign governments in international conservation efforts; and distributing money to fish and wildlife agencies ofU.S. statesthrough the Wildlife Sport Fish and Restoration Program.[10]The vast majority of fish and wildlife habitats are onstateor private land not controlled by theUnited States government.Therefore, the USFWS works closely with private groups such asPartners in Flightand theSport Fishing and Boating Partnership Councilto promote voluntaryhabitat conservationand restoration.

The Fish and Wildlife Service was created in 1940 through the combination of two previous bureaus within the Department of the Interior. Its current director isMartha Williams,who was appointed byU.S. PresidentJoe Bidenon March 8, 2022.

USFWS employs approximately 8,000 people[1]and is organized into a central administrative office inFalls Church,Virginia,eight regional offices, and nearly 700 field offices distributed throughout theUnited States.

History

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Ancestor organizations

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Fish Commission and Bureau of Fisheries

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The original ancestor of USFWS was theUnited States Commission on Fish and Fisheries,more commonly referred to as theUnited States Fish Commission,created in 1871 by theUnited States Congresswith the purpose of studying and recommending solutions to a noted decline in thestocksoffood fish.[11]Spencer Fullerton Bairdwas appointed to lead it as the first United States Commissioner of Fisheries.[12]In 1903, the Fish Commission was reorganized as theUnited States Bureau of Fisheriesand made part of theUnited States Department of Commerce and Labor.[13]When the Department of Commerce and Labor was split into theUnited States Department of Commerceand theUnited States Department of Laborin 1913, the Bureau of Fisheries was made part of the Department of Commerce.[14]Originally focused onfisheries scienceandfish culture,the Bureau of Fisheries also assumed other duties; in 1906, the U.S. Congress assigned it the responsibility for the enforcement offisheryandfur seal-hunting regulations in theTerritory of Alaska,[15]and in 1910 for the management and harvest ofnorthern fur seals,foxes,and other fur-bearing animals in thePribilof Islands,as well as for the care, education, and welfare of theAleutcommunities in the islands.[16]In 1939, the Bureau of Fisheries moved from the Department of Commerce to the Department of the Interior.[17]

Bureau of Biological Survey

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The other ancestor of the USFWS began as theSection of Economic Ornithology,which was established within theUnited States Department of Agriculturein 1885 and became theDivision of Economic Ornithology and Mammalogyin 1886.[18]In 1896 it became theDivision of Biological Survey.Clinton Hart Merriamheaded the Division for 25 years and became a national figure for improving the scientific understanding ofbirdsandmammalsin the United States.

In 1934, the Division of Biological Survey was reorganized as theBureau of Biological SurveyandJay Norwood Darlingwas appointed its chief;. The same year, Congress passed theFish and Wildlife Coordination Act(FWCA), one of the oldest federal environmental review statutes.[19]Under Darling's guidance, the Bureau began an ongoing legacy of protecting vital natural habitat throughout the United States. In 1939, the Bureau of Biological Survey moved from the Department of Agriculture to the Department of the Interior.

Fish and Wildlife Service

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FWS patrol vehicles in theTerritory of Alaskain 1950
Official performing a fishing license compliance check

On June 30, 1940, the Bureau of Fisheries and the Bureau of Biological Survey were combined to form the Department of the Interior'sFish and Wildlife Service.In 1956, the Fish and Wildlife Service was reorganized as theUnited States Fish and Wildlife Service— which remained part of the Department of the Interior — and divided its operations into two bureaus, theBureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlifeand theBureau of Commercial Fisheries,with the latter inheriting the history and heritage of the old U.S. Fish Commission and U.S. Bureau of Fisheries.[20]

Upon the formation of theNational Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration(NOAA) within the Department of Commerce on October 3, 1970, the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries merged with thesalt-waterlaboratories of the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife to form today's National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), an element of NOAA.[21]The remainder of the USFWS remained in place in the Department of the Interior in 1970 as the foundation of the USFWS as it is known today, although in 1985 the Animal Damage Control Agency, responsible for predator control, was transferred from the USFWS to the Department of Agriculture and renamed the Division of Wildlife Services.

