Wikipedia

Federal Trade Commission

(Redirected fromUS Federal Trade Commission)

TheFederal Trade Commission(FTC) is anindependent agency of the United States governmentwhose principal mission is the enforcement of civil (non-criminal)antitrust lawand the promotion ofconsumer protection.The FTC shares jurisdiction over federal civil antitrust law enforcement with theDepartment of Justice Antitrust Division.The agency is headquartered in theFederal Trade Commission BuildinginWashington, DC.

Federal Trade Commission
Seal of the Federal Trade Commission
Flag of the Federal Trade Commission
Agency overview
FormedSeptember 26, 1914;110 years ago(1914-09-26)
Preceding agency
JurisdictionFederal government of the United States
HeadquartersFederal Trade Commission Building
Washington, DC
Employees1,123 (FY 2021)[1]
Annual budget$425.7 million (FY 2024)[2]
Agency executive
Websiteftc.gov
Footnotes
[3][4]

The FTC was established in 1914 with the passage of theFederal Trade Commission Act,signed in response to the 19th-century monopolistic trust crisis. Since its inception, the FTC has enforced the provisions of theClayton Act,a keyantitruststatute, as well as the provisions of the FTC Act,15 U.S.C.§ 41et seq. Over time, the FTC has been delegated with the enforcement of additional business regulation statutes and has promulgated a number of regulations (codified inTitle 16 of the Code of Federal Regulations). The broad statutory authority granted to the FTC provides it with more surveillance and monitoring abilities than it actually uses.[5]

The FTC is composed of five commissioners, who each serve seven-year terms. Members of the commission are nominated by thePresidentand subject toSenateconfirmation, and no more than three FTC members can be of the sameparty.One member of the body serves as FTC Chair at the President's pleasure, with CommissionerLina Khanhaving served as chair since June 2021.

History

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Early history

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Following the Supreme Court decisions againstStandard OilandAmerican Tobacco[6]in May 1911, the first version of a bill to establish a commission to regulate interstate trade was introduced on January 25, 1912, by Oklahoma congressmanDick Thompson Morgan.He would make the first speech on the House floor advocating its creation on February 21, 1912.

Though the initial bill did not pass, the questions of trusts and antitrust dominated the 1912 election.[7]Most political party platforms in 1912 endorsed the establishment of a federal trade commission with its regulatory powers placed in the hands of an administrative board, as an alternative to functions previously and necessarily exercised so slowly through the courts.[8][9]

With the1912 presidential electiondecided in favor of the Democrats andWoodrow Wilson,Morgan reintroduced a slightly amended version of his bill during the April 1913 special session. The national debate culminated in Wilson's signing of the FTC Act on September 26, 1914, with additional tightening of regulations in theClayton Antitrust Actthree weeks later.

The new FTC would absorb the staff and duties ofBureau of Corporations,previously established under theDepartment of Commerce and Laborin 1903. The FTC could additionally challenge "unfair methods of competition" and enforce the Clayton Act's more specific prohibitions against certain price discrimination, vertical arrangements,interlocking directorates,and stock acquisitions.[7][non-primary source needed]

Recent history

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In 1984,[10][non-primary source needed]the FTC began to regulate thefuneral homeindustry in order to protect consumers from deceptive practices. The FTCFuneral Rulerequires funeral homes to provide all customers (and potential customers) with a General Price List (GPL), specifically outlining goods and services in the funeral industry, as defined by the FTC, and a listing of their prices.[11][non-primary source needed]By law, the GPL must be presented on request to all individuals, and no one is to be denied a written, retainable copy of the GPL. In 1996, the FTC instituted the Funeral Rule Offenders Program (FROP), under which "funeral homes make a voluntary payment to the U.S. Treasury or appropriate state fund for an amount less than what would likely be sought if the Commission authorized filing a lawsuit for civil penalties. In addition, the funeral homes participate in the NFDA compliance program, which includes a review of the price lists, on-site training of the staff, and follow-up testing and certification on compliance with theFuneral Rule."[10][non-primary source needed]