Activities

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National Wildlife Refuge System

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Checking on the young ones in theBig Branch Marsh National Wildlife Refuge.

USFWS manages the National Wildlife Refuge System, which consists of 570National Wildlife Refuges,encompassing a full range of habitat types, includingwetlands,prairies,coastal and marine areas, and temperate,tundra,andboreal forestsspread across all 50U.S. states.It also manages thousands of smallwetlandsand other special management areas covering over 150,000,000 acres (61,000,000 ha).

National Monuments

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The USFWS governs sixNational Monuments:

Endangered species

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The USFWS shares the responsibility for administering theEndangered Species Act of 1973with theNational Marine Fisheries Service(NMFS), an element of NOAA, with the NMFS responsible formarine species,the FWS responsible forfreshwater fishand all other species, and the two organizations jointly managing species that occur in both marine and non-marine environments. The USFWS publishes the quarterlyEndangered Species Bulletin.

National Fish Hatchery System

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The USFWS's Fisheries Program oversees theNational Fish Hatchery System(NFHS), which includes 70 National Fish Hatcheries and 65 Fish and Wildlife Conservation Offices. Originally created to reverse declines in lake and coastal fish stocks in the United States, the NFHS subsequently expanded its mission to include the preservation of the genes of wild and hatchery-raised fish; the restoration of native aquatic populations of fish, freshwatermussels,andamphibiansincluding populations of species listed under theEndangered Species Act;mitigating the loss of fisheries resulting from U.S. Government water projects; and providing fish to benefitNative Americansand National Wildlife Refuges. The NFHS also engages in outreach, education, and research activities.

National Fish Passage Program

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The National Fish Passage Program provides financial and technical resources to projects that promote the free movement of fish and aquatic life. Common projects includedam removalandfishwayconstruction. Between 1999 and 2023, the program has worked with over 2,000 local partners to open 61,000 mi (98,000 km) of upstream habitat by removing or bypassing 3,400 aquatic barriers.[23]

Migratory Bird Program

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The Division of Migratory Bird Management runs the Migratory Bird Program, which works with partners of the USFWS to protect, restore, and conserve bird populations and their habitats by ensuring the long-term ecological sustainability of allmigratory birdpopulations, increasing the socioeconomic benefit of birds, improving the experience of hunting, bird watching, and other outdoor activities related to birds, and increasing the awareness of the aesthetic,ecological,recreational and economic significance of migratory birds and their habitats.[24]It conducts surveys; coordinates USFWS activities with those of public-private bird conservation partnerships; provides matching grants for conservation efforts involving USFWS partners; develops policies and regulations and administers conservation laws related to migratory birds; issues permits to allow individuals and organizations to participate in migratory bird conservation efforts; helps educate and engage children in wildlife conservation topics; and provides resources for parents and educators to assist them in helping children explore nature and birds.[24]

Landscape Conservation Cooperatives

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The USFWS partners with theLandscape Conservation Cooperatives,a network of 22 autonomouscooperativessponsored by the Department of the Interior which function as regional conservation bodies covering the entire United States and adjacent areas.[25]

Law enforcement

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Inspector looks at an imported statue.

Office of Law Enforcement

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TheOffice of Law Enforcementenforces wildlife laws, investigates wildlife crimes, regulates wildlife trade, helps people in the United States understand and obey wildlife protection laws, and works in partnership with international, state, and tribal counterparts to conserve wildlife resources. It also trains other U.S. Government, U.S. state, tribal, and foreign law enforcement officers.