In the mid-1990s, the FTC launched the fraud sweeps concept where the agency and its federal, state, and local partners filed simultaneous legal actions against multiple telemarketing fraud targets. The first sweeps operation wasProject Telesweepin July 1995 which cracked down on 100 business opportunity scams.[12][non-primary source needed]

In the 2021United States Supreme Courtcase,AMG Capital Management, LLC v. FTC,the Court found unanimously that the FTC did not have power under15 U.S.C.§ 53(b)of the FTC Act, amended in 1973, to seek equitable relief in courts; it had the power to seek only injunctive relief.[13]

In 2023,Project 2025suggested that an administration could abolish the FTC.[14]

Notable recent work

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Biden administration

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Banning non-compete clauses

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The FTC ruled to ban virtually allnon-competes nationwidein April 2024.[15]The agency estimates 30 million workers are bound by these clauses and only excludes senior executives from the ban on enforcing non-competes.[15]The agency believes that this will allow workers to find better working conditions and pay, since switching companies, on average, provides the biggest pay raises.[16]It also allows workers to leave abusive work environments and can prevent some doctors from having to leave medicine once they leave a practice.[16]The ban was put on hold by U.S. District JudgeAda Brownon July 3, 2024, but then upheld on appeal by U.S. District JudgeKelley B. Hodgeon July 23, 2024.[17][18]On August 20, 2024, a federal court in Texas overturned the FTC's ban on non-compete agreements, which was originally scheduled to take effect on September 4, 2024.[19]U.S. District Judge Ada Brown said the FTC did not have the authority to issue the ban, which she said was "unreasonably overbroad without a reasonable explanation."[20]Victoria Graham, an FTC spokeswoman responded to the ruling by stating "We are seriously considering a potential appeal..."[21]

Chip manufacturers

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The FTC successfully blockedNvidiafrom purchasingARM holdingsin 2022.[22]

Pharmaceutical drug prices

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The FTC has pursued lawsuits against companies to lower drug prices,[23]including for insulin[24]and for inhalers.[25]

The FTC launched its investigation intopharmacy benefit managers(PBMs) in 2022. In July 2024, it released an interim report on its 2-year investigation intopharmacy benefit managers,the agency requested documents from the six largest PBMs as part of its investigation. The three largest –UnitedHealth Group's OptumRx,Cigna's Express ScriptsandCVS Health's Caremark– manage about 80% of U.S. prescriptions. The top three PBMs share a parent company with a largemedical insurance company.The FTC accused these companies of raising drug prices throughconflicts of interest,vertical integration,concentration, and exclusivity provisions; the agency also alleged that the companies created a rebate system that prioritized high rebates from drug manufacturers, among other factors. The agency stated that several PBMs failed to provide documents in a timely manner and warned that it could take the companies to court to force them to comply, during the announcment in the preliminary findings.[26][27][28][29]In September 2024, the FTC sued the three largest pharmacy benefit managers (PBMs) for allegedly engaging in anti-competitive practices that increased their profits while artificially inflating the list price of insulin. The agency is seeking to prohibit the PBMs from favoring medicines because certain pharaceuticals make them more money.[30][31]

Food prices

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In February 2024, the FTC challenged theKroger-Albertsons merger,arguing it would drive up grocery and pharmacy prices, worsen service, and lower wages and working conditions.[32][33]

In March 2024, the FTC released a report that found higher profit margins as a driver of inflation for grocery prices.[34]

In August 2024, it announced it would be probing grocery prices to look for anti-competitive behavior andprice gougingat chain supermarkets.[35][36]

Junk fees and high prices

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In 2023, the FTC proposed a new rule that would ensure that the cancellation process of subscription services is as easy as the process of signing up.[37][38]On October 16, 2024, the FTC announced the new rule, dubbed "click to cancel", requiring companies to make subscription services "as easy for consumers to cancel their enrollment as it was to sign up."[39][40]Khan said in a interview that the new rule is designed so that if consumers signed up online, they must also be able to cancel on the same website in the same number of steps.[41]The rule’s final provisions will go into effect 180 days after it is published in theFederal Register.[39]