Clark R. Bavin National Fish and Wildlife Forensic Laboratory

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The USFWS operates theClark R. Bavin National Fish and Wildlife Forensic Laboratory,the onlyforensicslaboratory in the world devoted towildlifelaw enforcement.By treaty, it also is the official crime laboratory for the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and the Wildlife Group ofInterpol.The laboratory identifies thespeciesorsubspeciesof pieces, parts, or products of an animal to determine its cause of death, help wildlife officers determine if a violation of law occurred in its death, and to identify and compare physical evidence to link suspects to the crime scene and the animal's death.

Division of Refuge Law Enforcement

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United States Fish and Wildlife Service Refuge Law Enforcement consists of professional law enforcement officers entrusted with protecting natural resources and public safety. Federal Wildlife Officers promote the survival of species and health of the environment by ensuring that wildlife laws are followed. They also welcome visitors and are often the first U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service employees encountered by the public on refuges. Federal Wildlife Officers (FWO) are entrusted with protecting natural resources, visitors and employees on National Wildlife Refuge System lands.[26]

Federal Duck Stamp

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The USFWS issues an annualFederal Duck Stamp,acollectableadhesive stamp required to hunt for migratorywaterfowl.It also allows access to National Wildlife Refuges without paying an admission fee.

International Affairs Program

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The USFWS International Affairs Program coordinates domestic and international efforts to protect, restore, and enhance wildlife and its habitats, focusing on species of international concern, fulfilling the USFWS's international responsibilities under about 40treaties,as well as U.S. laws and regulations. It oversees programs which work with private citizens, local communities, other U.S. Government and U.S. state agencies, foreign governments,non-governmental organizations,scientific and conservation organizations, industry groups. and other interested parties on issues related to the implementation of treaties and laws and the conservation of species around the world.[27]

National Conservation Training Center

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The USFWS'sNational Conservation Training Centertrains USFWS employees and those of USFWS partners in the accomplishment of the USFWS's mission.[28]

Predator control

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At its founding in 1896, the work of the Division of Biological Survey focused on the effect of birds in controlling agricultural pests and mapping the geographical distribution of plants and animals in the United States. By 1905 with funding scarce, the Survey included in its mission the eradication of wolves, coyotes and other large predators. This garnered them the support of ranchers and western legislators resulting, by 1914, in a $125,000 congressionally approved budget for use "on the National Forests and the public domain in destroying wolves, coyotes and other animals injurious to agriculture and animal husbandry".[29]: 95–96 Meanwhile, scientists likeJoseph Grinnelland Charles C. Adams, a founder of theEcological Society of America,were promoting a "balance of nature"theory – the idea that predators were an important part of the larger ecosystem and should not be eradicated. In 1924, at a conference organized by theAmerican Society of Mammologists(ASM), the debate generated a public split between those in the Survey, promoting eradication, and those from the ASM who promoted some sort of accommodation. Edward A. Goldman, from the Survey, made perfectly clear their position in a paper[30]that with the arrival of Europeans in North America, the balance of nature had been "violently overturned, never to be reestablished". He concludes with the idea that "Large predatory mammals, destructive to livestock and to game, no longer have a place in our advancing civilization." The Survey subsequently placed over 2 million poisoned bait stations across the west and by 1930 had "extirpated wolves from the Lower 48 and advised and assisted in erasing grey wolves from" Yellowstone and Glacier National Parks. The Survey then turned to the eradication of coyote,[29]: 124–126 coordinated through the1931 Animal Damage Control Act.

With various agency reorganizations, the practice continued more or less apace through the early 1970s but though hundreds of thousands of coyotes were killed, their extreme adaptability and resilience led to little overall population reduction and, instead, their migration into an expanded habitat, including urban areas. Increasing environmental awareness in the late 1960s and early 1970s resulted in Nixon banning post-World War II-era poisons in 1972 and the passage of theEndangered Species Actin 1973. Also in 1972, the Nixon administration rewrote the Animal Damage Control Act, effectively repealing it in favor of turning the mission of predator control over to the states. The loss of federally fund to protect their livestock was too much for ranching and agricultural communities and by 1980 Reagan had reversed the poison killing ban and transferred the responsibility for predator control to theWildlife Servicesprogram under the USDepartment of Agriculture's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service.The Program'smissionhas evolved to protect "agriculture, wildlife and other natural resources, property, and human health and safety".