It also targeted airlines and credit card companies overjunk feesand high prices.[36]

Microsoft merger

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Main article:FTC v. Microsoft

In 2023, the FTC authorized an administrative complaint againstthe mergerbetweenMicrosoftandActivision Blizzard,Inc. The FTC alleged the deal would suppress competitors from accessing future content/games developed by Activision once the deal goes through. The FTC dropped its lawsuit on July 20, 2023. Microsoft had to restructure its deal to appease UK regulators.[42]Microsoft reneged on promises it made in court filings by laying off 1900 employees in January 2024, signaling that it did not plan to let Activision Blizzard remain as independent as it had promised and leading the FTC to continue to appeal the decision.[43]

Right to repair

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In July 2021, the FTC voted unanimously to enforce theright to repairas policy and to look to take action against companies that limit the type of repair work that can be done at independent repair shops.[44]In October 2024, following a comment by the FTC to theUS Copyright Office,an exemption was granted allowing for repair of retail-level food preparation equipment, such asMcDonald's ice cream machines.[45][46]

Trump administration

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Meta antitrust acquisitions case

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Main article:Federal Trade Commission v. Meta Platforms, Inc.

In December 2020 the FTC sued Meta (formally known as Facebook) for anticompetitive conduct under Section 2 of theSherman Act,which prohibits improper monopolization of a market. The FTC accused Meta of buying up its competitors to stifle competition which reduced the range of services available to consumers and by creating fewer social media platforms for advertisers to target.[47][48]

Obama administration

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Money Now Funding / Cash4Businesses case

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In September 2013, a federal court closed an elusivebusiness opportunityscheme on the request of the FTC, namely "Money Now Funding" / "Cash4Businesses".[49]The FTC alleged that the defendants misrepresented potential earnings, violated theNational Do Not Call Register,and violated the FTC's Business Opportunity Rule in preventing a fair consumer evaluation of the business.[50]This was one of the first definitive actions taken by any regulator against a company engaging in transaction laundering, where almost US$6 million were processed illicitly.[51][52]

In December 2018, two defendants, Nikolas Mihilli and Dynasty Merchants, LLC, settled with the FTC.[53]They were banned from processing credit card transactions, though the initial monetary judgment of $5.8 million was suspended due to the defendant's inability to pay.

OMICS Publishing Group case

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In 2016, the FTC launched action against the academic journal publisherOMICS Publishing Groupfor producingpredatory journalsand organizingpredatory conferences.[54]This action, partly in response to ongoing pressure from the academic community,[55]is the first action taken by the FTC against an academic journal publisher.[56][57]

The complaint alleges that the defendants have been "deceiving academics and researchers about the nature of its publications and hiding publication fees ranging from hundreds to thousands of dollars".[58]It additionally notes that "OMICS regularly advertises conferences featuring academic experts who were never scheduled to appear in order to attract registrants"[55]and that attendees "spend hundreds or thousands of dollars on registration fees and travel costs to attend these scientific conferences."[58]Manuscripts are also sometimes held hostage, with OMICS refusing to allow submissions to be withdrawn and thereby preventing resubmission to another journal for consideration.[56]Library scientistJeffrey Beallhas described OMICS as among the most egregious ofpredatory publishers.[55][59]In November 2017, a federal court in theCourt for the District of Nevadagranted a preliminary injunction that:

"prohibits the defendants from making misrepresentations regarding their academic journals and conferences, including that specific persons are editors of their journals or have agreed to participate in their conferences. It also prohibits the defendants from falsely representing that their journals engage in peer review, that their journals are included in any academic journal indexing service or any measurement of the extent to which their journals are cited. It also requires that the defendants clearly and conspicuously disclose all costs associated with submitting or publishing articles in their journals."[60]

In April 2019, the court imposed a fine of US$50.1 million on OMICS companies.[61][62][63]OMICS' lawyer said that this was an unfair allegation and that OMICS would sue FTC for $3.11 billion in damages, saying it had caused loss of revenue and reputation.[62]

Sears Holdings case

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InIn the Matter of Sears Holdings Management Corp.,the FTC alleged that a research software program provided by Sears was deceptive because it collected information about nearly all online behavior, a fact that was only disclosed in legalese, buried within the end user license agreement.[64]The FTC secured a consent decree in the case.

Bush administration

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Gateway Learning case

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InIn re Gateway Learning Corp.the FTC alleged that Gateway committed unfair and deceptive trade practices by making retroactive changes to its privacy policy without informing customers and by violating its own privacy policy by selling customer information when it had said it would not.[65]Gateway settled the complaint by entering into a consent decree with the FTC that required it to surrender some profits and placed restrictions upon Gateway for the following 20 years.[66]

Activities in the healthcare industry

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In addition to prospective analysis of the effects of mergers and acquisitions, the FTC has recently resorted to retrospective analysis and monitoring of consolidated hospitals.[67]Thus, it also uses retroactive data to demonstrate that some hospital mergers and acquisitions are hurting consumers, particularly in terms of higher prices.[67]Here are some recent examples of the FTC's success in blocking or unwinding of hospital consolidations or affiliations:

Phoebe Putney Memorial Hospital and Palmyra Medical Center in Georgia

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In 2011, the FTC successfully challenged in court the $195 million acquisition of Palmyra Medical Center by Phoebe Putney Memorial Hospital.[67][68]The FTC alleged that the transaction would create a monopoly as it would "reduce competition significantly and allow the combined Phoebe/Palmyra to raise prices for general acute-care hospital services charged to commercial health plans, substantially harming patients and local employers and employees".[68]TheSupreme Courton February 19, 2013, ruled in favor of the FTC.[68]

ProMedica health system and St. Luke's hospital in Ohio

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Similarly, court attempts by ProMedica health system inOhioto overturn an order by the FTC to the company to unwind its 2010 acquisition of St. Luke's hospital were unsuccessful.[67][69]The FTC claimed that the acquisition would hurt consumers through higher premiums because insurance companies would be required to pay more.[69]In December 2011, an administrative judge upheld the FTC's decision, noting that the behavior of ProMedica health system and St. Luke's was indeed anticompetitive. The court ordered ProMedica to divest St. Luke's to a buyer that would be approved by the FTC within 180 days of the date of the order.[67][69]

OSF healthcare system and Rockford Health System in Illinois

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In November 2011, the FTC filed a lawsuit alleging that the proposed acquisition of Rockford by OSF would drive up prices for general acute-care inpatient services as OSF would face only one competitor (SwedishAmerican health system) in the Rockford area and would have a market share of 64%.[70]Later in 2012, OSF announced that it had abandoned its plans to acquire Rockford Health System.[70]

Organization

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See also:List of members of the Federal Trade Commission

Current members of the FTC

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The commission is headed by five commissioners, who each serve seven-year terms. Commissioners are nominated by thepresidentand confirmed by theSenate.No more than three commissioners can be of the samepolitical party.In practice, this means that two commissioners are of the opposition party. However, three members of the FTC throughout its history have beenwithout party affiliation,with the most recent independent,Pamela Jones Harbour,serving from 2003 to 2009.[71]

Portrait Name Party Prior experience Education Term began Term expires
Lina Khan

(chair)

Democratic Legal scholar Williams College(BA)

Yale Law School(JD)

June 15, 2021 September 26, 2024
Rebecca Slaughter Democratic Legal advisor to SenatorChuck Schumer Yale University(BA)

Yale Law School(JD)

May 2, 2018 September 26, 2029
Alvaro Bedoya Democratic Director of theCenter on Privacy and Technologyat theGeorgetown University Law Center Harvard College(BA)

Yale Law School(JD)

May 16, 2022 September 26, 2026
Melissa Holyoak Republican Solicitor generalof Utah University of Utah(BA)

University of Utah Law School(JD)

March 25, 2024 September 26, 2025
Andrew N. Ferguson Republican Solicitor general of Virginia University of Virginia(BA)

University of Virginia School of Law(JD)

April 2, 2024 September 26, 2030

Notes

  • Shortly after the U.S. Senate confirmed Lina Khan as a commissioner, President Biden tapped her to serve as chair of the commission.[72]
  • The FTC Act allows commissioners to remain in their position after their term expires until a replacement has been appointed.[73]

Backgrounds of commissioners

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As of 2021, there have been:

Bureaus

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How to File a Complaint with the Federal Trade Commission,from the FTC

The FTC has three main bureaus: the Bureau of Competition, the Bureau of Consumer Protection, and the Bureau of Economics.