Tribal relations

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Pursuant to theeagle feather law,Title 50, Part 22 of theCode of Federal Regulations(50 CFR 22), and theBald and Golden Eagle Protection Act,the USFWS administers theNational Eagle Repositoryand the permit system forNative Americanreligious use of eagle feathers.[31][32][33]These exceptions often only apply to Native Americans that are registered with the federal government and are enrolled with a federally recognized tribe.

In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the USFWS began to incorporate the research of tribal scientists into conservation decisions.[34]This came on the heels of Native Americantraditional ecological knowledge(TEK) gaining acceptance in the scientific community as a reasonable and respectable way to gain knowledge of managing the natural world.[35][36]Additionally, other natural resource agencies within the United States government, such as theUnited States Department of Agriculture,have taken steps to be more inclusive of tribes, native people, and tribal rights.[37]This has marked a transition to a relationship of more co-operation rather than the tension between tribes and government agencies seen historically. Today, these agencies work closely with tribal governments to ensure the best conservation decisions are made and that tribes retain their sovereignty.[38][39]

Former fleet

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From 1940 to 1970, the FWS (from 1956 the USFWS) operated a fleet of seagoing vessels. The fleet includedfisheries scienceresearch ships,fishery patrol vessels, andcargo liners.

The Fish Commission operated a small fleet of research ships and fish-culture vessels. The Bureau of Fisheries inherited these in 1903, and then greatly expanded its fleet of seagoing vessels, including both patrol vessels for fishery enforcement in the Territory of Alaska[15]and a cargo liner — known as the "Pribiloftender"— to provide transportation for passengers and haul cargo to, from, and between the Pribilof Islands.[16]In the 1930s, the Bureau of Biological Survey operated a vessel of its own,Brown Bear.Upon its creation in 1940, the FWS inherited the BOF's fleet andBrown Bear.

By 1940, no fisheries research vessels remained in commission, the BOF having decommissioned the last one,USFSAlbatross II,in 1932;[40]only in the late 1940s did the FWS begin to commission new research ships. Although between 1871 and 1940 the Fish Commission and BOF had never had more than three fisheries research ships in commission at the same time[41]— and had three in commission simultaneously only in two years out of their entire combined history[41]— by March 1950, the FWS fleet included 11 seagoing fisheries research and exploratory fishing vessels either in service or under construction,[41]and its fishery enforcement force in the Territory of Alaska included 29patrol vesselsand about 100speedboats,as well as 20 airplanes.[42]In the 1956 reorganization that created the USFWS, the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries (BCF) assumed the responsibility within the USFWS for the operation of the seagoing vessels of the fleet.

The USFWS continued fishery enforcement in Alaska until after Alaska became a state in January 1959, but by 1960 had turned over enforcement responsibilities and some of the associated vessels to theGovernment of Alaskaas the latter assumed the responsibility for fishery enforcement in its waters.[20]The USFWS continued to operate fisheries research ships and the Pribilof tender until the BCF's seagoing fleet was transferred to theNational Marine Fisheries Service(NMFS), an element of NOAA, upon the creation of NOAA on October 3, 1970. Although the NMFS continued to operate the Pribilof tender until 1975,[43]the rest of the ships were transferred from the NMFS to a unifiedNOAA fleetduring 1972 and 1973. The modern NOAA fleet therefore traces its ancestry in part to the USFWS fleet operated by the BCF.