Bureau of Competition

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The Bureau of Competition is the division of the FTC charged with elimination and prevention of "anticompetitive" business practices. It accomplishes this through the enforcement ofantitrustlaws, review of proposedmergers,and investigation into other non-merger business practices that may impair competition. Such non-merger practices include horizontal restraints, involving agreements between direct competitors, andvertical restraints,involving agreements among businesses at different levels in the same industry (such as suppliers and commercial buyers).

Apex Building, built in 1938 (FTC headquarters) inWashington, DC

The FTC shares enforcement of antitrust laws with theDepartment of Justice.However, while the FTC is responsible for civil enforcement of antitrust laws, theAntitrust Division of the Department of Justicehas the power to bring both civil and criminal action in antitrust matters.

Bureau of Consumer Protection

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The Bureau of Consumer Protection's mandate is to protect consumers against unfair or deceptive acts or practices in commerce. With the written consent of the commission, Bureau attorneys enforce federal laws related to consumer affairs and rules promulgated by the FTC. Its functions include investigations, enforcement actions, and consumer and business education. Areas of principal concern for this bureau are: advertising and marketing, financial products and practices,telemarketing fraud,privacy and identity protection, etc. The bureau also is responsible for theUnited States National Do Not Call Registry.

Under the FTC Act, the commission has the authority, in most cases, to bring its actions in federal court through its own attorneys. In some consumer protection matters, the FTC appears with, or supports, theU.S. Department of Justice.

Bureau of Economics

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The Bureau of Economics was established to support the Bureau of Competition and Consumer Protection by providing expert knowledge related to the economic impacts of the FTC's legislation and operation.

Other offices

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  • The FTC maintains an Office of Technology Research and Investigation to assist it in technology-related enforcement actions.[76]
  • The FTC generally selects its Chief Technologist from among computer science academics and noted practitioners.[77]The role has previously been filled bySteven K. Bellovin,Lorrie Cranor,Edward Felten,Ashkan Soltani,andLatanya Sweeney.
  • The FTC also maintains an academic in residence program, inviting leading legal scholars to join the FTC for a year as a Senior Policy Advisor. The role has been held byTim Wuin 2011,[78]Paul Ohm in 2012,[79]andAndrea M. Matwyshynin 2014.[80]

Activities

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The FTC investigates issues raised by reports from consumers and businesses, pre-merger notification filings, congressional inquiries, or reports in themedia.These issues include, for instance,false advertisingand other forms offraud.FTC investigations may pertain to a single company or an entire industry. If the results of the investigation reveal unlawful conduct, the FTC may seek voluntary compliance by the offending business through aconsent order,file an administrative complaint, or initiate federal litigation. During the course of regulatory activities, the FTC is authorized to collect records, but not on-site inspections.[81]

Traditionally an administrative complaint is heard in front of an independent administrative law judge (ALJ) with FTC staff acting as prosecutors. The case is reviewedde novoby the full FTC commission which then may be appealed to the U.S. Court of Appeals and finally to the Supreme Court.[citation needed]

Under the FTC Act, the federal courts retain their traditional authority to issueequitable relief,including the appointment of receivers, monitors, the imposition of asset freezes to guard against the spoliation of funds, immediate access to business premises to preserve evidence, and other relief including financial disclosures and expedited discovery. In numerous cases, the FTC employs this authority to combat serious consumer deception or fraud. Additionally, the FTC hasrulemakingpower to address concerns regarding industry-wide practices. Rules promulgated under this authority are known asTrade Rules.[citation needed]