US FWSAlbatross III
US FWSBlue Wing
US FWSJohn R. Manning
US FWSOregon
US FWSPenguin II

Both before and after the FWS became the USFWS in 1956, ships of its fleet used the prefix"US FWS"while in commission. The BOF usually named its ships after aquatic birds, and ships the FWS inherited from the BOF in 1940 retained those names in FWS service. However, the FWS/USFWS thereafter usually named vessels it acquired after people who were notable in the history of fisheries and fisheries science. A partial list of ships of the FWS and USFWS fleet:

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In 1959, the methods used by USFWS'sAnimal Damage Control Programwere featured in theTom Lehrersong "Poisoning Pigeons in the Park."[44]

Jeremy Rennerplays a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service predator control specialist in the 2017 filmWind River.[45]

See also

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Regulatory matters

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Wildlife management

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Notes

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1.^USFWS headquarters has aFalls Church,Virginia,US mailing address.[3]

References

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Footnotes

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  1. ^abc"About the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service".fws.gov.United States Fish and Wildlife Service.RetrievedJuly 19,2021.
  2. ^R. Eliot Crafton (January 5, 2021).U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: FY2021 Appropriations(Report).Congressional Research Service.p. 1.RetrievedJuly 19,2021.
  3. ^ab"US Fish and Wildlife Service Moving to Bailey's Crossroads?".Falls Church, VA Patch.August 6, 2013.RetrievedDecember 6,2017.
  4. ^"GSA Announces New Lease for US Fish and Wildlife Service".Archived fromthe originalon November 30, 2018.RetrievedDecember 6,2017.
  5. ^"Zinke taps Utah wildlife director to head US Fish and Wildlife Service".Spokesman.com.RetrievedSeptember 11,2017.
  6. ^[1]ArchivedNovember 11, 2012, at theWayback Machine
  7. ^[2]ArchivedMarch 6, 2009, at theWayback Machine
  8. ^USFWS – National Organizational Chart.Fws.gov. Retrieved on August 12, 2013.
  9. ^"Director Martha Williams".fws.gov.United States Fish and Wildlife Service.RetrievedMarch 9,2022.
  10. ^"About WSFR".US Fish and Wildlife Service.RetrievedDecember 26,2018.
  11. ^"22.3, General records of the U.S. Fish Commission and the Bureau of Fisheries, 1870-1940",Records of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service [USFWS],The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration, August 15, 2016,retrievedSeptember 11,2017
  12. ^"Fishery circular".[Washington]: The Bureau. September 6, 1962 – via Internet Archive.
  13. ^"Fisheries Historical Timeline: Historical Highlights 1900s".NOAA Fisheries Service: Northeast Fisheries Science Center.National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration(NOAA). June 16, 2011.RetrievedSeptember 11,2017.
  14. ^"Fisheries Historical Timeline: Historical Highlights 1910s".NOAA Fisheries Service: Northeast Fisheries Science Center.National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration(NOAA). June 16, 2011.RetrievedSeptember 11,2017.
  15. ^abFisheries, NOAA (August 27, 2021)."Alaska | NOAA Fisheries".NOAA.
  16. ^ab"The Pribilof Islands Tender Vessels".AFSC Historical Corner.RetrievedSeptember 4,2018.
  17. ^"Fisheries Historical Timeline: Historical Highlights 1930s".NOAA Fisheries Service: Northeast Fisheries Science Center.National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration(NOAA). June 16, 2011.RetrievedSeptember 11,2017.
  18. ^"USGS Patuxent wildlife Research Center: Biological Survey Unit History".www.pwrc.usgs.gov.