One of the Federal Trade Commission's other major focuses isidentity theft.The FTC serves as a federal repository for individual consumer complaints regarding identity theft. Even though the FTC does not resolve individual complaints, it does use the aggregated information to determine where federal action might be taken. The complaint form is available online or by phone (1-877-ID-THEFT).[citation needed]

The FTC has been involved in the oversight of the online advertising industry and its practice ofbehavioral targetingfor some time. In 2011 the FTC proposed a "Do Not Track"mechanism to allow Internet users toopt-outofbehavioral targeting.[citation needed]

The FTC, along with theEnvironmental Protection Agencyand Department of Justice also empowers third-party enforcer-firms to engage in some regulatory oversight, e.g. the FTC requires other energy companies to audit offshore oil platform operators.[82]

In 2013, the FTC issued a comprehensive revision of itsGreen guides,which set forth standards for environmental marketing.[83][non-primary source needed]

Unfair or deceptive practices affecting consumers

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Endorsement Guidesfrom the FTC

Section 5 of the Federal Trade Commission Act,15 U.S.C.§ 45grants the FTC power to investigate and preventdeceptivetrade practices. The statute declares that "unfair methods of competition in or affecting commerce, and unfair or deceptive acts or practices in or affecting commerce, are hereby declared unlawful."[84]

Unfairness and deception towards consumers represent two distinct areas of FTC enforcement and authority. The FTC also has authority over unfair methods of competition between businesses.[85]

Definitions of unfairness

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Courts have identified three main factors that must be considered in consumer unfairness cases: (1) whether the practice injures consumers; (2) whether the practice violates established public policy; and (3) whether it is unethical or unscrupulous.[85]

Definitions of deception

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In a letter to the Chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce, the FTC defined the elements ofdeceptioncases. First, "there must be a representation, omission or practice that is likely to mislead the consumer."[86]In the case of omissions, the Commission considers the implied representations understood by the consumer.

A misleading omission occurs when information is not disclosed to correct reasonable consumer expectations.[86]Second, the Commission examines the practice from the perspective of a reasonable consumer being targeted by the practice. Finally the representation or omission must be a material one – that is one that would have changed consumer behavior.[86]

Federal Trade Commission entrance doorway in Washington, DC
Dot Com Disclosures guide
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In its Dot Com Disclosures guide,[87]the FTC said that "disclosures that are required to prevent deception or to provide consumers material information about a transaction must be presented clearly and conspicuously."[87]The FTC suggested a number of different factors that would help determine whether the information was "clear and conspicuous" including but not limited to:

  • theplacementof the disclosure in an advertisement and itsproximityto the claim it is qualifying,
  • theprominenceof the disclosure,
  • whether items in other parts of the advertisementdistract attentionfrom the disclosure,
  • whether the advertisement is so lengthy that the disclosure needs to berepeated,
  • whether disclosures in audio messages are presented in an adequatevolume and cadenceand visual disclosures appear for a sufficientduration,and
  • whether the language of the disclosure isunderstandableto the intended audience.[87]

However, the "key is the overall net impression."[87]

See also

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References

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  1. ^"FTC Agency Financial Report"(PDF).ftc.gov.RetrievedAugust 27,2022.
  2. ^"H.R.2882 – Further Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2024".Congress.
  3. ^"Ten Years of the Best Places to Work in the Federal Government® Rankings"(PDF).bestplacestowork.org.
  4. ^"Federal Trade Commission: A History".FTC.gov. January 18, 2012.RetrievedAugust 14,2012.
  5. ^Van Loo, Rory (October 1, 2019)."The Missing Regulatory State: Monitoring Businesses in an Age of Surveillance".Vanderbilt Law Review.72(5): 1563.
  6. ^Fayne, James A. (1915)."The Federal Trade Commission: The Development of the Law which led to its Establishment".American Political Science Review.9(1): 57–67.doi:10.2307/1945762.ISSN0003-0554.JSTOR1945762.S2CID146939544.
  7. ^abA Brief History of the Federal Trade Commission,Federal Trade Commission, 90th Anniversary Symposium.
  8. ^Republican Party Platform of 1912,June 18, 1912;Democratic Party Platform of 1912,June 25, 1912; USCB.edu
  9. ^Platform of the Progressive Party,August 7, 1912; PBS.
  10. ^abFTC Announces Results of Compliance Testing of Over 300 Funeral Homes in the Second Year of the Funeral Rule Offenders ProgramArchivedJune 29, 2007, at theWayback Machine,Federal Trade Commission, February 25, 1998
  11. ^"Federal Trade Commission Funeral Rule – 16 CFR Part 453".Ftc.gov. October 24, 2008. Archived fromthe originalon July 24, 2012.RetrievedAugust 14,2012.
  12. ^"Business Opportunity Scam" Epidemic "".Ftc.gov. July 18, 1995. Archived fromthe originalon March 10, 2007.RetrievedAugust 14,2012.
  13. ^Hurley, Lawrence (April 22, 2021)."U.S. Supreme Court curbs FTC's power to recoup ill-gotten gains".Reuters.RetrievedApril 22,2021.
  14. ^Elliott, Vittoria (August 1, 2024)."What Project 2025 Means for Big Tech… and Everyone Else".Wired.ISSN1059-1028.RetrievedAugust 4,2024.And though some conservatives have railed against the dominance of Big Tech, Project 2025 also suggests that a second Trump administration could abolish the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), which currently has the power to enforce antitrust laws.
  15. ^abHsu, Andrea (April 23, 2024)."U.S. bans non-compete agreements for nearly all jobs".NPR.
  16. ^abRugaber, Christopher (April 23, 2024)."New federal rule would bar 'noncompete' agreements for most employees".AP News.RetrievedAugust 4,2024.
  17. ^Niedzwiadek, Nick (July 23, 2024)."Politico Pro: Judge sides with FTC in second challenge to non-compete ban".subscriber.politicopro.com.RetrievedAugust 4,2024.
  18. ^Wise, Justin (July 23, 2024)."FTC Gets Win on Noncompete Ban After Loss in Another Court".Bloomberg Law.RetrievedAugust 25,2024.
  19. ^Hsu, Andrea."Federal judge throws out U.S. ban on noncompetes".NPR.RetrievedAugust 25,2024.
  20. ^Mekelburg, Madlin."FTC Ban on Worker Noncompete Deals Blocked by Federal Judge (2)".Bloomberg Law.RetrievedAugust 25,2024.
  21. ^Kaye, Danielle (August 20, 2024)."Judge Blocks F.T.C.'s Noncompete Rule".The New York Times.RetrievedAugust 25,2024.
  22. ^Jones, Callum (March 9, 2024)."'She's going to prevail': FTC head Lina Khan is fighting for an anti-monopoly America ".The Guardian.ISSN0261-3077.RetrievedJuly 14,2024.
  23. ^"Feds poised to sue pharmacy gatekeepers over high drug costs".Politico.July 10, 2024.
  24. ^"US FTC to sue drug middlemen over insulin prices, source says".Reuters.July 10, 2024.
  25. ^Brittain, Blake (June 10, 2024)."Amneal, US FTC win order removing Teva inhaler patents from FDA list".Reuters.
  26. ^Sisco, Josh (July 10, 2024)."Feds poised to sue pharmacy gatekeepers over high drug costs".Politico.
  27. ^Aboulenein, Ahmed (July 9, 2024)."Explainer: Why are US pharmacy benefit managers under fire?".Reuters.
  28. ^Whyte, Liz Essley (July 9, 2024)."Big Pharmacy-Benefit Managers Increase Drug Costs, FTC Says".Wall Street Journal.RetrievedAugust 14,2024– via MSN.