  19. ^Rosenberg, Ronald H., and Olson, Allen H.,Federal Environmental Review Requirements Other than NEPA: The Emerging Challenge(1978). CLEVELAND STATE LAW REVIEW [Vol. 27: 195. 1978] FEDERAL ENVIRONMENTAL REVIEW. InFaculty Publications. Paper 672.College of William and Mary Law School
  20. ^ab"Fisheries Historical Timeline: Historical Highlights 1950s".NOAA Fisheries Service: Northeast Fisheries Science Center.National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration(NOAA). June 16, 2011.RetrievedSeptember 11,2017.
  21. ^"Fisheries Historical Timeline: Historical Highlights 1970s".NOAA Fisheries Service: Northeast Fisheries Science Center.National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration(NOAA). June 16, 2011.RetrievedSeptember 11,2017.
  22. ^"Presidential Proclamation – Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument Expansion".whitehouse.gov.September 25, 2014 – viaNational Archives.
  23. ^"National Fish Passage Program".FWS.gov.U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service.October 5, 2023.RetrievedOctober 5,2023.
  24. ^ab"U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service – Migratory Bird Program | Conserving America's Birds".www.fws.gov.
  25. ^"Landscape Conservation Cooperative Network".www.lccnetwork.org.
  26. ^"Refuge Law Enforcement".June 26, 2023.
  27. ^"About Us".www.fws.gov.
  28. ^"Log In or Sign Up to View".www.facebook.com.
  29. ^abFlores, Dan(2016).Coyote America(First ed.). New York: Basic Books – Hachette Book Group.ISBN978-0-465-09372-4.
  30. ^Goldman, Edward (February 1925)."The Predatory Mammal Problem and the Balance of Nature"(PDF).Journal of Mammalogy.6(1): 28–33.doi:10.2307/1373467.JSTOR1373467.
  31. ^"National Eagle Repository".fws.gov.
  32. ^"Eagle Parts for Native American Religious Purposes"(PDF).fws.org.
  33. ^"Title 50 Part 22 Code of Federal Regulations (50 CFR 22)".ecfr.gpoaccess.gov. Archived fromthe originalon April 2, 2012.RetrievedDecember 29,2012.
  34. ^Service, US Fish and Wildlife."Fish and Wildlife Service – Native American Program".www.fws.gov.RetrievedMay 4,2016.
  35. ^Berkes, Fikret (2000). "Rediscovery of Traditional Ecological Knowledge as Adaptive Management".Ecological Applications.10(5): 1251–1262.doi:10.1890/1051-0761(2000)010[1251:ROTEKA]2.0.CO;2.
  36. ^Huntington, Henry (2000). "Using Traditional Ecological Knowledge in Science: Methods and Applications".Ecological Applications.10(5): 1270–1274.doi:10.1890/1051-0761(2000)010[1270:UTEKIS]2.0.CO;2.
  37. ^Banegas, Diane, "Native American Students Mentored by Forest Service Scientists," US Forest Service (blog), April 5, 2016 (1:00pm),http://blogs.usda.gov/2016/04/05/native-american-students-mentored-by-forest-service-scientists/.
  38. ^"Office of Tribal Relations | USDA".www.usda.gov.RetrievedMay 4,2016.
  39. ^Program, US Fish and Wildlife Service | Endangered Species."Endangered Species Program | What We Do | Working with Tribes | Tribal Partnership Stories | American Indian Tribal Rights, Federal-Tribal Trust Responsibilities, and the Endangered Species Act".www.fws.gov.RetrievedMay 4,2016.
  40. ^Day, p. 6.
  41. ^abcDay, p. 7.
  42. ^Day, pp. 8–9.
  43. ^AFSC Historical Corner:Pribilof,Bureau's Last Pribilof Tender (1964-75) Retrieved September 4, 2018
  44. ^Faulkner, Clarence (May 1, 1999)."As It Was in Region 5,1949-1964".The Probe.200:7 – via DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska – Lincoln,"City-wide pigeon control in Boston, MA using strychnine-treated whole corn".
  45. ^Siegel, Tatiana (May 14, 2016)."Cannes: Weinstein Co. Nabs Jeremy Renner Drama 'Wind River' (Exclusive)".The Hollywood Reporter.RetrievedMay 22,2020.
  46. ^"Ramsar Wetlands Convention".www.fws.gov.
  47. ^"CITES".www.fws.gov.March 2, 2023.

Bibliography

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Further reading

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