  29. ^Pifer, Rebecca (July 9, 2024)."FTC slams pharmacy benefit managers in first report from ongoing investigation".Healthcare Dive.Archived fromthe originalon September 24, 2024.RetrievedSeptember 24,2024.
  30. ^Abelson, Reed; Robbins, Rebecca (September 20, 2024)."F.T.C. Accuses Drug Middlemen of Inflating Insulin Prices".New York Times.Archived fromthe originalon September 20, 2024.RetrievedSeptember 23,2024.
  31. ^Weixel, Nathaniel (September 20, 2024)."FTC sues three largest drug middlemen for allegedly inflating insulin prices".The Hill.RetrievedSeptember 24,2024.
  32. ^Hill, Meredith Lee (August 14, 2024)."Grocery price gouging to feature prominently in Harris economic plan".Politico.
  33. ^Sisco, Josh (February 26, 2024)."FTC, states challenge Kroger's $25 billion grocery merger with Albertsons".Politico.
  34. ^Burns, Tobias (March 29, 2024)."FTC calls out profits as a driver of grocery prices".The Hill.RetrievedAugust 17,2024.
  35. ^Suter, Tara (August 2, 2024)."Federal Trade Commission to probe stubbornly high grocery prices".The Hill.RetrievedAugust 17,2024.
  36. ^abGodoy, Jody (August 1, 2024)."US targets surging grocery prices in latest probe".Reuters.
  37. ^Godoy, Jody"FTC takes on subscription traps with 'click to cancel' rule"Reuters,October 16, 2024. Retrieved November 5, 2024.
  38. ^Narea, Nicole (August 13, 2024)."Biden wants to free you from all those subscriptions you meant to cancel but didn't".Vox.RetrievedAugust 14,2024.
  39. ^abMastrangelo, Dominick (October 16, 2024)."FTC to implement rule making it easier to cancel subscriptions".The Hill.RetrievedOctober 16,2024.
  40. ^Selyukh, Alina (October 16, 2024)."Canceling subscriptions has to be as easy as signing up, FTC says in a new rule".NPR.RetrievedOctober 16,2024.
  41. ^"FTC moves to take the 'frustration' out of canceling subscriptions for consumers".NBC News.October 16, 2024.RetrievedOctober 16,2024.
  42. ^Warren, Tom (October 13, 2023)."Microsoft completes Activision Blizzard acquisition, Call of Duty now part of Xbox".The Verge.RetrievedAugust 4,2024.
  43. ^Carpenter, Nicole (February 7, 2024)."The FTC isn't too happy with Microsoft's Activision Blizzard layoffs".Polygon.RetrievedAugust 4,2024.
  44. ^Kelly, Makena (July 21, 2021)."FTC pledges to fight unlawful right to repair restrictions".The Verge.RetrievedJuly 21,2021.
  45. ^Brodkin, Jon (October 25, 2024)."US Copyright Office" frees the McFlurry, "allowing repair of ice cream machines".Ars Technica.RetrievedNovember 3,2024.
  46. ^Hurwitz, Sophie."Donald Trump talked about fixing McDonald's ice cream machines. Lina Khan actually did".Mother Jones.RetrievedNovember 3,2024.
  47. ^Kang, Cecilia; Isaac, Mike (December 9, 2020)."U.S. and States Say Facebook Illegally Crushed Competition".The New York Times.RetrievedAugust 25,2024.
  48. ^Mobbs, Brent (March 9, 2021)."FTC v. Facebook: Social Media Giant Sued for Anticompetitive Conduct".Harvard Journal of Law & Technology.RetrievedAugust 25,2024.
  49. ^"FTC Halts Elusive Business Opportunity Scheme".Federal Trade Commission.September 26, 2013.RetrievedFebruary 8,2019.
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Further reading

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  • MacLean, Elizabeth Kimball (July 2007). "Joseph E. Davies: The Wisconsin Idea and the Origins of the Federal Trade Commission".Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era.6(3): 248–284.doi:10.1017/S1537781400002097.S2CID161773580.
  • Winerman, Marc (2003). "The Origins of the FTC: Concentration, Cooperation, Control, and Competition".Antitrust Law Journal.71(1): 1–98.
  • MacIntyre, A. Everette; Volhard, Joachim J. (1970)."The Federal Trade Commission".Boston College Law Review.11(4): 723–783.
  • Davis, G. Cullom (1962). "The Transformation of the Federal Trade Commission, 1914–1929".The Mississippi Valley Historical Review.49(3): 437–455.doi:10.2307/1902564.JSTOR1902564.
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